Phenology is the study of periodic events in biological life cycles and how these are influenced by seasonal and interannual variations in climate , as well as habitat factors (such as elevation ).
107-656: The Bhutan takin ( Budorcas taxicolor whitei ) is a subspecies of Takin native to Bhutan but also found in North Eastern India , Western part of China , and Tibet . Locally known as drong gimtse , it holds the honor of being Bhutan's national animal. Takin have strongly featured in the popular Bhutan myth of divine cloning by the ‘Divine Madman’ Lam Drukpa Kunley , reinforcing the Takin’s cultural and religious significance in Bhutan. Being social creatures with
214-556: A census in southern Bhutan to guard against illegal immigration, a constant issue in the south where borders with India are porous. Each family was required to present census workers with a tax receipt from the year 1958—no earlier, no later—or with a certificate of origin, which had to be obtained from one's place of birth, to prove that they were indeed Bhutanese citizens. Previously issued citizenship cards were no longer accepted as proof of citizenship. Alarmed by these measures, many began to protest for civil and cultural rights and demanded
321-457: A code of traditional Drukpa dress and etiquette called Driglam Namzhag . The dress element of this code required all citizens to wear the gho (a knee-length robe for men) and the kira (an ankle-length dress for women). A central plank of the Bhutanese government's policy since the late 1960s has been to modernise the use of Dzongkha language. This began with abandoning the use of Hindi ,
428-436: A collection of millions of bird arrival and departure date records for over 870 species across North America, dating between 1880 and 1970. This program, originally started by Wells W. Cooke , involved over 3,000 observers including many notable naturalists of the time. The program ran for 90 years and came to a close in 1970 when other programs starting up at PWRC took precedence. The program was again started in 2009 to digitize
535-452: A footnote by the Editor, William Lucas Distant , says: "This word is seldom used, and we have been informed by a very high authority that it may be defined as "Observational Biology", and as applied to birds, as it is here, may be taken to mean the study or science of observations on the appearance of birds". Observations of phenological events have provided indications of the progress of
642-451: A forest cover of 64% as of October 2005. Bhutan's climate varies with elevation, from subtropical in the south to temperate in the highlands and polar-type climate with year-round snow in the north. Bhutan experiences five distinct seasons: summer, monsoon , autumn, winter and spring. Western Bhutan has the heavier monsoon rains; southern Bhutan has hot humid summers and cool winters; central and eastern Bhutan are temperate and drier than
749-505: A global biodiversity hotspot and counted among the 234 globally outstanding ecoregions of the world in a comprehensive analysis of global biodiversity undertaken by WWF between 1995 and 1997. According to the Swiss-based International Union for Conservation of Nature , Bhutan is viewed as a model for proactive conservation initiatives. The Kingdom has received international acclaim for its commitment to
856-488: A government in Bumthang at Chakhar Gutho Palace. Much of early Bhutanese history is unclear because most of the records were destroyed when fire ravaged the ancient capital, Punakha , in 1827. By the 10th century, Bhutan's religious history had a significant impact on its political development. Various subsects of Buddhism emerged that were patronized by the various Mongol warlords. Bhutan may have been influenced by
963-452: A language that was adopted to help start formal secular education in the country, in 1964. As a result, at the beginning of the school year in March 1990, the teaching of Nepali language (which share similarities with Hindi) spoken by ethnic Lhotshampas in southern Bhutan was discontinued and all Nepali curricular materials were discontinued from Bhutanese schools. In 1988, Bhutan conducted
1070-559: A long-term trend of gradual climate warming is observable, and during this same period the Marsham record of oak-leafing dates tended to become earlier. After 1960 the rate of warming accelerated, and this is mirrored by increasing earliness of oak leafing, recorded in the data collected by Jean Combes in Surrey. Over the past 250 years, the first leafing date of oak appears to have advanced by about 8 days, corresponding to overall warming on
1177-407: A mismatch in interaction timing and therefore negatively harming the interaction. Mismatches can occur in many different biological interactions, including between species in one trophic level ( intratrophic interactions) (i.e. plant-plant), between different trophic levels ( intertrophic interactions) (i.e. plant-animal) or through creating competition ( intraguild interactions). For example, if
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#17327982053241284-512: A more democratic form of governance. In 1965, he set up a Royal Advisory Council, and in 1968 he formed a Cabinet. In 1971, Bhutan was admitted to the United Nations , having held observer status for three years. In July 1972, Jigme Singye Wangchuck ascended to the throne at the age of sixteen after the death of his father, Dorji Wangchuck. Bhutan's sixth Five-Year Plan (1987–92) included a policy of 'one nation, one people' and introduced
1391-692: A network of swift rivers that form deep valleys before draining into the Indian plains. In fact, 98.8% of Bhutan is covered by mountains, which makes it the most mountainous country in the world. Elevation rises from 200 m (660 ft) in the southern foothills to more than 7,000 m (23,000 ft). This great geographical diversity combined with equally diverse climate conditions contributes to Bhutan's outstanding range of biodiversity and ecosystems. Bhutan's northern region consists of an arc of Eastern Himalayan alpine shrub and meadows reaching up to glaciated mountain peaks with an extremely cold climate at
1498-511: A network over Belgium and Europe that reached a total of about 80 stations in the period 1840–1870. Morren participated in 1842 and 1843 in Quetelets 'Observations of Periodical Phenomena' (Observations des Phénomènes périodiques), and at first suggested to mention the observations concerning botanical phenomena "anthochronological observations". That term had already been used in 1840 by Carl Joseph Kreutzer . On 16 December 1849, Morren used
1605-585: A number of progressive environmental policies that have caused the head of the UNFCCC to call it an "inspiration and role model for the world on how economies and different countries can address climate change while at the same time improving the life of the citizen." For example, electric cars have been pushed in the country and as of 2014 make up a tenth of all cars. Because the country gets most of its energy from hydroelectric power , it does not emit significant greenhouse gases for energy production. In practice,
1712-463: A peak in their capacity for photosynthesis , and in tropical evergreen forests of some regions of the Amazon basin (particularly regions with long dry seasons), many trees produce more young leaves in the dry season, seasonally increasing the photosynthetic capacity of the forest. Recent technological advances in studying the earth from space have resulted in a new field of phenological research that
1819-424: A plant species blooms its flowers earlier than previous years, but the pollinators that feed on and pollinate this flower do not arrive or grow earlier as well, then a phenological mismatch has occurred. This results in the plant population declining as there are no pollinators to aid in their reproductive success. Another example includes the interaction between plant species, where the presence of one species aids in
1926-570: A record of summer growing season temperatures going back more than 500 years. In addition to providing a longer historical baseline than instrumental measurements, phenological observations provide high temporal resolution of ongoing changes related to global warming . The word is derived from the Greek φαίνω ( phainō ), "to show, to bring to light, make to appear" + λόγος ( logos ), amongst others "study, discourse, reasoning" and indicates that phenology has been principally concerned with
2033-753: A sparse population of migratory shepherds. The Black Mountains in Bhutan's central region form a watershed between two major river systems: the Mo Chhu and the Drangme Chhu. Peaks in the Black Mountains range between 1,500 and 4,925 m (4,921 and 16,158 ft) above sea level, and fast-flowing rivers have carved out deep gorges in the lower mountain areas. The forests of the central Bhutan mountains consist of Eastern Himalayan subalpine conifer forests in higher elevations and Eastern Himalayan broadleaf forests in lower elevations. The Woodlands of
2140-583: A telescope, and offered him their services in the war against Tibet, but the Zhabdrung declined the offer. After a stay of nearly eight months Cacella wrote a long letter from the Chagri Monastery reporting on his travels. This is a rare extant report of the Zhabdrung. When Ngawang Namgyal died in 1651, his passing was kept secret for 54 years. After a period of consolidation, Bhutan lapsed into internal conflict. In 1711, Bhutan went to war against
2247-404: A total change to be brought to the political system that existed since 1907. As protests and related violence swept across southern Bhutan, the government in turn increased its resistance. People present at protests were labeled "anti-national terrorists". After the demonstrations, the Bhutanese army and police began the task of identifying participants and supporters engaged in the violence against
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#17327982053242354-627: A two-dose shot of AstraZeneca vaccines. On 13 December 2023, Bhutan was officially delisted as a least developed country . Bhutan is on the southern slopes of the eastern Himalayas , landlocked between the Tibet Autonomous Region of China to the north and the Indian states of Sikkim , West Bengal , Assam to the west and south, and the Indian state of Arunachal Pradesh to the east. It lies between latitudes 26°N and 29°N , and longitudes 88°E and 93°E . The land consists mostly of steep and high mountains crisscrossed by
2461-667: A varied herbivorous diet, they thrive in the temperate and subtropical forests of eastern Asia. The species has been listed as Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List since 2015. It is protected in all range countries . Male wild specimens have been discovered weighing up to 302 kg. They typically stand at shoulder heights ranging from 68 to 140 cm, with body lengths spanning 104 to 213 cm and tail lengths of 7 to 12 cm. Notably, males outsize females, and while there's no sexual dimorphism in coloration, female horns tend to be smaller. The hooves are broad and have pronounced dewclaws. Hairs on
2568-493: A very dense network with approx. 1200 observers, the majority of them on a voluntary basis. The Pan European Phenology (PEP) project is a database that collects phenological data from European countries. Currently 32 European meteorological services and project partners from across Europe have joined and supplied data. In Geneva , Switzerland , the opening of the first leaf of an official chestnut tree (a horse chestnut ) has been observed and recorded since 1818, thus forming
2675-441: A way that the attenuated reflected sunlight energy (1% to 30% of incident sunlight) is amplified by ratio-ing red and NIR following this equation: The evolution of the vegetation index through time, depicted by the graph above, exhibits a strong correlation with the typical green vegetation growth stages (emergence, vigor/growth, maturity, and harvest/senescence). These temporal curves are analyzed to extract useful parameters about
2782-600: Is Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck . The current Prime Minister of Bhutan is Tshering Tobgay , leader of the People's Democratic Party . Bhutan's democratic transition in 2008 is seen as an evolution of its social contract with the monarchy since 1907. In 2019, Bhutan was classified in the Democracy Index as a hybrid regime alongside regional neighbours Nepal and Bangladesh . Minorities have been increasingly represented in Bhutan's government since 2008, including in
2889-515: Is Bhutan's highest peak and is the highest unclimbed mountain in the world. The wildlife of Bhutan is notable for its diversity, including the Himalayan takin and golden langur . The capital and largest city is Thimphu , with close to 15% of the population. Bhutan and neighbouring Tibet experienced the spread of Buddhism , which originated in the Indian subcontinent during the lifetime of
2996-523: Is a constitutional monarchy with a Druk Gyalpo (king) as the head of state and a prime minister as the head of government . The Je Khenpo is the head of the state religion , Vajrayana Buddhism. The subalpine Himalayan mountains in the north rise from the country's lush subtropical plains in the south. In the Bhutanese Himalayas , there are peaks higher than 7,000 metres (23,000 ft) above sea level . Gangkhar Puensum
3103-683: Is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Bhutan Bhutan , officially the Kingdom of Bhutan , is a landlocked country in South Asia situated in the Eastern Himalayas between China in the north and India in the south, with the Indian state of Sikkim separating it from neighbouring Nepal . With a population of over 727,145 and a territory of 38,394 square kilometres (14,824 sq mi), Bhutan ranks 133rd in land area and 160th in population. Bhutan
3210-629: Is an elevation difference of over 2500 m between summer and winter habitats across a horizontal distance of less than 15–20 km. Spring migration is slow, starting in April and extending to early May, and consists of movement by discrete, small groups, and then congregating in large groups in the summer habitats in June in Tsarijathang area. Takins have a typical breeding phenology : mating takes place in mid-summer and birth and parturition takes place in
3317-440: Is around 71% of the total land area, equivalent to 2,725,080 hectares (ha) of forest in 2020, up from 2,506,720 hectares (ha) in 1990. In 2020, naturally regenerating forest covered 2,704,260 hectares (ha) and planted forest covered 20,820 hectares (ha). Of the naturally regenerating forest 15% was reported to be primary forest (consisting of native tree species with no clearly visible indications of human activity) and around 41% of
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3424-448: Is concerned with observing the phenology of whole ecosystems and stands of vegetation on a global scale using proxy approaches. These methods complement the traditional phenological methods which recorded the first occurrences of individual species and phenophases. The most successful of these approaches is based on tracking the temporal change of a Vegetation Index (like Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI)). NDVI makes use of
3531-410: Is connected to one another through a vast network of biological corridors, allowing animals to migrate freely throughout the country. Environmental conservation has been placed at the core of the nation's development strategy, the middle path. It is not treated as a sector but rather as a set of concerns that must be mainstreamed in Bhutan's overall approach to development planning and to be buttressed by
3638-488: The Ophiocordyceps sinensis fungus crop collected from the wild has also resulted in unsustainable exploitation which is proving very difficult to regulate. Bhutan has enforced a plastic ban rule from 1 April 2019, where plastic bags were replaced by alternative bags made of jute and other biodegradable material. Bhutan is a constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary form of government. The reigning monarch
3745-978: The Global Peace Index as the most peaceful country in South Asia as of 2024, as well as the only South Asian country in the list's first quartile. Bhutan is also a member of the Climate Vulnerable Forum , the Non-Aligned Movement , BIMSTEC , the IMF , the World Bank , UNESCO and the World Health Organization (WHO). Bhutan ranked first in SAARC in economic freedom , ease of doing business , peace and lack of corruption in 2016. Bhutan has one of
3852-724: The Himalayan black bear , red panda , squirrel , sambar , wild pig and barking deer . The alpine habitats of the great Himalayan range in the north are home to the snow leopard , blue sheep , Himalayan marmot , Tibetan wolf , antelope , Himalayan musk deer and the Bhutan takin , Bhutan's national animal . The endangered wild water buffalo occurs in southern Bhutan, although in small numbers. More than 770 species of bird have been recorded in Bhutan. The globally endangered white-winged duck has been added recently in 2006 to Bhutan's bird list. The 2010 BBC documentary Lost Land of
3959-618: The Indian military , Bhutan maintains its own military units . The 2008 Constitution established a parliamentary government with an elected National Assembly and a National Council . Bhutan is a founding member of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC). In 2020, Bhutan ranked third in South Asia after Sri Lanka and the Maldives in the Human Development Index , and 21st on
4066-648: The Raja of the kingdom of Koch Bihar in the south. During the chaos that followed, the Tibetans unsuccessfully attacked Bhutan in 1714. In the 18th century, the Bhutanese invaded and occupied the kingdom of Koch Bihar. In 1772, the Maharaja of Koch Bihar appealed to the British East India Company which assisted by ousting the Bhutanese and later attacking Bhutan itself in 1774. A peace treaty
4173-523: The Yuan dynasty with which it shares various cultural and religious similarities. After the decline of the Yuan dynasty in the 14th century, these subsects vied with each other for supremacy in the political and religious landscape, eventually leading to the ascendancy of the Drukpa Lineage by the 16th century. Locally, Bhutan has been known by many names. The earliest Western record of Bhutan,
4280-460: The golden langur . A variant Assamese macaque has also been recorded, which is regarded by some authorities as a new species, Macaca munzala . The Bengal tiger , clouded leopard , hispid hare and the sloth bear live in the tropical lowland and hardwood forests in the south. In the temperate zone, grey langur , tiger, goral and serow are found in mixed conifer, broadleaf and pine forests. Fruit-bearing trees and bamboo provide habitat for
4387-595: The war reparations , the Duars were ceded to the United Kingdom in exchange for a rent of ₹50,000 . The treaty ended all hostilities between British India and Bhutan. During the 1870s, power struggles between the rival valleys of Paro and Tongsa led to civil war in Bhutan, eventually leading to the ascendancy of Ugyen Wangchuck , the penlop (governor) of Trongsa . From his power base in central Bhutan, Ugyen Wangchuck defeated his political enemies and united
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4494-698: The 1627 Relação of the Portuguese Jesuits Estêvão Cacella and João Cabral , records its name variously as Cambirasi (among the Koch Biharis ), Potente , and Mon (an endonym for southern Tibet). Until the early 17th century, Bhutan existed as a patchwork of minor warring fiefdoms , when the area was unified by the Tibetan lama and military leader Ngawang Namgyal , who had fled religious persecution in Tibet. To defend
4601-612: The 58 years from 1891 to 1948, and a further 14 phenophases were recorded for the 20 years between 1929 and 1948. The returns were summarised each year in the Quarterly Journal of the RMS as The Phenological Reports . Jeffree (1960) summarised the 58 years of data, which show that flowering dates could be as many as 21 days early and as many as 34 days late, with extreme earliness greatest in summer-flowering species, and extreme lateness in spring-flowering species. In all 25 species,
4708-471: The Bhutanese endonym Drukpa , "Dragon people," are similarly derived. Names similar to Bhutan—including Bohtan, Buhtan, Bottanthis, Bottan and Bottanter—began to appear in Europe around the 1580s. Jean-Baptiste Tavernier 's 1676 Six Voyages is the first to record the name Boutan . However, these names seem to have referred not to modern Bhutan but to the Kingdom of Tibet . The modern distinction between
4815-590: The Buddha . In the first millennium, the Vajrayana school of Buddhism spread to Bhutan from the southern Pala Empire of Bengal. During the 16th century, Ngawang Namgyal unified the valleys of Bhutan into a single state. Namgyal defeated three Tibetan invasions, subjugated rival religious schools, codified the Tsa Yig legal system, and established a government of theocratic and civil administrators. Namgyal became
4922-747: The First Flowering Date (FFD) of 557 species of British flowering plants in Oxfordshire between about 1954 and 1990. Writing in Science in 2002, Richard Fitter and his son Alistair Fitter found that "the average FFD of 385 British plant species has advanced by 4.5 days during the past decade compared with the previous four decades." They note that FFD is sensitive to temperature, as is generally agreed, that "150 to 200 species may be flowering on average 15 days earlier in Britain now than in
5029-584: The Himalayan foothills, have rugged, sloping terrain and dry, porous soil with dense vegetation and abundant wildlife. The southern Duars have moderately fertile soil, heavy savanna grass, dense, mixed jungle, and freshwater springs. Mountain rivers, fed by melting snow or monsoon rains, empty into the Brahmaputra River in India. Data released by the Ministry of Agriculture showed that the country had
5136-628: The Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act (1972). Although legislatively well protected, the Takin faces many threats throughout its range. Despite stringent protective legislation, they are hunted illegally for trophies and meat in India. Threats for this species comes from competition for grazing habitat with domestic livestock and the potential transmission of zoonotic diseases from other species. Sharing their habitat with yaks, both in summer and winter, poses additional challenges for conservation. In
5243-477: The Takin that comprises grasses, herbs, bamboo, and the leaves of shrubs and trees. In Bhutan, the occurrence of takin is reported from three protected areas Jigme Dorji National Park (JDNP) which is thought to be the stronghold of the species in Bhutan, Wangchuck Centennial National Park , Phrumsengla National Park and three territorial forest division (Wangdue Territorial Forest Division, Paro Territorial Forest Division, Thimphu Territorial Forest Division) with
5350-603: The Tiger follows an expedition to Bhutan. The expedition is notable for claiming to obtain the first footage of tigers living at 4,000 metres (13,000 ft) in the high Himalayas. The BBC footage shows a female tiger lactating and scent-marking, followed a few days later by a male tiger responding, suggesting that the cats could be breeding at this elevation. Camera traps also recorded footage of other rarely seen forest creatures, including dhole (or Indian wild dog), Asian elephants, leopards and leopard cats. In Bhutan forest cover
5457-731: The Tsharijathang Valley, where takin spend their summers, abandoned feral yak herding dogs have been observed chasing female takin and their dependent calves into the Tsharijathang River, leading to maternal abandonment of calves. Conservation efforts for takin in Bhutan should prioritize reducing disturbances from domestic livestock through improved herding and animal husbandry practices. Environmentally friendly road construction, incorporating wildlife corridors, as roads have been shown to adversely affect takin habitat use. This article about an even-toed ungulate
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#17327982053245564-563: The astronomical positions at the time. William Felker has studied phenology in Ohio , US, since 1973 and now publishes "Poor Will's Almanack", a phenological almanac for farmers (not to be confused with a late 18th-century almanac by the same name). In the Amazon rainforests of South America, the timing of leaf production and abscission has been linked to rhythms in gross primary production at several sites. Early in their lifespan, leaves reach
5671-535: The cabinet, parliament, and local government. The Druk Gyalpo ( Dragon King ) is the head of state . The political system grants universal suffrage . It consists of the National Council , an upper house with 25 elected members; and the National Assembly with 47 elected lawmakers from political parties . Phenology Examples include the date of emergence of leaves and flowers,
5778-640: The calves off ledges and cause them to fall to their death. The Bhutan takin is strictly protected under the Schedule I of the Forests and Nature Conservation Act of Bhutan 1995 (22 a). The takin is legally protected in China under Class I species of the National Wildlife Law (1988) prohibits from hunting. Legal hunting of takin is not permitted in India with the species listed under Schedule I of
5885-514: The central region provide most of Bhutan's forest production. The Torsa , Raidāk , Sankosh , and Manas are Bhutan's main rivers, flowing through this region. Most of the population lives in the central highlands. In the south, the Sivalik Hills are covered with dense Himalayan subtropical broadleaf forests , alluvial lowland river valleys, and mountains up to around 1,500 m (4,900 ft) above sea level. The foothills descend into
5992-526: The ceremony. The British government promptly recognized the new monarchy. In 1910, Bhutan signed the Treaty of Punakha , a subsidiary alliance that gave the British control of Bhutan's foreign affairs and meant that Bhutan was treated as an Indian princely state . This had little real effect, given Bhutan's historical reticence, and also did not appear to affect Bhutan's traditional relations with Tibet. After
6099-678: The collection of records and now with the help of citizens worldwide, each record is being transcribed into a database which will be publicly accessible for use. The English naturalists Gilbert White and William Markwick reported the seasonal events of more than 400 plant and animal species, Gilbert White in Selborne , Hampshire and William Markwick in Battle, Sussex over a 25-year period between 1768 and 1793. The data, reported in White's Natural History and Antiquities of Selborne are reported as
6206-589: The country against intermittent Tibetan forays, Namgyal built a network of impregnable dzongs or fortresses, and promulgated the Tsa Yig , a code of law that helped to bring local lords under centralised control. Many such dzong still exist and are active centres of religion and district administration. Portuguese Jesuits Estêvão Cacella and João Cabral were the first recorded Europeans to visit Bhutan in 1627, on their way to Tibet. They met Zhabdrung Ngawang Namgyal, presented him with firearms, gunpowder and
6313-491: The country following several civil wars and rebellions during 1882–85. In 1907, an epochal year for the country, Ugyen Wangchuck was unanimously chosen as the hereditary king of the country by the Lhengye Tshog of leading Buddhist monks, government officials, and heads of important families, with the firm petition made by Gongzim Ugyen Dorji . John Claude White , British Political Agent in Bhutan, took photographs of
6420-650: The dates of first occurrence of biological events in their annual cycle. The term was first used by Charles François Antoine Morren , a professor of botany at the University of Liège ( Belgium ). Morren was a student of Adolphe Quetelet . Quetelet made plant phenological observations at the Royal Observatory of Belgium in Brussels. He is considered "one of 19th century trendsetters in these matters." In 1839, he started his first observations and created
6527-467: The dates of last appearance (e.g., the seasonal phenology of a species may be from April through September). Because many such phenomena are very sensitive to small variations in climate , especially to temperature, phenological records can be a useful proxy for temperature in historical climatology , especially in the study of climate change and global warming . For example, viticultural records of grape harvests in Europe have been used to reconstruct
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#17327982053246634-635: The distinction between it and Greater Tibet . The first time a separate Kingdom of Bhutan appeared on a western map, it did so under its local name "Broukpa". Others include Lho Mon ("Dark Southland"), Lho Tsendenjong ("Southland of the Cypress "), Lhomen Khazhi ("Southland of the Four Approaches") and Lho Menjong ("Southland of the Herbs "). Stone tools, weapons, elephants, and remnants of large stone structures provide evidence that Bhutan
6741-692: The dry season. However, these phenological parameters are only an approximation of the true biological growth stages. This is mainly due to the limitation of current space-based remote sensing, especially the spatial resolution, and the nature of vegetation index. A pixel in an image does not contain a pure target (like a tree, a shrub, etc.) but contains a mixture of whatever intersected the sensor's field of view. Most species, including both plants and animals, interact with one another within ecosystems and habitats, known as biological interactions . These interactions (whether it be plant-plant, animal-animal, predator-prey or plant-animal interactions) can be vital to
6848-449: The earliest and latest dates for each event over 25 years; so annual changes cannot therefore be determined. In Japan and China the time of blossoming of cherry and peach trees is associated with ancient festivals and some of these dates can be traced back to the eighth century. Such historical records may, in principle, be capable of providing estimates of climate at dates before instrumental records became available. For example, records of
6955-414: The first Zhabdrung Rinpoche and his successors acted as the spiritual leaders of Bhutan, like the Dalai Lama in Tibet. During the 17th century, Bhutan controlled large parts of northeast India , Sikkim and Nepal ; it also wielded significant influence in Cooch Behar State . Bhutan ceded the Bengal Duars to British India during the Duar War in the 19th century. The Wangchuck dynasty emerged as
7062-413: The first flight of butterflies, the first appearance of migratory birds, the date of leaf colouring and fall in deciduous trees, the dates of egg-laying of birds and amphibia, or the timing of the developmental cycles of temperate -zone honey bee colonies. In the scientific literature on ecology , the term is used more generally to indicate the time frame for any seasonal biological phenomena, including
7169-616: The force of law. The country's constitution mentions environmental standards in multiple sections. Although Bhutan's natural heritage is still largely intact, the government has said that it cannot be taken for granted and that conservation of the natural environment must be considered one of the challenges that will need to be addressed in the years ahead. Nearly 56.3% of all Bhutanese are involved with agriculture, forestry or conservation. The government aims to promote conservation as part of its plan to target Gross National Happiness. It currently has net negative greenhouse gas emissions because
7276-528: The forest area was found within protected areas. For the year 2015, 100% of the forest area was reported to be under public ownership . More than 5,400 species of plants are found in Bhutan, including Pedicularis cacuminidenta . Fungi form a key part of Bhutanese ecosystems, with mycorrhizal species providing forest trees with mineral nutrients necessary for growth, and with wood decay and litter decomposing species playing an important role in natural recycling. The Eastern Himalayas has been identified as
7383-505: The form of dates of the first occurrence of events such as flowering, bud burst, emergence or flight of an insect. Generations of Marsham's family maintained consistent records of the same events or "phenophases" over unprecedentedly long periods of time, eventually ending with the death of Mary Marsham in 1958, so that trends can be observed and related to long-term climate records. The data show significant variation in dates which broadly correspond with warm and cold years. Between 1850 and 1950
7490-485: The harvest dates of the pinot noir grape in Burgundy have been used in an attempt to reconstruct spring–summer temperatures from 1370 to 2003; the reconstructed values during 1787–2000 have a correlation with Paris instrumental data of about 0.75. Robert Marsham , the founding father of modern phenological recording, was a wealthy landowner who kept systematic records of "Indications of spring" on his estate at Stratton Strawless , Norfolk , from 1736. These took
7597-490: The highest elevations. Most peaks in the north are over 7,000 m (23,000 ft) above sea level; the highest point is 7,570-metre (24,840 ft)-tall Gangkhar Puensum , which has the distinction of being the highest unclimbed mountain in the world. The lowest point, at 98 m (322 ft), is in the valley of Drangme Chhu , where the river crosses the border with India. Watered by snow-fed rivers, alpine valleys in this region provide pasture for livestock, tended by
7704-676: The highest suitable winter habitat in JDNP. The estimated population of Bhutan takin in JDNP is between 500 and 700, while estimates for other areas are not available. In China, the species is known to inhabit from south of the Yarlung Tsangpo River on the southern-facing side of the eastern Himalayas , to the westerly bend of the river. In India it occurs in Arunachal Pradesh , West Bengal , and Sikkim . Migratory routes follow steep river courses and ridges and there
7811-598: The increase in temperature and lengthening of the growing season in the boreal forest . Another example based on the MODIS enhanced vegetation index (EVI) reported by Alfredo Huete at the University of Arizona and colleagues showed that the Amazon Rainforest , as opposed to the long-held view of a monotonous growing season or growth only during the wet rainy season, does in fact exhibit growth spurts during
7918-530: The largest water reserves for hydropower in the world. Melting glaciers caused by climate change are a growing concern in Bhutan. The precise etymology of "Bhutan" is unknown, although it is likely to derive from the Tibetan endonym "Böd" for Tibet . Traditionally, it is taken to be a transcription of the Sanskrit Bhoṭa-anta ( भोट-अन्त ) "end of Tibet ", a reference to Bhutan's position as
8025-473: The last countries to introduce television. In his speech, the King said that television was a critical step to the modernisation of Bhutan as well as a major contributor to the country's gross national happiness , but warned that the "misuse" of this new technology could erode traditional Bhutanese values. A new constitution was presented in early 2005. In December 2005, Wangchuck announced that he would abdicate
8132-487: The lateral side of the body are 3–5 cm long. The longer hairs (7 cm) below the neck form a mane-like fringe. A beard-like appearance is provided by a hair length of more than 12 cm below the throat. In this species, large adult males appear slightly brighter orange compared to the darker females.In addition to their size, subadults can be identified by their straight protruding horns while older animals show curvature in their horns. The legend goes that one day Drukpa Kunley
8239-400: The maintenance of its biodiversity. This is reflected in the decision to maintain at least sixty per cent of the land area under forest cover, to designate more than 40% of its territory as national parks, reserves and other protected areas, and most recently to identify a further nine per cent of land area as biodiversity corridors linking the protected areas. All of Bhutan's protected land
8346-627: The majority of the Lhotshampa refugees. Bhutan's political system has recently changed from an absolute monarchy to a constitutional monarchy . King Jigme Singye Wangchuck transferred most of his administrative powers to the Council of Cabinet Ministers and allowed for impeachment of the King by a two-thirds majority of the National Assembly. In 1999, the government lifted a ban on television and internet, making Bhutan one of
8453-447: The monarchy and pursued closer ties with Britain in the subcontinent. In 1910, a treaty guaranteed British advice in foreign policy in exchange for internal autonomy in Bhutan. The arrangement continued under a new treaty with India in 1949 (signed at Darjeeling) in which both countries recognised each other's sovereignty. Bhutan joined the United Nations in 1971. It has since expanded relations with 55 countries. While dependent on
8560-438: The natural calendar since ancient agricultural times. Many cultures have traditional phenological proverbs and sayings which indicate a time for action: "When the sloe tree is white as a sheet, sow your barley whether it be dry or wet" or attempt to forecast future climate: "If oak's before ash, you're in for a splash. If ash before oak, you're in for a soak". But the indications can be pretty unreliable, as an alternative version of
8667-516: The new Union of India gained independence from the United Kingdom on 15 August 1947, Bhutan became one of the first countries to recognise India's independence. On 8 August 1949, a treaty similar to that of 1910, in which Britain had gained power over Bhutan's foreign relations, was signed with the newly independent India. In 1953, King Jigme Dorji Wangchuck established the country's legislature—a 130-member National Assembly —to promote
8774-949: The oldest set of records of phenological events in Switzerland. This task is conducted by the secretary of the Grand Council of Geneva (the local parliament), and the opening of the first leaf is announced publicly as indicating the beginning of the Spring . Data show a trend during the 20th century towards an opening that happens earlier and earlier. There is a USA National Phenology Network [3] in which both professional scientists and lay recorders participate. Many other countries such as Canada (Alberta Plantwatch [4] and Saskatchewan PlantWatch ), China and Australia also have phenological programs. In eastern North America, almanacs are traditionally used by farmers for information on action phenology (in agriculture), taking into account
8881-633: The order of 1.5 °C in the same period. Towards the end of the 19th century the recording of the appearance and development of plants and animals became a national pastime, and between 1891 and 1948 the Royal Meteorological Society (RMS) organised a programme of phenological recording across the British Isles. Up to 600 observers submitted returns in some years, with numbers averaging a few hundred. During this period 11 main plant phenophases were consistently recorded over
8988-467: The overlap of these extensive protected lands with populated areas has led to mutual habitat encroachment. Protected wildlife has entered agricultural areas, trampling crops and killing livestock. In response, Bhutan has implemented an insurance scheme, begun constructing solar powered alarm fences, watch towers, and search lights, and has provided fodder and salt licks outside human settlement areas to encourage animals to stay away. The huge market value of
9095-411: The rhyme shows: "If the oak is out before the ash , 'Twill be a summer of wet and splash; If the ash is out before the oak, 'Twill be a summer of fire and smoke." Theoretically, though, these are not mutually exclusive, as one forecasts immediate conditions and one forecasts future conditions. The North American Bird Phenology Program at USGS Patuxent Wildlife Research Center (PWRC) is in possession of
9202-720: The skeleton of the cow, clapped his hands and, to the surprise of the whole village, the skeleton grew a full body, jumped up and ran into the meadow and began feeding. The tribe Ovibovini includes the tundra Muskox Ovibos moschatus and takin Budorcas . The genus Budorcas includes one living species— Budorcas taxicolor Hodgson —and one extinct species— B. teilhardi Young . Budorcas taxicolor includes one extinct subspecies— B.t. lichii Young —and four extant subspecies—Bhutan takin B.t. whitei ; grey or Sichuan takin B.t. tibetana ; golden or Shaanxi takin B.t. bedfordi ; and Mishmi takin B.t. taxicolor . B.t. bedfordi and B.t. whitei are
9309-517: The small amount of pollution it creates is absorbed by the forests that cover most of the country. While the entire country collectively produces 2,200,000 metric tons (2,200,000 long tons; 2,400,000 short tons) of carbon dioxide a year, the immense forest covering 72% of the country acts as a carbon sink , absorbing more than four million tons of carbon dioxide every year. Bhutan had a 2018 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 8.85/10, ranking it 16th globally out of 172 countries. Bhutan has
9416-423: The smallest among the four subspecies. The Takin is a socially aggregating generalist herbivore that migrates between sub-tropical forests as low as 700m in winter to sub-alpine regions up to 5,550m in summer. Migratory routes often traverse several transitional vegetation types at mid-altitudes ranging from conifer forests to broad-leaved forests. These varied habitat types are sources of an equally diverse diet for
9523-639: The southern extremity of the Tibetan plateau and culture. Since the 17th century, Bhutan's official name has been Druk yul (literally, "country of the Drukpa Lineage " or "the Land of the Thunder Dragon," a reference to the country's dominant Buddhist sect); "Bhutan" appears only in English-language official correspondence. The terms for the Kings of Bhutan, Druk Gyalpo ("Dragon King"), and
9630-407: The state and people. They were arrested and held for months without trial. Soon the Bhutanese government arbitrarily reported that its census operations had detected the presence in southern Bhutan of over 100,000 "illegal immigrants" although this number is often debated. The census operations, thus, were used as a tool for the identification, eviction and banishment of dissidents who were involved in
9737-490: The subtropical Duars Plain, which is the eponymous gateway to strategic mountain passes (also known as dwars or dooars; literally, "doors" in Assamese , Bengali , Maithili , Bhojpuri , and Magahi languages). Most of the Duars is in India, but a 10 to 15 km (6.2 to 9.3 mi)-wide strip extends into Bhutan. The Bhutan Duars is divided into two parts, the northern and southern Duars. The northern Duars, which abut
9844-406: The success and survival of populations and therefore species. Many species experience changes in life cycle development, migration or in some other process/behavior at different times in the season than previous patterns depict due to warming temperatures. Phenological mismatches, where interacting species change the timing of regularly repeated phases in their life cycles at different rates, creates
9951-696: The term 'phenology' for the first time in a public lecture at the Royal Academy of Science, Letters and Fine Arts of Belgium in Brussels, to describe "the specific science which has the goal to know the manifestation of life ruled by the time." Four years later, Morren published "Phenological Memories". The term may not have been common in the decades to follow, as in an article in The Zoologist of 1899 describing an ornithological meeting in Sarajevo, where "questions of Phaenology" were discussed,
10058-561: The throne in his son's favour in 2008. On 9 December 2006, he announced that he would abdicate immediately. This was followed by the first national parliamentary elections in December 2007 and March 2008 . On 6 November 2008, 28-year-old Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck was crowned king. In July 2021 during the COVID-19 pandemic , Bhutan became the first world-leading nation in its role of vaccinating 470,000 out of 770,000 people with
10165-498: The timings of all phenological events are significantly related to temperature, indicating that phenological events are likely to get earlier as climate warms. The Phenological Reports ended suddenly in 1948 after 58 years, and Britain remained without a national recording scheme for almost 50 years, just at a time when climate change was becoming evident. During this period, individual dedicated observers made important contributions. The naturalist and author Richard Fitter recorded
10272-719: The two did not begin until well into the Scottish explorer George Bogle 's 1774 expedition. Realising the differences between the two regions, cultures, and states, his final report to the East India Company formally proposed calling the Druk Desi 's kingdom "Boutan" and the Panchen Lama 's kingdom "Tibet". The EIC's surveyor general James Rennell first anglicised the French name as "Bootan," and then popularised
10379-503: The uprising against the state. Military and other security forces were deployed for forceful deportations of between 80,000 and 100,000 Lhotshampas and were accused of using widespread violence, torture, rape and killing. The evicted Lhotshampas became refugees in camps in southern Nepal. Since 2008, many Western countries, such as Canada, Norway, the United Kingdom, Australia, and the United States, have allowed resettlement of
10486-521: The vegetation growing season (start of season, end of season, length of growing season , etc.). Other growing season parameters could potentially be extracted, and global maps of any of these growing season parameters could then be constructed and used in all sorts of climatic change studies. A noteworthy example of the use of remote sensing based phenology is the work of Ranga Myneni from Boston University . This work showed an apparent increase in vegetation productivity that most likely resulted from
10593-470: The vegetation's typical low reflection in the red (red energy is mostly absorbed by growing plants for Photosynthesis) and strong reflection in the Near Infrared (Infrared energy is mostly reflected by plants due to their cellular structure). Due to its robustness and simplicity, NDVI has become one of the most popular remote sensing based products. Typically, a vegetation index is constructed in such
10700-419: The very recent past" and that these earlier FFDs will have "profound ecosystem and evolutionary consequences". In Scotland, David Grisenthwaite meticulously recorded the dates he mowed his lawn since 1984. His first cut of the year was 13 days earlier in 2004 than in 1984, and his last cut was 17 days later, providing evidence for an earlier onset of spring and a warmer climate in general. National recording
10807-481: The west with warm summers and cool winters. Bhutan signed the Rio Convention on Biological Diversity on 11 June 1992, and became a party to the convention on 25 August 1995. It has subsequently produced a National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan , with two revisions, the most recent of which was received by the convention on 4 February 2010. Bhutan has a rich primate life, with rare species such as
10914-530: The wintering habitat in March after a relatively long gestation period (210 to 240 days). Hence, the calves are about three months old when they arrive on the summer pastures in June. Due to their large size, the only animals capable of preying on adult takins include Tiger , Leopard Panthera pardus , Wild Dog, and Black Bear . On the other hand, calves are more susceptible to predation. In addition to bears and wolves, they must also watch out for snow leopards and large birds of prey like Eagles , which can drag
11021-466: Was asked to perform a miracle by the local villagers and he told them he would if they would first bring him a cow and a goat to eat. The villagers, a bit confused, prepared the roasted cow and the goat and presented it to the Divine Madman who immediately devoured both of them in ten minutes. There was nothing left but the cleaned bones. The madman then took the head of the goat, attached it to
11128-591: Was first introduced to Bhutan in the 7th century AD. The Tibetan king Songtsen Gampo (reigned 627–649), a Buddhist convert, extended the Tibetan Empire into Sikkim and Bhutan. He ordered the construction of two Buddhist temples, Bumthang in central Bhutan and Kyichu (near Paro ) in the Paro Valley . Buddhism was propagated in earnest in 746 under King Sindhu Rāja ( also Künjom; Sendha Gyab; Chakhar Gyalpo), an exiled Indian king who had established
11235-592: Was inhabited as early as 2000 BC, although there are no existing records from that time. Historians have theorised that the state of Lhomon ( lit. ' southern darkness ' ), or Monyul ("Dark Land", a reference to the Monpa , an ethnic group in Bhutan and Arunachal Pradesh , India), may have existed between 500 BC and AD 600. The names Lhomon Tsendenjong ( Sandalwood Country) and Lhomon Khashi , or Southern Mon (country of four approaches), have been found in ancient Bhutanese and Tibetan chronicles. Buddhism
11342-606: Was resumed by Tim Sparks in 1998 and, from 2000, has been led by citizen science project Nature's Calendar [2] , run by the Woodland Trust and the Centre for Ecology and Hydrology . Latest research shows that oak bud burst has advanced more than 11 days since the 19th century and that resident and migrant birds are unable to keep up with this change. In Europe, phenological networks are operated in several countries, e.g. Germany's national meteorological service operates
11449-577: Was signed in which Bhutan agreed to retreat to its pre-1730 borders. However, the peace was tenuous, and border skirmishes with the British were to continue for the next hundred years. The skirmishes eventually led to the Duar War (1864–65), a confrontation to control of the Bengal Duars . After Bhutan lost the war, the Treaty of Sinchula was signed between British India and Bhutan. As part of
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