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143-397: Đại Việt ( 大越 , IPA: [ɗâjˀ vìət] ; literally Great Việt ), was a Vietnamese monarchy in eastern Mainland Southeast Asia from the 10th century AD to the early 19th century, centered around the region of present-day Hanoi . Its early name, Đại Cồ Việt , was established in 968 by the ruler Đinh Bộ Lĩnh after he ended the Anarchy of the 12 Warlords , until the beginning of

286-605: A de jure independent polity. In 930, the neighboring Southern Han state invaded Annam and removed the Khúc from power. In 931, Dương Đình Nghệ , a local chief from Aizhou, revolted and quickly ousted the Southern Han. In 937, he was assassinated by Kiều Công Tiễn , leader of the revanchist faction allied with the Southern Han. In 938, emperor Liu Gong of the Southern Han led an invasion fleet to Annam to assist Kiều Công Tiễn. Dương Đình Nghệ's son-in-law Ngô Quyền , also from

429-636: A minor syllable occurred). These fricatives were not present in Proto-Viet–Muong, as indicated by their absence in Mường , but were evidently present in the later Proto-Vietnamese stage. Subsequent loss of the minor-syllable prefixes phonemicized the fricatives. Ferlus 1992 proposes that originally there were both voiced and voiceless fricatives, corresponding to original voiced or voiceless stops, but Ferlus 2009 appears to have abandoned that hypothesis, suggesting that stops were softened and voiced at approximately

572-602: A war of independence against Ming colonial rule that lasted for 9 years. Assisted by Nguyễn Trãi , a prominent anti-Ming scholar, and other Thanh Hoá families—the Trịnh and the Nguyễn—his rebel forces managed to capture and defeat several major Ming strongholds and counterattacks, and eventually drove the Chinese back to the north in 1427. In April 1428, Lê Lợi was proclaimed Emperor of a new Đại Việt. He established Hanoi as Đông Kinh or

715-501: A Buddhist inscription dated to the 8th century from Thanh Mai village, Hanoi , 100 out of 136 women mentioned in the epigraphy could be identified as ethnic Vietnamese females. Linguist John Phan proposes that a local dialect of Middle Chinese , called Annamese Middle Chinese, developed and was spoken in the Red River Delta by descendants of Chinese immigrants, and later was absorbed into the co-existing Việt-Mường languages by

858-418: A Buddhist temple for his mother called Long Đọi pagoda in 1121. He died in 1127. One of his nephews, Lý Dương Hoán, succeeded him and became known as emperor Lý Thần Tông (r. 1128–1138). This marked the downfall of Lý family authority within the court. Lý Thần Tông was crowned under the supervision of Lê Bá Ngọc , a powerful eunuch . Lê Bá Ngọc adopted a son of the emperor's mother, named Đỗ Anh Vũ . During

1001-452: A bronze drum in each dong were called dulao (都老), which Churchman argues bears some resemblance and cultural connection to the previous local ruling class of the Red River Delta. The Li tribes were described as ferocious raiding bandits who refused to accept imperial authority, leading to Jiaozhou , the heartland of the Red River Delta, being deemed by the Chinese to be an isolated borderland with difficult and limited administration. Because

1144-540: A local linguistic shift from Middle Chinese to proto-Vietnamese after Sinitic rule. Beside anachronisms, Vietnamese nationalist scholarship also inserted a "Vietnamese resistance" myth into history by labeling any rebellious local group in northern Vietnam during the Han–Tang period as collectively "Vietnamese" who 'were in constant struggles against the Chinese yokes', in contrast to "corrupt invading Chinese colonizers", generic modern nationalities and ethnicities. The context

1287-592: A long decline. The population is estimated to have grown from 1.2 million in 1200 to perhaps 2.4 million in 1340. The transitional decade (1326–36) from the end of the Medieval Warm Period to the Little Ice Age severely affected the climate of the Red River Delta. Weather phenomena such as drought, violent flooding, and storms frequently occurred, which weakened irrigation systems, damaged agricultural production, generated famines, and impoverished

1430-447: A main vowel component followed by a shorter semivowel offglide /j/ or /w/ . There are restrictions on the high offglides: /j/ cannot occur after a front vowel (i, ê, e) nucleus and /w/ cannot occur after a back vowel (u, ô, o) nucleus. The correspondence between the orthography and pronunciation is complicated. For example, the offglide /j/ is usually written as i ; however, it may also be represented with y . In addition, in

1573-493: A monk. Finally, in 1225, the Trần leader Trần Thủ Độ sponsored a marriage between his eight-year-old nephew Trần Cảnh and Lý Chiêu Hoàng, meaning the Lý would give up power to the Trần, and Trần Cảnh became emperor Trần Thái Tông of the new dynasty of Đại Việt. During his reign, the young Trần Thái Tông centralized the monarchy, organized the civil examination on the Chinese model, built

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1716-573: A naval invasion of southern China. Việt troops wreaked havoc on Chinese border towns, then laid siege to Nanning and captured it one month later. The Song emperor sent a large counter-invasion of Đại Việt in late 1076, but Lý Thường Kiệt was able to fend it off and defeat the Chinese at the Battle of the Cầu River , where half of the Song forces died from combat and disease. Lý Nhân Tông then offered peace with

1859-791: A north–south direction: the Irrawaddy (serving Myanmar ), the Chao Phraya (in Thailand ), and the Mekong (flowing through Northeastern Thailand , Laos , Cambodia and Vietnam ). To the south it forms the Malay Peninsula , located on which are Southern Thailand and Peninsular Malaysia ; the latter is variably considered part of Mainland Southeast Asia or separately as part of Maritime Southeast Asia . Mainland Southeast Asia contrasts with Maritime Southeast Asia , mainly through

2002-448: A paper published in 1856. Later, in 1920, French-Polish linguist Jean Przyluski found that Mường is more closely related to Vietnamese than other Mon–Khmer languages, and a Viet–Muong subgrouping was established, also including Thavung , Chut , Cuoi , etc. The term "Vietic" was proposed by Hayes (1992), who proposed to redefine Viet–Muong as referring to a subbranch of Vietic containing only Vietnamese and Mường . The term " Vietic "

2145-557: A period of chaos and civil war from 965 to 968, and the country was divided between a dozen rebellious warlords with their own factions. A new leader emerged, named Đinh Bộ Lĩnh , from Hoa Lư . He and his son Đinh Liễn spent two years in political and military struggle. In 968, after defeating all twelve warlords , he unified the country. On his ascension, he renamed the country Đại Cồ Việt ("The Great Gau(tama) 's Việt") and moved his court to Hoa Lư. He became king of Đại Cồ Việt (r. 968–979) and titled himself emperor, while Đinh Liễn became

2288-546: A process of tonogenesis , in which distinctions formerly expressed by final consonants became phonemic tonal distinctions when those consonants disappeared. These characteristics have become part of many of the genetically unrelated languages of Southeast Asia; for example, Tsat (a member of the Malayo-Polynesian group within Austronesian ), and Vietnamese each developed tones as a phonemic feature. After

2431-642: A representative on the Government Council for Nationalities, an advisory body of the Czech Government for matters of policy towards national minorities and their members. It also grants the community the right to use Vietnamese with public authorities and in courts anywhere in the country. Vietnamese is taught in schools and institutions outside of Vietnam, a large part contributed by its diaspora . In countries with Vietnamese-speaking communities Vietnamese language education largely serves as

2574-540: A role to link descendants of Vietnamese immigrants to their ancestral culture. In neighboring countries and vicinities near Vietnam such as Southern China, Cambodia, Laos, and Thailand, Vietnamese as a foreign language is largely due to trade, as well as recovery and growth of the Vietnamese economy. Since the 1980s, Vietnamese language schools ( trường Việt ngữ/ trường ngôn ngữ Tiếng Việt ) have been established for youth in many Vietnamese-speaking communities around

2717-433: A scholar-literati class, and ushered a brief golden age. Classical scholarism, literature (in nom script), science, music, and culture flourished. Hanoi emerged as the centre of learning of Southeast Asia in the 15th century. Lê Thánh Tông's reforms helped heightened the power of the king and the bureaucratic system, allowing him to mobilize a more massive army and resources that overawed the local nobility and capable to expand

2860-494: A short time, suppressed Trần Cảo, and installed a young prince as Lê Chiêu Tông (r. 1517–1522), then they quickly turned against each other and forced the king to flee. The chaos prompted Mạc Đăng Dung , a military officer and well-educated in Confucian classics, to rise up and try to restore order. By 1522, he effectively subjugated the two warring clans and put down the rebellions while establishing his clan and supporters to

3003-519: A stage commonly termed Middle Vietnamese ( tiếng Việt trung đại ). The pronunciation of the "rime" of the syllable, i.e. all parts other than the initial consonant (optional /w/ glide, vowel nucleus, tone and final consonant), appears nearly identical between Middle Vietnamese and modern Hanoi pronunciation. On the other hand, the Middle Vietnamese pronunciation of the initial consonant differs greatly from all modern dialects, and in fact

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3146-401: A term for a group of people, and it became more of a historical and political term than one tied to connotations of barbarism. During the period of Chinese rule, many states and rebellions in the former region of Yue (southern China and northern Vietnam) used the name Yue as an old geopolitical name rather than as an ethnonym. When the word Yue ( Middle Chinese : ɦʉɐt̚ ) was borrowed into

3289-552: A third of the Vietnamese lexicon in all realms, and may account for as much as 60% of the vocabulary used in formal texts. Vietic languages were confined to the northern third of modern Vietnam until the "southward advance" ( Nam tiến ) from the late 15th century. The conquest of the ancient nation of Champa and the conquest of the Mekong Delta led to an expansion of the Vietnamese people and language, with distinctive local variations emerging. After France invaded Vietnam in

3432-474: A thousand-year struggle to throw off Chinese rule by a group of people who held a conviction 'that they were not and did not want to become Chinese.'" Later, Taylor retreated from Vietnamese nationalist historiography. No evidence of "ethnic Vietnamese" resembling what would be considered the modern Vietnamese exists during the Han–Tang period. Instead, ancient northern Vietnam was very diverse and complex in terms of ethnolinguistic and cultural origins (as it still

3575-558: A toponym, that appears in many ancient Indian literary sources and Buddhist texts, but which, along with Suvarṇadvīpa ("island" or "peninsula of gold"), are also thought to refer to insular Southeast Asia. The origins of the name Indo-China are usually attributed jointly to the Danish-French geographer Conrad Malte-Brun , who referred to the area as indo-chinois in 1804, and the Scottish linguist John Leyden , who used

3718-620: A while before the Han conquest in 111 BC, such as the Phùng Nguyên and Dong Son cultures . Both practiced metallurgy and sophisticated bronze-casting techniques. They were together called the Yue and barbarians by the Chinese and collectively understood as non-Chinese. Ancient Chinese texts do not give any distinction to each tribe and do not precisely indicate which languages or tribes they interacted with in northern Vietnam. All peoples living under

3861-527: Is also spoken by the Jing people traditionally residing on three islands (now joined to the mainland) off Dongxing in southern Guangxi Province , China . A large number of Vietnamese speakers also reside in neighboring countries of Cambodia and Laos . In the United States, Vietnamese is the sixth most spoken language , with over 1.5 million speakers, who are concentrated in a handful of states. It

4004-524: Is bordered by the Indian Ocean to the west and the Pacific Ocean to the east. It includes the countries of Cambodia , Laos , Myanmar , Thailand and Vietnam as well as Peninsular Malaysia . The term Indochina (originally Indo-China ) was coined in the early nineteenth century, emphasizing the historical cultural influence of Indian and Chinese civilizations on the area. The term

4147-415: Is notated i or y (with the difference between the two often indicating differences in the quality or length of the preceding vowel), and after /ð/ and /β/ , where it is notated ĕ . This ĕ , and the /j/ it notated, have disappeared from the modern language. Note that b [ɓ] and p [p] never contrast in any position, suggesting that they are allophones. The language also has three clusters at

4290-534: Is often mistaken for a tilde in modern reproductions of early Vietnamese writing. As a result of emigration , Vietnamese speakers are also found in other parts of Southeast Asia , East Asia , North America , Europe , and Australia . Vietnamese has also been officially recognized as a minority language in the Czech Republic . As the national language, Vietnamese is the lingua franca in Vietnam. It

4433-640: Is often mistakenly thought as being an monosyllabic language, Vietnamese words typically consist of from one to many as eight individual morphemes or syllables; the majority of Vietnamese vocabulary are disyllabic and trisyllabic words. Vietnamese is written using the Vietnamese alphabet ( chữ Quốc ngữ ). The alphabet is based on the Latin script and was officially adopted in the early 20th century during French rule of Vietnam . It uses digraphs and diacritics to mark tones and some phonemes . Vietnamese

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4576-542: Is predominantly Buddhist with minority Muslim and Hindu populations. Vietnamese language Like many languages in Southeast Asia and East Asia , Vietnamese is highly analytic and is tonal . It has head-initial directionality, with subject–verb–object order and modifiers following the words they modify. It also uses noun classifiers . Its vocabulary has had significant influence from Middle Chinese and loanwords from French . Although it

4719-410: Is significantly closer to the modern Saigon dialect than the modern Hanoi dialect. The following diagram shows the orthography and pronunciation of Middle Vietnamese: ^1 [p] occurs only at the end of a syllable. ^2 This letter, ⟨ ꞗ ⟩ , is no longer used. ^3 [j] does not occur at the beginning of a syllable, but can occur at the end of a syllable, where it

4862-408: Is the first language of the majority of the Vietnamese population, as well as a first or second language for the country's ethnic minority groups . In the Czech Republic , Vietnamese has been recognized as one of 14 minority languages, on the basis of communities that have resided in the country either traditionally or on a long-term basis. This status grants the Vietnamese community in the country

5005-656: Is the more literary version of the name and had been in use since before its formalization in 1054. For a thousand years, the area of what is now Northern Vietnam was ruled by a succession of Chinese dynasties as Nanyue , Giao Chỉ ( 交趾 , Jiaozhi), Giao Châu ( 交州 , Jiaozhou), Annan , and Jinghai Circuit . Ancient northern Vietnam and particularly the Red River Delta were inhabited by various ethnolinguistic groups that constituted modern-day Hmong–Mien , Tibeto–Burman , Kra–Dai , and Austroasiatic -speaking peoples. Early societies had emerged and existed there for

5148-653: Is the third-most spoken language in Texas and Washington; fourth-most in Georgia, Louisiana, and Virginia; and fifth-most in Arkansas and California. Vietnamese is the third most spoken language in Australia other than English, after Mandarin and Arabic. In France, it is the most spoken Asian language and the eighth most spoken immigrant language at home. Vietnamese is the sole official and national language of Vietnam. It

5291-469: Is today). The continuity theory can be easily discredited by linguistic examinations. By the 9th–11th centuries, the northern portion of the Viet-Muong portion of Vietic speakers had supposedly diverged, and one dialect cluster thereby evolved into Vietnamese . Other theories advocated by John Phan present evidence of the Vietnamese language being developed from a creolized language that resulted from

5434-413: Is used, among others, by Gérard Diffloth , with a slightly different proposal on subclassification, within which the term "Viet–Muong" refers to a lower subgrouping (within an eastern Vietic branch) consisting of Vietnamese dialects, Mường dialects, and Nguồn (of Quảng Bình Province ). Austroasiatic is believed to have dispersed around 2000 BC. The arrival of the agricultural Phùng Nguyên culture in

5577-408: Is widely associated with the foundation of the modern country and nation-state of Vietnam. It has been given exceptional treatment and academic scrutiny compared to other regions. This unique academic focus has resulted in critical misinterpretations. Some notable academic works have echoed the established frameworks of colonial and postcolonial Vietnamese nationalist historiography in order to associate

5720-446: Is written with two Chinese characters or in a composite character made of two different characters. This conveys the transformation of the Vietnamese lexicon from sesquisyllabic to fully monosyllabic under the pressure of Chinese linguistic influence, characterized by linguistic phenomena such as the reduction of minor syllables; loss of affixal morphology drifting towards analytical grammar; simplification of major syllable segments, and

5863-536: The Baiyue ( Chinese : 百越 ; pinyin : Bǎiyuè ; Cantonese Yale : Baak Yuet ; Vietnamese : Bách Việt ; lit. 'Hundred Yue/Việt'). The term Baiyue (or Bách Việt ) first appeared in the book Lüshi Chunqiu , compiled around 239 BC. At first, Yue referred to all peoples of the south that practiced un-Chinese slash-and-burn cultivation and lived in stilt houses , but this definition does not suggest that all Yue were

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6006-573: The Kinh "; therefore, "[t]he likely spread of Vietic was southward from the RRD, not northward. Accounting for southern diversity will require alternative explanations." Churchman states that "the absence of records of large-scale population shifts indicates that there was a fairly stable group of people in Jiaozhi throughout the Han–Tang period who spoke Austroasiatic languages ancestral to modern Vietnamese". On

6149-579: The Mekong . After Lê Hoàn died in 1005, civil war broke out between crown princes Lê Long Việt , Lê Long Đĩnh , Lê Long Tích, and Lê Long Kính. Long Việt (r. 1005) was murdered by Long Đĩnh after ruling for only three days. As the Lê brothers fought each other, the Lý family—a member of the court's cadet, led by Lý Công Uẩn —quickly rose to power. Long Đĩnh (r. 1005–1009) ruled as a tyrant king and developed hemorrhoids, dying in November 1009. Lý Công Uẩn ascended

6292-639: The Ming dynasty , in the name of restoring the Trần dynasty, invaded Đại Ngu. The ill-prepared Vietnamese resistance of Hồ Quý Ly, who failed to get support from his people, especially from the Thăng Long literati, was defeated by a Chinese army of 215,000, armed with the newest technology at the time. Đại Ngu became the thirteenth province of the Ming empire. A line of the Trần dynasty, the Later Trần , continued to rule

6435-988: The Mon–Khmer branch of the Austroasiatic language family (which also includes the Khmer language spoken in Cambodia , as well as various smaller and/or regional languages , such as the Munda and Khasi languages spoken in eastern India, and others in Laos , southern China and parts of Thailand). In 1850, British lawyer James Richardson Logan detected striking similarities between the Korku language in Central India and Vietnamese. He suggested that Korku , Mon , and Vietnamese were part of what he termed "Mon–Annam languages" in

6578-830: The Oriental Paleotropical Kingdom . It includes the native flora and fauna of all the countries above. The adjacent Malesian Region covers the Maritime Southeast Asian countries, and straddles the Indomalayan and Australasian realms . The Indochinese Peninsula projects southward from the Asian continent proper. It contains several mountain ranges extending from the Tibetan Plateau in the north, interspersed with lowlands largely drained by three major river systems running in

6721-721: The Peninsula beyond the Ganges . Later, however, as the French established the colony of French Indochina (covering present-day Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam), use of the term became more restricted to the French colony, and today the area is usually referred to as Mainland Southeast Asia. In biogeography , the Indochinese bioregion is a major region in the Indomalayan realm , and also a phytogeographical floristic region in

6864-541: The Red River Delta at that time may correspond to the Vietic branch. This ancestral Vietic was typologically very different from later Vietnamese. It was polysyllabic, or rather sesquisyllabic , with roots consisting of a reduced syllable followed by a full syllable, and featured many consonant clusters. Both of these features are found elsewhere in Austroasiatic and in modern conservative Vietic languages south of

7007-514: The South China Sea from the Gulf of Tonkin to the Gulf of Thailand . Early Đại Việt emerged in the 960s as a hereditary monarchy, with Mahayana Buddhism as its state religion, and lasted for six centuries. From the 16th century onwards, it gradually weakened and decentralized into multiple sub-kingdoms and domains, ruled by either the Lê, Mạc, Trịnh, or Nguyễn families simultaneously. It

7150-510: The Vietnamese language during the late Tang dynasty (618–907) by the Austroasiatic Viet-Muong-speaking peoples, who were the ancestors of the modern-day Vietnamese Kinh , the exonym was gradually localized and became an endonym of the Vietnamese. That endonym might have manifested in different forms depending on how neighboring peoples interacted with and referred to the Vietnamese back then. For instance, until

7293-597: The Vietnamese orthography with the phonetic pronunciation to the right. Some consonant sounds are written with only one letter (like "p"), other consonant sounds are written with a digraph (like "ph"), and others are written with more than one letter or digraph (the velar stop is written variously as "c", "k", or "q"). In some cases, they are based on their Middle Vietnamese pronunciation; since that period, ph and kh (but not th ) have evolved from aspirated stops into fricatives (like Greek phi and chi ), while d and gi have collapsed and converged together (into /z/ in

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7436-607: The Việt expansion extended territories from the Red River Delta in all directions. The Vietnamese destroyed the Cham northern capital of Inprapura in 982; raided and plundered southern Chinese port cities in 995, 1028, 1036, 1059, and 1060; subdued the Nùng people in 1039; raided Laos in 1045; invaded Champa and pillaged Cham cities in 1044 and 1069; and subjugated the three northern Cham provinces of Địa Lý, Ma Linh, and Bố Chính. Contact between

7579-416: The Đông Sơn period , the Red River Delta's inhabitants were predominantly Austroasiatic: genetic data from Phùng Nguyên culture 's Mán Bạc burial site (dated 1800 BC) have close proximity to modern Austroasiatic speakers; meanwhile, "mixed genetics" from Đông Sơn culture 's Núi Nấp site show affinity to " Dai from China, Tai-Kadai speakers from Thailand, and Austroasiatic speakers from Vietnam, including

7722-606: The Baiyue in southeastern China. In the early 8th century BC, a tribe on the middle Yangtze was called the " Yangyue ", a term later used for people further south. Between the 7th and 4th centuries BC, Yue/Việt referred to the state of Yue in the lower Yangtze basin and its people. From the 3rd century BC on, the term was used for the non- Han Chinese populations of south and southwest China and northern Vietnam, with particular ethnic groups called Minyue , Ouyue , Luoyue (Vietnamese: Lạc Việt ), etc., collectively referred to as

7865-640: The Cham–Vietnamese alliance in June. In 1288, they decided to launch the third and largest invasion of Đại Việt but were repelled. Prince Trần Hưng Đạo ended the Mongol yoke through a decisive naval victory in the battle of Bạch Đằng River in April 1288. Đại Việt continued to flourish under the reigns of Trẩn Nhân Tông and Trần Anh Tông (r. 1293–1314). By the 14th century, the Đại Việt kingdom began experiencing

8008-512: The French colonial era. The following diagram shows the phonology of Proto–Viet–Muong (the nearest ancestor of Vietnamese and the closely related Mường language ), along with the outcomes in the modern language: ^1 According to Ferlus, * /tʃ/ and * /ʄ/ are not accepted by all researchers. Ferlus 1992 also had additional phonemes * /dʒ/ and * /ɕ/ . ^2 The fricatives indicated above in parentheses developed as allophones of stop consonants occurring between vowels (i.e. when

8151-528: The Li-Lao people managed to keep themselves away from the Chinese sphere of cultural influence, the landscape of northern Vietnam during Han–Tang period experienced a degree of equilibrium between Sinification and localization. From the sixth to the seventh century, Chinese dynasties attempted to militarily subdue the Li dong , gradually causing the Li-Lao culture to decline. In terms of complex culture and linguistics,

8294-557: The Lê family of Lê Hoàn and brought the crown from her six-year-old son Đinh Toàn (r. 979–980) to Lê Hoàn (r. 980–1005) in 980. Disturbances in Đại Cồ Việt attracted attention from the Song dynasty. In 981, the Song emperor launched an invasion but was repulsed by Lê Hoàn. In 982, he attacked Champa, killed the Cham king Paramesvaravarman I, and destroyed a Cham city. A Khmer inscription (c. 987) mentioned that in that year, some Vietnamese merchants or envoys arrived in Cambodia through

8437-447: The Mạc (the "northern court"). The Việt kingdom now fell into a long period of depressions, decentralization, chaos, and civil wars that lasted for three centuries. The Lê (assisted by Nguyễn Kim) and the Mạc loyalists fought on behalf of reclaiming the legitimate Vietnamese crown. When Nguyễn Kim died in 1545, the power of the Lê dynasty swiftly fell into the dictate of the lord Trịnh Kiểm of

8580-662: The Red River Delta and into the adjacent uplands, possibly to escape Chinese encroachment. The oldest layer of loans from Chinese into northern Vietic (which would become the Viet–Muong subbranch) date from this period. The northern Vietic varieties thus became part of the Mainland Southeast Asia linguistic area , in which languages from genetically unrelated families converged toward characteristics such as isolating morphology and similar syllable structure. Many languages in this area, including Viet–Muong, underwent

8723-567: The Red River Delta. Based on his interpretation of Keith Weller Taylor's examination of Chinese texts ( Jiu Tangshu , Xin Tangshu , Suishu , Taiping Huanyu Ji , Tongdian ), Chamberlain suggests that Việt-Mường peoples began emigrating from central Vietnam ( Jiuzhen , Rinan ) to the Red River Delta in the seventh century, during the Tang dynasty , possibly due to pressure from the Khmers in

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8866-479: The Red River area. The language was non-tonal, but featured glottal stop and voiceless fricative codas. Borrowed vocabulary indicates early contact with speakers of Tai languages in the last millennium BC, which is consistent with genetic evidence from Dong Son culture sites. Extensive contact with Chinese began from the Han dynasty (2nd century BC). At this time, Vietic groups began to expand south from

9009-492: The Royal Academy and Confucian Temple, and ordered the construction and repair of delta dikes . In 1257, the Mongol Empire under Möngke Khan , who was waging a war to conquer the Song Empire , sent envoys to Trần Thái Tông and demanded the emperor of Đại Việt to present himself to the Mongol khan in Peking . When the demand was rejected and the envoys were imprisoned, about 25,000 Mongol–Dali troops, led by general Uriyangqadaï , invaded Đại Việt from Yunnan and then attacked

9152-438: The Song Empire from Đại Việt. Unprepared, Trần Thái Tông's army was overwhelmed at the battle of Bình Lệ Nguyên on 17 January 1258. Five days later, the Mongols captured and sacked Thăng Long . The Mongols retreated to Yunnan fourteen days later, as Trần Thái Tông had submitted and sent tribute to Möngke. Trần Thái Tông's successors Trần Thánh Tông (r. 1258–1278) and Trần Nhân Tông (r. 1278–1293) continued to send tribute to

9295-556: The Song dynasty of China and the Việt state increased through raids and tributary missions, which resulted in Chinese cultural influences on Vietnamese culture: the first civil examination based on the Chinese model was staged in 1075, the Chinese script was declared official at the court in 1174, and the emergence of the Vietnamese demotic script ( Chữ Nôm ) occurred in the 12th century. In 1054, Lý Thánh Tông changed his kingdom's name to Đại Việt and declared himself emperor. He married an ordinary girl named Lady Ỷ Lan , and she gave birth to

9438-420: The Song, and all hostilities ended in 1084; the Song subsequently recognized the Việt polity as a sovereign kingdom. According to a 14th-century chronicle, the Đại Việt sử lược , the Khmer Empire sent three embassies to Đại Việt in 1086, 1088, and 1095. The matured Lý Nhân Tông came to rule in 1085. He defeated the Cham ruler Jaya Indravarman II in 1103, built the Dạm Pagoda in Bắc Ninh in 1086, and constructed

9581-423: The Trịnh family. One of Nguyễn Kim's sons, Nguyễn Hoàng , was appointed as ruler of the southern part of the kingdom, thus began the Nguyễn family rule over Đàng Trong. Mainland Southeast Asia Mainland Southeast Asia (historically known as Indochina or the Indochinese Peninsula ) is the continental portion of Southeast Asia . It lies east of the Indian subcontinent and south of Mainland China and

9724-425: The Vietnamese state under the new Lê dynasty when they returned in the 1430s and served the new court, triggering a major shift from Mahayana Buddhism to Confucianism. The remnants of pre-1400s Buddhist sanctuaries and temples in Hanoi were systematically demolished and removed. Lê Lợi , the son of a peasant from the Thanh Hoá region, led an uprising against the Chinese occupation starting in February 1418. He led

9867-459: The Việt state, and scholars like Nguyễn Trãi played a large role in the court. Lê Lợi shifted his main affair focus to the Tai people and the Laotian Lan Xang kingdom in the west, due to their betrayal and subsequent alliance with the Ming during his rebellion in the 1420s. In 1431 and 1433, the Việt launched several campaigns on various Tai polities, subdued them, and incorporated the northwest region into Đại Việt. Lê Lợi died in 1433. He chose

10010-627: The Việt territories. To expand the kingdom, Lê Thánh Tông launched an invasion of Champa in early 1471 that brought destruction to the Cham civilization and made the rump state Kauthara a vassal of Đại Việt. In response to disputes with Laos over Muang Phuan and the mistreatment of the Laotian envoy, Lê Thánh Tông led a strong army that invaded Laos in 1479, sacked Luang Phabang , occupied it for five years, and advanced as far away as Upper Burma . Vietnamese products, particularly porcelains, were sold throughout Southeast Asia, China, and also in modern-day East African coast, Japan, Iran, and Turkey. In

10153-487: The administration of the empire were usually referred to as either "people" ( ren 人) or "subjects" ( min 民). There was absolutely no classification or distinction for "Vietnamese", and it is difficult to identify people accurately as such or to infer modern ethnicity from the ancient. It is highly likely that these intermingled multilinguistic communities might have evolved into the present day without modern ethnic consciousness—until ethnic classification efforts carried out by

10296-420: The area Jinghai Circuit . A military mutiny forced Tang authorities to withdraw in 880, while loyalist troops left for home on their own initiative. A regional regime led by the Khúc family formed on the Red River Delta in the early 10th century. From 907 to 917, Khúc Hạo and then Khúc Thừa Mỹ were appointed by Chinese dynasties as jiedushi (tributary governors). The Khúc did not try to create any kind of

10439-475: The beginning of syllables, which have since disappeared: Most of the unusual correspondences between spelling and modern pronunciation are explained by Middle Vietnamese. Note in particular: De Rhodes's orthography also made use of an apex diacritic, as in o᷄ and u᷄ , to indicate a final labial-velar nasal /ŋ͡m/ , an allophone of /ŋ/ that is peculiar to the Hanoi dialect to the present day. This diacritic

10582-470: The cadet branch, the Trịnh, and the Nguyễn on behalf of the ruling dynasty. Lê Tương Dực (r. 1509–1514) tried to restore stability, but chaotic political struggles and rebellions returned years later. In 1516 a Buddhist-peasant rebellion led by Trần Cảo stormed the capital, killed the emperor, plundered, and destroyed the royal palace along with its library. The Trịnh and Nguyễn clans briefly ceased hostility for

10725-498: The change of suprasegment instruments. For example, the modern Vietnamese word "trời" (heaven) was read as *plời in Old/Ancient Vietnamese and as blời in Middle Vietnamese. The writing system used for Vietnamese is based closely on the system developed by Alexandre de Rhodes for his 1651 Dictionarium Annamiticum Lusitanum et Latinum . It reflects the pronunciation of the Vietnamese of Hanoi at that time,

10868-508: The colonial government and successive governments of the Republic of Vietnam , Democratic Republic of Vietnam , and Socialist Republic of Vietnam —while retaining their intangible ethnic identity. There was no persistent "ethnic Vietnamese" identity during this period. Official Vietnamese history textbooks usually assume that the people of northern Vietnam during Chinese rule were Việt/Yue . The Yue were broad groups of non-Chinese peoples of

11011-537: The course of history and share a number of typological similarities. The countries of mainland Southeast Asia received cultural influence from both India and China to varying degrees. Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar and Thailand are all influenced by Indian culture , only Vietnam is influenced by Chinese culture but still has minor influences from India, largely via the Champa civilization that Vietnam conquered during its southward expansion. Overall, Mainland Southeast Asia

11154-402: The court. As a result, the principality broke apart during the reign of Tam Kha. Ngô Quyền's sons Ngô Xương Văn and Ngô Xương Ngập deposed their maternal uncle and became dual kings in 950. In 954, Ngô Xương Ngập died. The younger Ngô Xương Văn ruled as the sole king and was killed by warlords nine years later, which led to chaos across the Red River Delta. The death of King Ngô Quyền brought

11297-565: The crown prince Lý Càn Đức. In 1072, the infant became emperor Lý Nhân Tông (r. 1072–1127), the longest-ruling monarch in Vietnamese history. During the early years of Lý Nhân Tông, his father's military leader Lý Thường Kiệt , uncle Lý Đạo Thành , and Queen Ỷ Lan became court regents. From the 1070s, border tensions between the Song Empire, local Tai principalities, and the Việt kingdom broke out into open violence. In late 1075, Lý Thường Kiệt led

11440-466: The daughter languages from distinctions in the initial and final consonants. Vietnamese tones developed as follows: Glottal-ending syllables ended with a glottal stop /ʔ/ , while fricative-ending syllables ended with /s/ or /h/ . Both types of syllables could co-occur with a resonant (e.g. /m/ or /n/ ). At some point, a tone split occurred, as in many other mainland Southeast Asian languages . Essentially, an allophonic distinction developed in

11583-446: The devastating war. Over time, he slowly eliminated the Trần dynasty and aristocracy. In 1400, he deposed the last Trần emperor and became ruler of Đại Việt. Hồ Quý Ly became emperor, moved the capital to Tây Đô , and briefly changed the kingdom's name to Đại Ngu ("great joy/peace") (大虞). In 1401, he stepped down and established as king his second son, Hồ Hán Thương (r. 1401–1407), who had Trần ancestry. In 1406, emperor Yongle of

11726-442: The diphthongs [āj] and [āːj] the letters y and i also indicate the pronunciation of the main vowel: ay = ă + /j/ , ai = a + /j/ . Thus, tay "hand" is [tāj] while tai "ear" is [tāːj] . Similarly, u and o indicate different pronunciations of the main vowel: au = ă + /w/ , ao = a + /w/ . Thus, thau "brass" is [tʰāw] while thao "raw silk" is [tʰāːw] . The consonants that occur in Vietnamese are listed below in

11869-790: The division of largely land-based lifestyles in Indochina and the sea-based lifestyles of the Indonesian archipelago and Philippine archipelago , as well as the dividing line between the Austroasiatic , Tai–Kadai , and Sino-Tibetan languages (spoken in Mainland Southeast Asia) and the Austronesian languages (spoken in Maritime Southeast Asia). The languages of the mainland form the Mainland Southeast Asia linguistic area : although belonging to several independent language families, they have converged over

12012-454: The eastern capital, while the dynasty's estate Lam Son became Tây Kinh or the western capital. Through his proclamation, Lê Lợi called upon educated men of ability to come forward to serve the new monarchy. The old Buddhist aristocrats were stripped during the Ming occupation and gave rise to the new emerging literati class. For the first time, a centralized authority based on proper laws was instituted. Literary examination now became crucial for

12155-400: The emergence of the Đại Việt kingdom in the 10th century as the awakening and resurrection of "Vietnamese sovereignty", and these traditions of Vietnamese exceptionalism continued into modern Vietnam. For example, Keith Taylor took up some aspects of Vietnamese nationalist historiography in his 1983 monograph, The Birth of Vietnam , and falsely asserted that "Vietnam's independence resulted from

12298-498: The entire history of the early Red River Delta with the Vietnamese, i.e., the Kinh, and the modern country of Vietnam. The rewriting of Vietnamese history in the 20th century considered pushing several nationalistic-themed theories. One notable theory, the "continuity", is defined as a belief that the peoples of the Red River Delta during the Han–Tang period had always retained their unique "Vietnamese identity" and "Vietnamese spirit", which

12441-549: The government. In 1527 he forced the young Lê king to abdicate and proclaimed himself emperor and began the rule of the Mạc dynasty. Six years later, Nguyễn Kim —a Nguyễn noble and Lê loyalist-rebelled against the Mạc—enthroned Lê Duy Ninh , a descendant of Lê Lợi, and who began the monarchy-in-exile in Laos. In 1542 they reemerged from the south known as the "southern court", laid claim to the Vietnamese crown, and opposed

12584-629: The great prince. In 973 and 975, Đinh Bộ Lĩnh sent two embassies to the Song dynasty and established relationships. Buddhist clergy were put in charge of important positions. Coins were minted. The territories of the early Việt state comprised the lowland Red River basin to the Nghệ An region. According to a Hoa Lư inscription from c. 979, that year, Đinh Liễn murdered his brother Đinh Hạng Lang , who had been promoted to crown prince by his father. In late 979, both Đinh Bộ Lĩnh and Đinh Liễn were assassinated. Hearing

12727-413: The important effects of ten centuries of Chinese rule over northern Vietnam are arguably still observable. Some native languages of the regions for a long time had employed a Sinitic script and Sinitic-derived writing systems to represent their languages, such as Vietnamese , Tày , and Nùng . James Chamberlain believes that the traditional Vietic realm was north central Vietnam and northern Laos, not

12870-446: The late 19th century, French gradually replaced Literary Chinese as the official language in education and government. Vietnamese adopted many French terms, such as đầm ('dame', from madame ), ga ('train station', from gare ), sơ mi ('shirt', from chemise ), and búp bê ('doll', from poupée ), resulting in a language that was Austroasiatic but with major Sino-influences and some minor French influences from

13013-427: The main syllable). When a minor syllable occurred, the main syllable's initial consonant was intervocalic and as a result suffered lenition , becoming a voiced fricative. The minor syllables were eventually lost, but not until the tone split had occurred. As a result, words in modern Vietnamese with voiced fricatives occur in all six tones, and the tonal register reflects the voicing of the minor-syllable prefix and not

13156-624: The modern day, the Cham have been calling the Vietnamese Yuen (Yvan), from the reign of Harivarman IV (1074–1080) to the present. It is evident that Vietnamese elites tried to tie their ethnic identity to the ancient Yue through constructed traditions during the late medieval period. However, all endonyms and exonyms referring to the Vietnamese, such as Viet , Kinh , or Kra-Dai Keeu , are related to political structures or have common origins in ancient Chinese geographical imagination. Most of

13299-586: The new Mongol-led Yuan dynasty . In 1283, Yuan emperor Kublai Khan launched an invasion of Champa. In early 1285, he commissioned prince Toghon to lead the second invasion of Đại Việt to punish the Vietnamese emperor Trần Nhân Tông for not helping the Yuan campaign in Champa and refusing to send tribute. Kublai also appointed Trần Ích Tắc , a Trần prince, as the puppet emperor of Đại Việt. Though Yuan forces initially captured Thăng Long, they were ultimately defeated by

13442-458: The news, Ngô Nhật Khánh —a prince of the old royal family in exile—and king Paramesvaravarman I of Champa launched a naval attack on Hoa Lư, but much of the fleet was capsized by a late-season typhoon . Queen Dương Vân Nga appointed her partner, general Lê Hoàn , chief of the state. Lê Hoàn's rivals then attacked him but were defeated. The queen of the Dương family decided to replace the Đinh with

13585-420: The next few decades after Lê Thánh Tông's death in 1497, Đại Việt once again fell to civil unrest. Agricultural failures, rapid population growth, corruption, and factionalism all compounded to stress the kingdom, leading to a rapid decline. Eight weak Lê kings briefly held power. During the reign Lê Uy Mục —known as the "devil king" (r. 1505–1509)—bloody fighting ignited between the two rival Thanh Hoá families in

13728-408: The ninth century. Phan identifies three layers of Chinese loanwords into Vietnamese: the earliest layer dates to the Han dynasty (ca. 1st century CE) and Jin dynasty (ca. 4th century CE); the late layer dates to the post-Tang period; and the recent layer dates to the Ming and Qing dynasties. Study of northern Vietnam and the Red River Delta during the first millennium AD is problematic. This region

13871-497: The north and /j/ in the south). Not all dialects of Vietnamese have the same consonant in a given word (although all dialects use the same spelling in the written language). See the language variation section for further elaboration. Syllable-final orthographic ch and nh in Vietnamese has had different analyses. One analysis has final ch , nh as being phonemes /c/, /ɲ/ contrasting with syllable-final t , c /t/, /k/ and n , ng /n/, /ŋ/ and identifies final ch with

14014-462: The peasantry, which together with widespread non-bubonic plagues unleashed robbery and chaos. Trần Anh Tông seized northern Champa in 1307, intervening in its politics through the marriage of Cham king Jaya Simhavarman III with Trần Anh Tông's sister, queen Paramecvariin . Trần Minh Tông (r. 1314–1329) entered conflict with the Tai people in Laos and Sukhothai from the 1320s to the 1330s. During

14157-405: The plain-voiced stops became voiceless and the allotones became new phonemic tones. The implosive stops were unaffected, and in fact developed tonally as if they were unvoiced. (This behavior is common to all East Asian languages with implosive stops.) As noted above, Proto-Viet–Muong had sesquisyllabic words with an initial minor syllable (in addition to, and independent of, initial clusters in

14300-633: The previous Dong Son culture of the Lac Viet produced Heger Type I drums. The Li-Lao culture flourished from approximately 200 to 750 AD in present-day southern China and northern Vietnam. These Li tribes were recorded in Chinese sources as Lǐ (俚; "bandits") inhabiting the coastal areas between the Pearl River and Red River . Li political structures were distributed in numerous autonomous settlements/chiefdoms ( dong 洞) located in riverine valleys. The Book of Sui notes that Li noblemen who possess

14443-550: The queen mother Nguyễn Thị Anh . During the dry season of 1445–1446, Trịnh Khả, Lê Thụ, and Trịnh Khắc Phục attacked Champa and took Vijaya, where the king of Champa Maha Vijaya (r. 1441–1446) was captured. Trịnh Khả installed Maha Kali (r. 1446–1449) as a puppet king; however, three years later Kali's elder brother murdered him and became king. Relations between the two kingdoms degraded into hostility. In 1451, amidst chaotic political struggles, Queen Nguyễn Thị Anh ordered Trịnh Khả to be executed for an accusation of conspiracy against

14586-468: The region was administered as Jiaozhi by the Ming dynasty . Đại Việt's history can also be divided into two periods: the unified state, which lasted from the 960s to 1533, and the fragmented state, from 1533 to 1802, when there were more than one dynasty and several noble clans simultaneously ruling from their own domains. From the 13th to the 18th century, Đại Việt's borders expanded to encompass territory that resembled modern-day Vietnam, which lies along

14729-552: The region. The state slowly annexed Champa and Cambodia 's territories, expanding Vietnamese territories to the south and west. The state of Đại Việt was the primary precursor to the country of Vietnam and the basis for its national historic and cultural identity. The term Việt ( Yue ) ( Chinese : 越 ; pinyin : Yuè ; Cantonese Yale : Yuht ; Wade–Giles : Yüeh ; Vietnamese : Việt ) in Early Middle Chinese

14872-617: The reign of Lý Thánh Tông (r. 1054–1072), the third emperor of the Lý dynasty . Đại Việt lasted until the reign of Gia Long (r. 1802–1820), the first emperor of the Nguyễn dynasty , when the name was changed to Việt Nam in 1804. Under rule of bilateral diplomacy with Imperial China , it was known as Principality of Giao Chỉ ( chữ Hán : 交趾) (975–1164) and Kingdom of Annam (chữ Hán: 安南) (1164–1804) when Emperor Xiaozong of Song upgraded Đại Việt's status from principality to kingdom. Đại Việt's history

15015-613: The reign of Lý Thần Tông, Suryavarman II of the Khmer Empire launched an attack on Đại Việt's southern territories in 1128. In 1132, he allied with the Cham king Jaya Indravarman III and briefly seized Nghệ An and pillaged Thanh Hoá. In 1135, Duke Đỗ Anh Vũ raised an army and repelled the Khmer invaders. After the Chams refused to support them in 1137, Suryavarman II abandoned his incursions on Đại Việt and launched an invasion of Champa. At

15158-453: The reign of the weak king Trần Dụ Tông (r. 1341–1369), internal rebellions led by serfs and peasants from the 1340s and 1360s weakened royal power. In 1369, due to Trần Dụ Tông's lack of an heir, power was seized by Dương Nhật Lễ , a man from the Dương clan. A short bloody civil war led by the royal Tran family against the Dương clan broke out in 1369–1370, creating turmoil. The Trần enthroned Trần Nghệ Tông (r. 1370–1372), while Dương Nhật Lễ

15301-489: The result of a mistake in the records or invented while compiling old records. When Lý Nhật Tôn ascended to the throne in 1054, he dropped the vernacular nôm term Cồ from Đại Cồ Việt and shortened it to Đại Việt . The term Đại Việt Quốc ("the Great Viet State") has been found on brick inscriptions from Hoa Lư , the first capital of the polity, dating to the 10th century AD. The name Đại Việt

15444-437: The royal throne. Only two of Lê Lợi's former comrades, Nguyễn Xí and Đinh Liệt were still alive. During a night in late 1459, Prince Lê Nghi Dân and followers stormed into the palace, stabbed his half-brother and the queen mother . Four days later he was proclaimed as emperor. Nghi Dân ruled the kingdom for 8 months, before the two former-Nguyễn Xí and Đinh Liệt carried a coup against him. Two days after Nghi Dân's death,

15587-519: The same and spoke the same language. They were loosely connected or independent tribal societies belonging to a diverse ethnolinguistic complex. As Chinese imperial power expanded southward, Chinese sources generalized the tribes of northern Vietnam at the time as Yue , or the Luoyue and the Ouyue ( Lạc Việt and Au Viet ). Over time, the term Yue morphed into a geopolitical designation rather than

15730-546: The same except that ơ [əː] is of normal length while â [ə] is short – the same applies to the vowels long a [aː] and short ă [a] . The centering diphthongs are formed with only the three high vowels (i, ư, u). They are generally spelled as ia, ưa, ua when they end a word and are spelled iê, ươ, uô, respectively, when they are followed by a consonant. In addition to single vowels (or monophthongs ) and centering diphthongs, Vietnamese has closing diphthongs and triphthongs . The closing diphthongs and triphthongs consist of

15873-502: The same time, Lý Thần Tông began suffering from a fatal illness, and he died the next year, leaving the infant Lý Thiên Tộ to became emperor Lý Anh Tông (r. 1138–1175) under Đỗ Anh Vũ's patronage. After Đõ Anh Vũ died in 1159, another powerful figure, named Tô Hiến Thành , stepped into the role of guarding the dynasty, until 1179. In 1149, Javanese and Siamese ships arrived in Vân Đồn to trade. The sixth son of Lý Anh Tông, prince Lý Long Trát,

16016-473: The same time, according to the following pattern: ^3 In Middle Vietnamese , the outcome of these sounds was written with a hooked b (ꞗ), representing a /β/ that was still distinct from v (then pronounced /w/ ). See below. ^4 It is unclear what this sound was. According to Ferlus 1992, in the Archaic Vietnamese period (c. 10th century AD, when Sino-Vietnamese vocabulary

16159-476: The second Lê Khắc Xương , the third Lê Bang Cơ , and the youngest Lê Hạo . In 1442, Lê Thái Tông died in suspicion after a visit to Nguyễn Trãi's family; Nguyễn Trãi and his clan of relatives were innocently condemned to death. One-year-old Lê Bang Cơ ( Lê Nhân Tông , r. 1442–1459) assumed the throne a few days after his father's death. The emperor was too young and most political power of the court fell Lê Lợi's former comrades Trịnh Khả and Lê Thụ, who allied with

16302-764: The south or the Chinese in the north. Chamberlain speculates that during the rebellion led by Mai Thúc Loan , the son of a salt-producing family in Hoan province (today Hà Tĩnh Province , North-Central Vietnam), which lasted from 722 to 723, a large number of Sinicized lowland Vietic people or the Kinh moved north. The Jiu Tangshu records that Mai Thúc Loan, also known as Mai Huyền Thành, styled himself as "the Black Emperor" (possibly after his swarthy complexion), and that he had 400,000 followers from 23 provinces across Annam and other kingdoms, including Champa and Chenla . However, archaeogenetics demonstrate that before

16445-649: The south, marched north and killed Kiều Công Tiễn. He then led the people to fight and destroyed the Southern Han fleet on the Bạch Đằng River . After defeating the Southern Han invasion, Ngô Quyền proclaimed himself king over the principality in 939 and established a new dynasty centered in the old Âu Việt 's fortress of Cổ Loa . Cổ Loa's sphere of influence probably did not reach the other local nobility. In 944, after his death, Ngô Quyền's brother-in-law Dương Tam Kha (son of Dương Đình Nghệ) took power. The Dương clan increased factional segregation by bringing more southern men into

16588-460: The south, which included many different ethnolinguistic groups who shared certain customs. After the disappearance of the Baiyue and the Lac Viet from Chinese records around the first century AD, new indigenous tribal groups might have emerged in the region under the name Li-Lao . The Li-Lao people were also known for their drum casting tradition. The culture produced Heger Type II drums , while

16731-574: The southern part of Đại Việt and led Vietnamese rebellions against the Ming empire, until being subdued in 1413. The short-lived Ming colonial rule had traumatic impacts on the kingdom and the Vietnamese. In pursuit of their sinicization , the Ming opened Confucian schools and shrines, prohibited old Vietnamese traditions such as tattooing, and sent several thousand Vietnamese scholars to China, where they were re-educated in Neo-Confucian classics. Some of these literati would dramatically change

16874-487: The split from Muong around the end of the first millennium AD, the following stages of Vietnamese are commonly identified: After expelling the Chinese at the beginning of the 10th century, the Ngô dynasty adopted Classical Chinese as the formal medium of government, scholarship and literature. With the dominance of Chinese came wholesale importation of Chinese vocabulary. The resulting Sino-Vietnamese vocabulary makes up about

17017-505: The syllable-initial ch /c/ . The other analysis has final ch and nh as predictable allophonic variants of the velar phonemes /k/ and /ŋ/ that occur after the upper front vowels i /i/ and ê /e/ ; although they also occur after a , but in such cases are believed to have resulted from an earlier e /ɛ/ which diphthongized to ai (cf. ach from aic , anh from aing ). (See Vietnamese phonology: Analysis of final ch , nh for further details.) Each Vietnamese syllable

17160-549: The term Indo-Chinese to describe the area's inhabitants and their languages in 1808. Scholarly opinions at the time regarding China's and India's historical influence over the area were conflicting, and the term was itself controversial—Malte-Brun himself later argued against its use in a later edition of his Universal Geography , reasoning that it overemphasized Chinese influence, and suggested Chin-India instead. Nevertheless, Indo-China had already gained traction and soon supplanted alternative terms such as Further India and

17303-450: The throne two days later, with support from the monkhood, as Lý Thái Tổ . Emperor Lý Thái Tổ (r. 1009–1028) moved his court to the abandoned city of Đại La , which had previously been a seat of power under the Tang dynasty, and renamed it to Thăng Long in 1010. The city became what is now Hanoi . To control and maintain the nation's wealth, in 1013, Lý created a taxation system. His reign

17446-577: The time, the Austroasiatic -speaking ancestors of the modern Kinh under one single ruler might have assumed for themselves a similar or identical designation, inherent in the modern Vietnamese first-person pronoun ta ("us, we, I"), to differentiate themselves from other groups. In the older colloquial usage, ta corresponded to "ours" as opposed to "theirs", and during colonial times, they were nước ta ("our country") and tiếng ta ("our language"), in contrast to nước tây ("western countries") and tiếng tây ("western languages"). Đại Cồ Việt

17589-579: The tones, whereby the tones in syllables with voiced initials were pronounced differently from those with voiceless initials. (Approximately speaking, the voiced allotones were pronounced with additional breathy voice or creaky voice and with lowered pitch. The quality difference predominates in today's northern varieties, e.g. in Hanoi , while in the southern varieties the pitch difference predominates, as in Ho Chi Minh City .) Subsequent to this,

17732-422: The voicing of the main-syllable stop in Proto-Viet–Muong that produced the fricative. For similar reasons, words beginning with /l/ and /ŋ/ occur in both registers. (Thompson 1976 reconstructed voiceless resonants to account for outcomes where resonants occur with a first-register tone, but this is no longer considered necessary, at least by Ferlus.) Old Vietnamese/Ancient Vietnamese was a Vietic language which

17875-452: The world such as in the United States , Germany and France . Vietnamese has a large number of vowels . Below is a vowel diagram of Vietnamese from Hanoi (including centering diphthongs ): Front and central vowels (i, ê, e, ư, â, ơ, ă, a) are unrounded , whereas the back vowels (u, ô, o) are rounded. The vowels â [ə] and ă [a] are pronounced very short, much shorter than the other vowels. Thus, ơ and â are basically pronounced

18018-549: The younger prince Lê Nguyên Long ( Lê Thái Tông , r. 1433–1442) as heir instead of the eldest Lê Tư Tề . Later, Lê Tư Tề was expelled from the royal family and degraded status to a commoner. Lê Thái Tông was only ten years old when he was crowned in 1433. Lê Lợi's former comrades now fought politically with each other to control the court. Lê Sát used his power as the young emperor's regent to purge opposition factions. When Lê Thái Tông found out about Le Sat's abuses of power, he allied with Lê Sát's rival, Trịnh Khả . In 1437, Lê Sát

18161-474: The youngest prince Lê Hạo was crowned, known as Emperor Lê Thánh Tông the Overflowing Virtue (r. 1460–1479). In the 1460s, Lê Thánh Tông carried out a series of reforms, including centralizing the government, building the first extensive bureaucracy and strong fiscal system, and institutionalizing education, trade, and laws. He greatly reduced the power of the traditional Buddhist aristocracy with

18304-575: Was arguably rooted in the highly sophisticated Van Lang kingdoms under the Hung kings , which were largely legends transformed into "historical facts" under the scholarship of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam . This was despite relentless Chinese acculturation, making them "different" from other groups in southern China who "eventually lost their separate identities through assimilation into Chinese culture". The continuity theory reconstructed

18447-457: Was arrested and given a death sentence. In 1439, Lê Thái Tông launched a campaign against rebelling Tai vassals in the west and Chinese settlers in Đại Việt. He ordered the Chinese to cut their hair short and wear clothes of the Kinh people. One of his sisters raised in China was forced to commit suicide, being accused of endless conspiracies. Later he had four princes: the eldest son Lê Nghi Dân ,

18590-494: Was borrowed) it was * r̝ , distinct at that time from * r . The following initial clusters occurred, with outcomes indicated: A large number of words were borrowed from Middle Chinese , forming part of the Sino-Vietnamese vocabulary . These caused the original introduction of the retroflex sounds /ʂ/ and /ʈ/ (modern s , tr ) into the language. Proto-Viet–Muong did not have tones. Tones developed later in some of

18733-648: Was briefly unified by the Tây Sơn brothers in 1786, who divided it among themselves in 1787. After the Lê-Mạc war , followed by the Trịnh-Nguyễn War and the Tây Sơn wars that ended with a final Nguyễn victory and the destruction of the Tây Sơn dynasty , Đại Việt was reunified, ending 262 years of fragmentation with the founding of the Nguyễn dynasty in 1802. From 968 to 1804, Đại Việt flourished and acquired significant power in

18876-596: Was crowned in 1175 as Lý Cao Tông (r. 1175–1210). By the 1190s, more outsider clans were able to penetrate and infiltrate the royal family, further weakening Lý authority. Three powerful aristocratic families—Đoàn, Nguyễn, and Trần (descendants of Trần emperors, a Chinese emigre from Fujian )—emerged at the court and contested it on behalf of the royals. In 1210, Lý Cao Tông's eldest son, Lý Sảm, became emperor Lý Huệ Tông of Đại Việt (r. 1210–1224). In 1224, Lý Sảm appointed his second princess, Lý Phật Kim, (empress Lý Chiêu Hoàng ) as his successor while he abdicated and became

19019-548: Was deposed and executed. Dương's queen mother went into exile in Champa and begged the Cham king Po Binasuor (Chế Bồng Nga) to help her get revenge. In response, the Champa empire under Po Binasuor invaded Đại Việt and ransacked Thăng Long in 1371. Six years later, the Đại Việt army suffered a great defeat at Battle of Vijaya , and Trần Duệ Tông (r. 1373–1377) was killed. The Chams then continued to advance north, besieging, pillaging, and looting Thăng Long four times from 1378 to 1383. War with Champa ended in 1390 after Po Binasuor

19162-572: Was divided into the rule of eight dynasties: Đinh (968–980), Early Lê (980–1009), Lý (1009–1226), Trần (1226–1400), Hồ (1400–1407), and Later Lê (1428–1789); the Mạc dynasty (1527–1677); and the short-lived Tây Sơn dynasty (1778–1802). It was briefly interrupted by the Hồ dynasty (1400–1407), which changed the country's name to Đại Ngu , and the Fourth Era of Northern Domination (1407–1427), when

19305-525: Was first written using the logograph "戉" for an axe (a homophone) in oracle bone and bronze inscriptions of the late Shang dynasty ( c.  1200 BC), and later as "越". At the time, it may have referred to a people or chieftain to the northwest of the Shang, such as the Yuefang. According to Ye Wenxian (1990) and Wan (2013), the ethnonym of the Yuefang in northwestern China is not associated with that of

19448-493: Was heavily entangled with modern perceptions about Vietnam during decolonization and the Cold War . Historians such as Catherine Churchman have criticized attempts to characterize the past through the lens of modern national boundaries and project a "wish for the restoration of long-lost national independence" onto localized dynasties. Prior to independence in the late 9th century, the area that became Đại Việt in northern Vietnam

19591-484: Was historically written using chữ Nôm , a logographic script using Chinese characters ( chữ Hán ) to represent Sino-Vietnamese vocabulary and some native Vietnamese words, together with many locally invented characters representing other words. Early linguistic work in the late 19th and early 20th centuries ( Logan 1852, Forbes 1881, Müller 1888, Kuhn 1889, Schmidt 1905, Przyluski 1924, and Benedict 1942) classified Vietnamese as belonging to

19734-411: Was killed during his northward offensive by Vietnamese forces led by prince Trần Khát Chân , who used firearms in battle. Hồ Quý Ly (1336–1407), the minister of the Trần court who had desperately fought off the Cham invasions, now became the most powerful figure in the kingdom. He conducted a series of reforms, including replacing copper coins with banknotes , despite the kingdom still recovering from

19877-428: Was later adopted as the name of the colony of French Indochina (today's Cambodia , Laos , and Vietnam ). Today, the term Mainland Southeast Asia , in contrast to Maritime Southeast Asia , is more commonly referenced. In Indian sources, the earliest name connected with Southeast Asia is Yāvadvīpa  [ ms ] . Another possible early name of mainland Southeast Asia was Suvarṇabhūmi ("land of gold"),

20020-510: Was relatively peaceful, though he campaigned against the Han communities in Hà Giang massif and subdued them in 1014. He furthermore laid the basis of a stable Vietnamese state, and his dynasty would rule the kingdom for the next 200 years. Lý's son Lý Thái Tông (r. 1028–1053) and grandson Lý Thánh Tông (r. 1054–1071) continued to strengthen the Việt state. Starting during the reign of Lê Hoàn,

20163-536: Was ruled by the Tang dynasty as Annan . The hill dwellers on the western frontier of Annan and powerful chieftains such as Lý Do Độc allied with the state of Nanzhao in Yunnan and rebelled against the Tang dynasty in the 860s. They captured Annan in three years, forcing the lowlanders to scatter to throughout the delta. The Tang dynasty turned back and defeated the Nanzhao–indigenous alliance in 866 and renamed

20306-837: Was separated from Viet–Muong around the 9th century, and evolved into Middle Vietnamese by 16th century. The sources for the reconstruction of Old Vietnamese are Nom texts, such as the 12th-century/1486 Buddhist scripture Phật thuyết Đại báo phụ mẫu ân trọng kinh ("Sūtra explained by the Buddha on the Great Repayment of the Heavy Debt to Parents"), old inscriptions, and a late 13th-century (possibly 1293) Annan Jishi glossary by Chinese diplomat Chen Fu (c. 1259 – 1309). Old Vietnamese used Chinese characters phonetically where each word, monosyllabic in Modern Vietnamese,

20449-459: Was the name chosen by Đinh Bộ Lĩnh for his realm when he declared himself emperor in 966. It is probably derived from the vernacular Cự Việt ("Great Việt") or Kẻ Việt ("Việt Region"), with the Sino-Vietnamese Đại ("great") added as a prefix. The name appeared in the 15th-century text Đại Việt sử ký toàn thư but not the earlier 13th- or 14th-century text Đại Việt sử lược . According to Momoki Shiro, Đại Cồ Việt may have been

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