154-499: Oradea ( UK : / ɒ ˈ r ɑː d i ə / , US : / ɔː ˈ r -, - d j ɑː / , Romanian: [oˈrade̯a] ; Hungarian : Nagyvárad [ˈnɒɟvaːrɒd] ; German : Großwardein [ˌɡʁoːsvaʁˈdaɪn] ) is a city in Romania , located in the Crișana region. The seat of Bihor County , Oradea is one of the most important economic, social and cultural centers in
308-726: A Nusach Ashkenaz service, the latter of which operates under the name Bais Medrash Igud Avreichim of Groisverdain (the Yiddish pronunciation of Grosswardein). As of 2021, there is also a project to build a rabbinical seminary in Oradea. British English British English (abbreviations: BrE , en-GB , and BE ) is the set of varieties of the English language native to the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland . More narrowly, it can refer specifically to
462-576: A West Germanic language that originated from the Anglo-Frisian dialects brought to Britain by Germanic settlers from various parts of what is now northwest Germany and the northern Netherlands. The resident population at this time was generally speaking Common Brittonic —the insular variety of Continental Celtic , which was influenced by the Roman occupation. This group of languages ( Welsh , Cornish , Cumbric ) cohabited alongside English into
616-594: A separate duchy under his brother's suzerainty. Throughout Coloman's reign, the brothers' relationship remained tense, which finally led to the blinding of Álmos and his infant son Béla . Coloman routed two bands of crusaders (the perpetrators of the Rhineland massacres ) who were plundering the Western borderlands, and defeated Petar Snačić in Croatia. The late 14th-century Pacta conventa states that Coloman
770-422: A ban on sale of native slaves to places abroad. His laws concerning his Muslim subjects aimed at their conversion; for instance, by obliging them to marry their daughters to Christians. The presence of Jewish and Muslim merchants in the kingdom was due to its position as a crossroad of trading routes leading towards Constantinople, Regensburg , and Kiev . Local trade also existed, which enabled Coloman to collect
924-559: A century as Received Pronunciation (RP). However, due to language evolution and changing social trends, some linguists argue that RP is losing prestige or has been replaced by another accent, one that the linguist Geoff Lindsey for instance calls Standard Southern British English. Others suggest that more regionally-oriented standard accents are emerging in England. Even in Scotland and Northern Ireland, RP exerts little influence in
1078-497: A four-decade crisis. Stephen considered his cousin, Vazul , unsuitable for the throne and named his own sister's son, the Venetian Peter Orseolo , as his heir. After Vazul was blinded and his three sons were expelled, Peter succeeded his uncle without opposition in 1038. Peter's preference for his foreign courtiers led to a rebellion, which ended with his deposition in favor of a native lord, Samuel Aba , who
1232-459: A girl to be his wife without the consent of her parents, we decreed that the girl should be returned to her parents, even if he did anything by force to her, and the abductor shall pay ten steers for the abduction, although he may afterwards have made peace with the girl's parents. Stephen I:27, 1000–1038 From a legal perspective, Hungarian society was divided into freemen and serfs , but intermediate groups also existed. All freemen had
1386-508: A greater movement, normally [əʊ], [əʉ] or [əɨ]. Dropping a morphological grammatical number , in collective nouns , is stronger in British English than North American English. This is to treat them as plural when once grammatically singular, a perceived natural number prevails, especially when applying to institutional nouns and groups of people. The noun 'police', for example, undergoes this treatment: Police are investigating
1540-635: A group of Cumans to accept Andrew II's suzerainty in 1228 and established a new march in Oltenia (known as the Banate of Szörény ) in 1231. Béla IV succeeded his father in 1235. His attempt to reacquire crown lands alienated by his predecessors created a deep rift between the monarch and the lords just as the Mongols were sweeping westward across the Eurasian steppes . The king was first informed of
1694-473: A group of local lords in 1213. A new uprising broke out while the king was in the Holy Land on his crusade in 1217 and 1218 . Finally, a movement of the royal servants , who were actually free landholders directly subordinated to the sovereign, obliged Andrew II to issue his Golden Bull in 1222. It summarized the royal servants' liberties, including their tax exemption. Its last provision authorized
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#17327719305331848-406: A lesser class or social status and often discounted or considered of a low intelligence. Another contribution to the standardisation of British English was the introduction of the printing press to England in the mid-15th century. In doing so, William Caxton enabled a common language and spelling to be dispersed among the entirety of England at a much faster rate. Samuel Johnson's A Dictionary of
2002-527: A list of merchandise brought to Ghent shows that Hungary exported wax and unminted gold and silver. Although threatening letters sent to Béla IV by the khans of the Golden Horde proved that the danger of a new Mongol invasion still existed, he adopted an expansionist foreign policy. Frederick II of Austria died fighting against Hungarian troops in 1246, and Béla IV's son-in-law, Rostislav Mikhailovich , annexed large territories along
2156-645: A major role in the Hungarian Revolution of 1848 , being the home of the largest Hungarian arms factory. After World War I , Oradea passed under Romanian administration during the Hungarian–Romanian War of 1919 and became a part of the Kingdom of Romania under the Treaty of Trianon of 1920. In 1925, the status of municipality was given to Oradea, dissolving its former civic autonomy. Under
2310-659: A new wave of colonization that resulted in the arrival of a number of Germans, Moravians , Poles , and Romanians . The king re-invited the Cumans and settled them in the plains along the Danube and the Tisza . A group of Alans , the ancestors of the Jassic people , seems to have settled in the kingdom around the same time. New villages appeared, consisting of timber houses built side by side in equal parcels of land. For instance,
2464-545: A prince of dubious legitimacy. Andrew became the first monarch to take an oath respecting the liberties of the Church and the nobility before his coronation. He regularly convoked the prelates, the lords, and the noblemen's representatives to assemblies known as Diets , which started to develop into a legislative body. By 1300, when the kingdom had disintegrated into autonomous provinces ruled by powerful noblemen (including Matthew Csák , Ladislaus Kán , and Amadeus Aba ),
2618-659: A process called T-glottalisation . National media, being based in London, have seen the glottal stop spreading more widely than it once was in word endings, not being heard as "no [ʔ] " and bottle of water being heard as "bo [ʔ] le of wa [ʔ] er". It is still stigmatised when used at the beginning and central positions, such as later , while often has all but regained /t/ . Other consonants subject to this usage in Cockney English are p , as in pa [ʔ] er and k as in ba [ʔ] er. In most areas of England and Wales, outside
2772-475: A provisional crown, but most lords and bishops refused to yield to him because they regarded him as a symbol of the Holy See's attempts to control Hungary. They elected as king the twelve-year-old Wenceslaus of Bohemia , who was descended from Béla IV of Hungary in the female line. The young king could not consolidate his position because many lords, especially those who held domains in the southern region of
2926-520: A regional accent or dialect. However, about 2% of Britons speak with an accent called Received Pronunciation (also called "the King's English", "Oxford English" and " BBC English" ), that is essentially region-less. It derives from a mixture of the Midlands and Southern dialects spoken in London in the early modern period. It is frequently used as a model for teaching English to foreign learners. In
3080-675: A rich Art Nouveau architectural heritage and is a member of the Réseau Art Nouveau Network and the Art Nouveau European Route. The Romanian name Oradea originates from the city's Hungarian name. In Hungarian, it is called Nagyvárad , or colloquially Várad , the latter being the origin of the Romanian name. " Nagy " means great or large in Hungarian, and it helped to differentiate
3234-537: A tolerant attitude towards Christians, Jews, and Muslims. Muslim, Jewish, and Hungarian merchants from Hungary regularly visited the fairs at Prague, exchanging gold and Byzantine gold coins for slaves, tin, and fur. To Pereyaslavets , an important emporium on the Lower Danube, the Hungarians brought horses and silver. The Byzantine Church was the first to successfully proselytize among their leaders: in 948
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#17327719305333388-598: A trade school for boys and girls, a yeshiva , a soup kitchen , etc. According to the Center for Jewish Art : The Oradea Jewish community was once the most active both commercially and culturally in the Austro-Hungarian Empire. In 1944, twenty-five thousand Oradean Jews were deported to concentration camps by the Nazis , thus decimating this vital community. Only three hundred Jews reside in Oradea today. In
3542-725: Is also due to London-centric influences. Examples of R-dropping are car and sugar , where the R is not pronounced. British dialects differ on the extent of diphthongisation of long vowels, with southern varieties extensively turning them into diphthongs, and with northern dialects normally preserving many of them. As a comparison, North American varieties could be said to be in-between. Long vowels /iː/ and /uː/ are usually preserved, and in several areas also /oː/ and /eː/, as in go and say (unlike other varieties of English, that change them to [oʊ] and [eɪ] respectively). Some areas go as far as not diphthongising medieval /iː/ and /uː/, that give rise to modern /aɪ/ and /aʊ/; that is, for example, in
3696-420: Is also reflected in the assemblages of the " Bijelo Brdo culture ", which emerged in the mid-10th century. Archaeological finds—a few objects with short inscriptions—indicate the use of a special runiform script in medieval Hungary. The inscriptions have not been deciphered, and the script was probably never used for administrative or legislative purposes. Although they were pagan, the Hungarians demonstrated
3850-454: Is asked of the prince through his peers, ... no opportunity of defending himself is granted the accused, but the will of the prince alone is held by all as sufficient. Otto of Freising , The Deeds of Frederick Barbarossa Béla II's son, Géza II , who ascended the throne in 1141, adopted an active foreign policy. He supported Uroš II of Serbia against Emperor Manuel I Komnenos , and launched at least six military campaigns to
4004-571: Is based on British English, but has more influence from American English , often grouped together due to their close proximity. British English, for example, is the closest English to Indian English, but Indian English has extra vocabulary and some English words are assigned different meanings. Kingdom of Hungary (1000%E2%80%931301) The high-medieval Kingdom of Hungary was a regional power in central Europe. It came into existence in Central Europe when Stephen I , Grand Prince of
4158-457: Is determined by the prevailing Western winds. Annual average temperature is 10.4 °C (50.7 °F). In July, the average is about 21 °C (70 °F), while in January, the average is −1.9 °C (28.6 °F). Rainfall is sufficient for the woods and vegetation of the zone, registering an annual average of about 781 mm (78.1 cm). Rainfall is variably distributed throughout
4312-523: Is first mentioned in 1113, under the Latin name "Varadinum" in a diploma belonging to Benedictine Zobor Abbey – Bishop Sixtus Varadiensis and Saul de Bychar are mentioned in the document – recent archaeological findings, in and around the city, provide evidence of a more or less continuous habitation since the Neolithic age. The Dacians and Celts also inhabited the region. After the conquest of Dacia
4466-795: Is included in style guides issued by various publishers including The Times newspaper, the Oxford University Press and the Cambridge University Press . The Oxford University Press guidelines were originally drafted as a single broadsheet page by Horace Henry Hart, and were at the time (1893) the first guide of their type in English; they were gradually expanded and eventually published, first as Hart's Rules , and in 2002 as part of The Oxford Manual of Style . Comparable in authority and stature to The Chicago Manual of Style for published American English ,
4620-507: Is weak and fragile", he emphasized the advantages of the arrival of foreigners, or "guests". His laws were aimed at the adoption, even by force, of a Christian way of life. He especially protected Christian marriage against polygamy and other traditional customs. Decorated belts and other items of pagan fashion also disappeared. Commoners started to wear long woolen coats, but wealthy men persisted in wearing their silk kaftans decorated with furs. If any warrior debased by lewdness abducts
4774-534: The horka , and around 952 the gyula , were baptized in Constantinople . In contrast, the grand prince Géza who ruled from the early 970s received baptism into the Latin Church . He erected fortresses and invited foreign warriors to develop a new army based on heavy cavalry . Géza also arranged the marriage of his son, Stephen , with Giselle of Bavaria , a princess from the family of
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4928-477: The marturina , the traditional in-kind tax of Slavonia, in cash. Coloman exempted those who lived on their own estates from the freemen's pennies, and allowed other freemen to redeem half of the tax through services provided. Modern scholars assume that the earliest Hungarian chronicle was composed under Coloman, but it did not survive. This "primary" chronicle is thought to have been expanded and rewritten in accordance with changing political expectations during
5082-547: The Chambers Dictionary , and the Collins Dictionary record actual usage rather than attempting to prescribe it. In addition, vocabulary and usage change with time; words are freely borrowed from other languages and other varieties of English, and neologisms are frequent. For historical reasons dating back to the rise of London in the ninth century, the form of language spoken in London and
5236-566: The 2021 census ). It covers an area of 11,556 hectares (28,560 acres), in an area of contact between the extensions of the Apuseni Mountains and the Crișana-Banat extended plain. Oradea enjoys a high standard of living and ranks among the most livable cities in the country. The city is also a strong industrial center in the region, hosting some of Romania 's largest companies. Besides its status as an economic hub, Oradea boasts
5390-566: The Balkan Peninsula and the lands east of the Carpathian Mountains , transforming their kingdom into one of the major powers of medieval Europe. Rich in uncultivated lands, silver, gold, and salt deposits, Hungary became the preferred destination of mainly German, Italian, and French colonists. These immigrants were mostly peasants who settled in villages, but some were craftsmen and merchants, who established most of
5544-638: The Battle of Debrecen , and reverted to Romanian administration in March 1945. After World War II , Hungary had to relinquish claims to it under the Treaty of Paris concluded on 10 February 1947. After the Romanian Revolution of December 1989, Oradea aimed to achieve greater prosperity along with other towns in Romania . Both culturally and economically, Oradea's prospects are inevitably tied to
5698-513: The Csák , Kőszegi , and other leading families who attempted to control the central government in the name of the young Ladislaus IV. He was declared to be of age in 1277 at an assembly of the spiritual and temporal lords and of the noblemen's and Cumans' representatives, but he could not strengthen royal authority. Ladislaus IV, whose mother, Elisabeth , was a Cuman chieftain's daughter, preferred his Cuman kin, which made him unpopular. He
5852-658: The East Midlands became standard English within the Court, and ultimately became the basis for generally accepted use in the law, government, literature and education in Britain. The standardisation of British English is thought to be from both dialect levelling and a thought of social superiority. Speaking in the Standard dialect created class distinctions; those who did not speak the standard English would be considered of
6006-522: The English language in England , or, more broadly, to the collective dialects of English throughout the British Isles taken as a single umbrella variety, for instance additionally incorporating Scottish English , Welsh English , and Northern Irish English . Tom McArthur in the Oxford Guide to World English acknowledges that British English shares "all the ambiguities and tensions [with]
6160-592: The Holy Roman emperors to expand their authority over Hungary , jeopardized the new monarchy. The monarchy stabilized during the reigns of Ladislaus I (1077–1095) and Coloman (1095–1116). These rulers occupied Croatia and Dalmatia with the support of a part of the local population. Both realms retained their autonomous position. The successors of Ladislaus and Coloman—especially Béla II (1131–1141), Béla III (1176–1196), Andrew II (1205–1235), and Béla IV (1235–1270)—continued this policy of expansion towards
6314-568: The Romans established a presence in the area, most notably in the Salca district of the city and modern day Băile Felix . According to the Gesta Hungarorum , a Hungarian chronicle written after 1150 by an unidentified author, referred to as Anonymus , the region was ruled by Menumorut at the end of the 9th and beginning of the 10th centuries, until the Hungarian land-taking. Its citadel
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6468-493: The Royal Spanish Academy with Spanish. Standard British English differs notably in certain vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation features from standard American English and certain other standard English varieties around the world. British and American spelling also differ in minor ways. The accent, or pronunciation system, of standard British English, based in southeastern England, has been known for over
6622-490: The Scots language or Scottish Gaelic ). Each group includes a range of dialects, some markedly different from others. The various British dialects also differ in the words that they have borrowed from other languages. Around the middle of the 15th century, there were points where within the 5 major dialects there were almost 500 ways to spell the word though . Following its last major survey of English Dialects (1949–1950),
6776-573: The University of Leeds has started work on a new project. In May 2007 the Arts and Humanities Research Council awarded a grant to Leeds to study British regional dialects. The team are sifting through a large collection of examples of regional slang words and phrases turned up by the "Voices project" run by the BBC , in which they invited the public to send in examples of English still spoken throughout
6930-610: The West Country and other near-by counties of the UK, the consonant R is not pronounced if not followed by a vowel, lengthening the preceding vowel instead. This phenomenon is known as non-rhoticity . In these same areas, a tendency exists to insert an R between a word ending in a vowel and a next word beginning with a vowel. This is called the intrusive R . It could be understood as a merger, in that words that once ended in an R and words that did not are no longer treated differently. This
7084-506: The ecclesiastic nobles , Romanian knezes , and other " conditional nobles ") owed services to their lords in exchange for the lands they held. In a growing number of counties, local nobility acquired the right to elect four "judges of the nobles" to represent them in official procedures (or two, in Transylvania and Slavonia). The idea of equating the Hungarian "nation" with the community of noblemen also emerged in this period. It
7238-623: The occupation of Hungary by Nazi Germany , Hungarian authorities forced the Jewish inhabitants into the Oradea ghetto before sending them to the Auschwitz concentration camp . Descendants of the pre- Holocaust Hasidic rabbinate in Oradea established a synagogue in the Willowbrook area of Staten Island , New York City. The synagogue maintains both a traditional hasidic Nusach Sefard and
7392-557: The 1150s. Aspects of 12th-century French culture could also be detected in Béla's kingdom. His palace at Esztergom was built in the early Gothic style . Achilles and other names known from the Legend of Troy and the Romance of Alexander (two emblematic works of chivalric culture) were also popular among Hungarian aristocrats. According to the consensual scholarly view, "Master P",
7546-449: The 12th century. All scholarly attempts to reconstruct the original text based on chronicles from the 14th and 15th centuries have proved futile. The kingdom was sparsely populated, with an average population density of four or five people per 1 square kilometre (0.39 sq mi). The Olaszi ("Italians") streets or districts in Eger , Pécs and Várad (Oradea, Romania) point at
7700-629: The 21st century. RP, while long established as the standard English accent around the globe due to the spread of the British Empire , is distinct from the standard English pronunciation in some parts of the world; most prominently, RP notably contrasts with standard North American accents. In the 21st century, dictionaries like the Oxford English Dictionary , the Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English ,
7854-566: The Carpathian Basin at the turn of the 9th and 10th centuries. Here they found a predominantly Slavic-speaking population. From their new homeland, they launched plundering raids against East Francia , Italy , and other regions of Europe. Their raids were halted by the future Holy Roman Emperor Otto I , who defeated them at the Battle of Lechfeld in 955. Hungarians lived in patrilineal families, which were organized into clans that formed tribes . The tribal confederation
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#17327719305338008-519: The Croatian lord, Paul I Šubić of Bribir , dared to invite the late Charles Martel's son, the twelve-year-old Charles Robert , to Hungary. The young pretender was marching from Croatia towards Buda when Andrew III unexpectedly died on January 14, 1301. With Andrew III's death, the male line of the House of Árpád became extinct, and a period of anarchy began. Charles Robert was crowned king with
8162-836: The English Language (1755) was a large step in the English-language spelling reform , where the purification of language focused on standardising both speech and spelling. By the early 20th century, British authors had produced numerous books intended as guides to English grammar and usage, a few of which achieved sufficient acclaim to have remained in print for long periods and to have been reissued in new editions after some decades. These include, most notably of all, Fowler's Modern English Usage and The Complete Plain Words by Sir Ernest Gowers . Detailed guidance on many aspects of writing British English for publication
8316-666: The Germanic schwein ) is the animal in the field bred by the occupied Anglo-Saxons and pork (like the French porc ) is the animal at the table eaten by the occupying Normans. Another example is the Anglo-Saxon cu meaning cow, and the French bœuf meaning beef. Cohabitation with the Scandinavians resulted in a significant grammatical simplification and lexical enrichment of the Anglo-Frisian core of English;
8470-472: The Great Khan Ögödei in March 1242. Nevertheless, the invasion and the famine that followed it had catastrophic demographic consequences. At least 15 percent of the population died or disappeared. Transcontinental trading routes disintegrated, causing the decline of Bács (Bač, Serbia), Ungvár (Uzhhorod, Ukraine ) and other traditional centers of commerce. Local Muslim communities vanished, indicating they had suffered especially heavy losses during
8624-403: The Habsburgs' reconstruction, in the 18th century, Oradea entered its golden age. The Viennese engineer Franz Anton Hillebrandt was given the task of planning the city in the Baroque style and, starting with the year 1752, many of the city's current landmarks were constructed such as the Roman Catholic Cathedral , the Moon Church , the State Theatre, and the Baroque Palace . The city played
8778-419: The Holy Roman emperors . When Géza died in 997, his son had to fight for his succession with Koppány , the eldest member of the House of Árpád . Assisted by German heavy cavalry, Stephen emerged the victor in the decisive battle of the conflict in 998. He applied for a royal crown to Pope Sylvester II ( r. 999–1003 ), who granted his request with the consent of Emperor Otto III . Stephen
8932-538: The Hungarian army was indeed on a par with the armies of the Byzantine and Holy Roman emperors. While crossing Hungary during the Second Crusade , Otto of Freising noticed Géza's nearly uncontrolled authority over his subjects. Géza promoted the colonization of the border zones. Flemish , German, Italian, and Walloon "guests" arrived in great numbers and settled in the Szepesség region (Spiš, Slovakia) and in southern Transylvania. Abu Hamid refers to mountains that "contain lots of silver and gold", which points at
9086-421: The Hungarians , was crowned king in 1000 or 1001. He reinforced central authority and forced his subjects to accept Christianity . Although all written sources emphasize only the role played by German and Italian knights and clerics in the process, a significant part of the Hungarian vocabulary for agriculture, religion was taken from Slavic languages . Civil wars and pagan uprisings, along with attempts by
9240-422: The Kievan Rus' against the enemies of his brother-in-law Iziaslav II of Kiev . He even recruited Muslim warriors in the Pontic steppes to serve in his army. Abu Hamid al-Gharnati , a Muslim traveler from Al-Andalus who lived in Hungary from 1150 to 1153 stated that Géza was "many times more powerful than that of the Byzantine ruler" as his troops were "innumerable". He overestimated Géza's military power but
9394-507: The Mongol threat by Friar Julian , a Dominican friar who had visited a Hungarian-speaking population in Magna Hungaria , in 1235. In the next years, the Mongols routed the Cumans who dominated the western parts of the Eurasian steppes . A Cuman chieftain, Kuthen , agreed to accept Béla IV's supremacy; thus he and his people were allowed to settle in the Great Hungarian Plain . The Cumans' nomadic lifestyle caused many conflicts with local communities. The locals even considered them as
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#17327719305339548-409: The Mongols' allies. Batu Khan , who was the commander of the Mongol armies invading Eastern Europe , demanded Béla IV's surrender without a fight in 1240. The king refused, and ordered his barons to assemble with their retinue in his camp at Pest . Here, a riot broke out against the Cumans and the mob massacred the Cuman leader, Kuthen. The Cumans soon departed and pillaged the central parts of
9702-449: The Observatory of Varadinum, establishing the city's observatory as the Earth's point of reference and prime meridian. In 1474, the city was besieged by the Turks , who took advantage of the absence of Matthias Corvinus from the country. The city was severely damaged, but the king later repopulated it with inhabitants from other parts of Hungary whom he exempted from taxes, a policy reinforced by Ferdinand I in 1553. The Peace of Várad
9856-621: The Oxford Manual is a fairly exhaustive standard for published British English that writers can turn to in the absence of specific guidance from their publishing house. British English is the basis of, and very similar to, Commonwealth English . Commonwealth English is English as spoken and written in the Commonwealth countries , though often with some local variation. This includes English spoken in Australia , Malta , New Zealand , Nigeria , and South Africa . It also includes South Asian English used in South Asia, in English varieties in Southeast Asia , and in parts of Africa. Canadian English
10010-599: The South East, there are significantly different accents; the Cockney accent spoken by some East Londoners is strikingly different from Received Pronunciation (RP). Cockney rhyming slang can be (and was initially intended to be) difficult for outsiders to understand, although the extent of its use is often somewhat exaggerated. Londoners speak with a mixture of accents, depending on ethnicity, neighbourhood, class, age, upbringing, and sundry other factors. Estuary English has been gaining prominence in recent decades: it has some features of RP and some of Cockney. Immigrants to
10164-463: The UK in recent decades have brought many more languages to the country and particularly to London. Surveys started in 1979 by the Inner London Education Authority discovered over 125 languages being spoken domestically by the families of the inner city's schoolchildren. Notably Multicultural London English , a sociolect that emerged in the late 20th century spoken mainly by young, working-class people in multicultural parts of London . Since
10318-458: The United Kingdom , as well as within the countries themselves. The major divisions are normally classified as English English (or English as spoken in England (which is itself broadly grouped into Southern English , West Country , East and West Midlands English and Northern English ), Northern Irish English (in Northern Ireland), Welsh English (not to be confused with the Welsh language ), and Scottish English (not to be confused with
10472-419: The Walloon "guests" in Székesfehérvár , including immunity from the jurisdiction of the local ispán . When Stephen died childless in 1172, his brother, Béla III , ascended the throne. He reconquered Dalmatia and the Szerémség in the 1180s. A contemporary list shows that Béla's total income was the equivalent of 32 tonnes of silver per year, but this number is clearly exaggerated. According to
10626-402: The West Scottish accent. Phonological features characteristic of British English revolve around the pronunciation of the letter R, as well as the dental plosive T and some diphthongs specific to this dialect. Once regarded as a Cockney feature, in a number of forms of spoken British English, /t/ has become commonly realised as a glottal stop [ʔ] when it is in the intervocalic position, in
10780-410: The adjective little is predominant elsewhere. Nevertheless, there is a meaningful degree of uniformity in written English within the United Kingdom, and this could be described by the term British English . The forms of spoken English, however, vary considerably more than in most other areas of the world where English is spoken and so a uniform concept of British English is more difficult to apply to
10934-408: The armies of the Fourth Crusade took Zadar in 1202. Emeric was succeeded in 1204 by his infant son, Ladislaus III . When the young king died in a year, his uncle, Andrew, mounted the throne. Stating that "the best measure of a royal grant is its being immeasurable", he distributed large parcels of royal lands among his partisans. Freemen living in former royal lands lost their direct contact to
11088-408: The author of the Gesta Hungarorum , a chronicle on the Hungarian "land-taking", was Béla's notary. The earliest text written in Hungarian, known as Funeral Sermon and Prayer , was preserved in the late 12th-century Pray Codex . Béla III's son and successor, Emeric , had to face revolts stirred up by his younger brother, Andrew . Furthermore, incited by Enrico Dandolo , Doge of Venice ,
11242-488: The award of the grant in 2007, Leeds University stated: that they were "very pleased"—and indeed, "well chuffed"—at receiving their generous grant. He could, of course, have been "bostin" if he had come from the Black Country , or if he was a Scouser he would have been well "made up" over so many spondoolicks, because as a Geordie might say, £460,000 is a "canny load of chink". Most people in Britain speak with
11396-439: The borders, but they were moved to the easternmost regions of Transylvania in the 12th century. Stephen II died childless in 1131. His cousin, Duke Álmos' blind son Béla II, succeeded him. During his reign, the kingdom was administered by his wife, Helena of Serbia , who ordered the massacre of the lords whom she blamed for her husband's mutilation. Boris Kalamanos , an alleged son of King Coloman who attempted to seize
11550-472: The center of the city, on the river bank and towering over other buildings in the area, is the large Neolog Temple Synagogue built in 1878. The unusual cube-shaped synagogue with its large cupola is one of the largest in Romania. Inside there is a large organ and stucco decorations. In 1891, the Orthodox community also built a complex of buildings including two synagogues and a community center. In 1944, during
11704-457: The cities of the Kingdom. Their arrival played a key role in the shaping of an urban lifestyle, habits, and culture in medieval Hungary. The location of the kingdom at the crossroads of international trade routes favored the coexistence of several cultures. Romanesque , Gothic , and Renaissance buildings and literary works written in Latin prove the predominantly Roman Catholic character of
11858-566: The city as the capital of the newly formed Eyalet of Varat . The eyalet included the sanjaks of "Varat" (Oradea), Salanta , Debreçin , Halmaş , Sengevi , and Yapışmaz . The siege is described in detail by János Szalárdi in his contemporary chronicle. Ottoman dominance of the city ended in 1692, when, the Habsburg imperial forces conquered the city after a 14-month siege. The city had been severely damaged by war, with only 114 houses left, of which only 21 had not been damaged. However, under
12012-460: The city, and even then, they were required to return at nightfall to their own quarter. In 1835, permission was granted to live in any part of the city. The Jewish community of Oradea became divided into Orthodox and Neolog congregations . While the members of the Neolog congregation still retained their membership in the chevra kadisha , they started to use a cemetery of their own in 1899. In
12166-408: The corpses, they left the place empty. People hiding in the nearby forests came back to find some food. And while they were searching among the stones and the corpses, the [Mongols] suddenly returned and of those living whom they found there, none was left alive. Master Roger , Epistle The kingdom continued to exist. Batu Khan withdrew his entire army when he was informed of the death of
12320-622: The country. The BBC Voices project also collected hundreds of news articles about how the British speak English from swearing through to items on language schools. This information will also be collated and analysed by Johnson's team both for content and for where it was reported. "Perhaps the most remarkable finding in the Voices study is that the English language is as diverse as ever, despite our increased mobility and constant exposure to other accents and dialects through TV and radio". When discussing
12474-423: The culture; but Orthodox , and even non-Christian ethnic minority communities also existed. Latin was the language of legislation, administration and the judiciary, but "linguistic pluralism" contributed to the survival of many tongues, including a great variety of Slavic dialects. The predominance of royal estates initially assured the sovereign's preeminent position, but the alienation of royal lands gave rise to
12628-607: The development of the new domains emerging in former royal lands. The new landholders granted personal freedom and more favorable financial conditions to those who arrived in their estates, which also enabled the peasants who decided not to move to improve their position. Béla IV granted privileges to more than a dozen towns, including Nagyszombat (Trnava, Slovakia) and Pest . A 1264 list of luxury goods—oriental velvet, silk, jewels, gems, and Flemish broadcloth —sold to Béla IV's heir Stephen indicates that imported goods were primarily paid for using silver and salt. Likewise,
12782-401: The early 1080s. Ladislaus promulgated laws that prescribed draconian punishments against criminals. His laws also regulated the payment of customs duties, of tolls payable at fairs and fords, and of the tithes . He forbade Jews from holding Christian serfs, and introduced laws aiming at the conversion of local Muslims, who were known as Böszörménys . No one shall buy or sell except in
12936-465: The early 20th century, the Jews of Oradea had won prominence in the public life of the city. There were Jewish manufacturers, merchants, lawyers, physicians, and farmers; the chief of police (1902) was a Jew; and in the municipal council, the Jewish element was proportionately represented. The community possessed, in addition to the hospital and chevra kadisha , a Jewish women's association, a grammar school,
13090-601: The emergence of a self-conscious group of lesser landholders, known as " royal servants ". They forced Andrew II to issue his Golden Bull of 1222 , "one of the first examples of constitutional limits being placed on the powers of a European monarch" ( Francis Fukuyama ). The kingdom received a major blow from the Mongol invasion of 1241–42 . Thereafter, Cuman and Jassic groups settled in the central lowlands, and colonists arrived from Moravia , Poland , and other nearby countries. The erection of fortresses by landlords, promoted by
13244-511: The employment of Muslims and Jews in royal administration. This ban was confirmed when Andrew II, urged by the prelates, issued the Golden Bull's new variant in 1231, which authorized the archbishop of Esztergom to excommunicate him in case of his departure from its provisions. For non-Christians who continued to be employed in the royal household, Archbishop Robert of Esztergom placed the kingdom under interdict in 1232. Andrew II
13398-437: The figures recorded at the previous censuses. Ethnic composition of Oradea (2021) Religious composition of Oradea (2021) The chevra kadisha ("holy society") was founded in 1735, the first synagogue in 1803, and the first communal school in 1839. Not until the beginning of the 19th century were Jews permitted to do business in any other part of
13552-402: The general aspirations of Romanian society to achieve freedom, democracy, and a free market economy . Due to its specific character, Oradea is one of the most important economic and cultural centers of Western Romania and of the country in general, and it is one of the great academic centers, with a unique bilingual dynamic. At the 2021 census Oradea had a population of 183,105, a decrease from
13706-463: The hermits Benedict and Andrew Zorard —the earliest Hungarian hagiography —around this time. The young king and his cousins cooperated for almost a decade; for instance, they jointly defeated the Pechenegs plundering Transylvania in 1068. The power conflict in the royal family caused a new civil war in 1071. It lasted up to Solomon's abdication in favor of one of his cousins, Ladislaus , in
13860-585: The historical Italian name of Gran Varadino . Some archaic Romanian names of the city are Oradia , Oradea Mare ("Great Oradea"), Varadia Mare ("Great Varadia") and Urbea Mare ("the Grand City"). The city lies at the meeting point of the Crișana plain and the Crișul Repede 's basin. It is situated 126 metres (413 feet) above sea level, surrounded on the north-eastern part by the hills of Oradea, part of
14014-522: The idea of two different morphemes, one that causes the double negation, and one that is used for the point or the verb. Standard English in the United Kingdom, as in other English-speaking nations, is widely enforced in schools and by social norms for formal contexts but not by any singular authority; for instance, there is no institution equivalent to the Académie française with French or
14168-479: The importance of mining and gold panning already around 1150. He also writes of slave trading, mentioning that he bought an attractive slave girl for ten denars, but beautiful slave women were sold for three denars after military campaigns. Archaeological evidence indicates that the large asymmetric heavy plows, capable to turn the soil over, first appeared when the new settlers arrived. As the heavy plows spread, long narrow fields, more suitable to their use, replaced
14322-654: The invasion. Small villages also disappeared, but archaeological data indicate that the total destruction of settlements was less often than it used to be assumed. The abandonment of most villages, well-documented from the second half of the 13th century, was the consequence of a decades-long integration process with peasants moving from the small villages to larger settlements. After the Mongol withdrawal, Béla IV abandoned his policy of recovering former crown lands. Instead, he granted large estates to his supporters, and urged them to construct stone-and-mortar castles. He initiated
14476-597: The kingdom's borders. A wide zone known as gyepü was intentionally left uninhabited for defensive purposes along the frontiers. Stephen developed a state similar to the monarchies of contemporary Western Europe . Counties , the basic units of administration, were districts organized around fortresses and headed by royal officials known as ispáns , or counts. Most of the early medieval fortresses were made of earth and timber. Stephen founded dioceses and at least one archbishopric , and established Benedictine monasteries. He prescribed that every tenth village
14630-415: The kingdom's southern frontiers. Conflicts between the elderly monarch and his heir caused a civil war in the 1260s . Béla IV and his son jointly confirmed the liberties of the royal servants and started referring to them as noblemen in 1267. By that time, "true noblemen" were legally differentiated from other landholders. They held their estates free from any obligation, but everybody else (even
14784-597: The kingdom, continued to support Charles Robert. Wenceslaus left Hungary for Bohemia in mid-1304. After he inherited Bohemia in 1305, he abandoned his claim to Hungary in favor of Otto III, Duke of Bavaria . Otto, who was a grandson of Béla IV of Hungary, was crowned king, but only the Kőszegis and the Transylvanian Saxons regarded him as the lawful monarch. He was captured in Transylvania by Ladislaus Kán, who forced him to leave Hungary. The majority of
14938-671: The kingdom. The main Mongol army arrived through the northeastern passes of the Carpathian Mountains in March 1241. Royal troops met the enemy forces at the river Sajó , where the Mongols won a decisive victory in the battle of Mohi on April 11, 1241. From the battlefield, Béla IV fled first to Austria , where Duke Frederick II held him for ransom. Thereafter, the king and his family found refuge in Klis Fortress in Dalmatia. The Mongols first occupied and thoroughly plundered
15092-523: The last southern Midlands accent to use the broad "a" in words like bath or grass (i.e. barth or grarss ). Conversely crass or plastic use a slender "a". A few miles northwest in Leicestershire the slender "a" becomes more widespread generally. In the town of Corby , five miles (8 km) north, one can find Corbyite which, unlike the Kettering accent, is largely influenced by
15246-518: The later Norman occupation led to the grafting onto that Germanic core of a more elaborate layer of words from the Romance branch of the European languages. This Norman influence entered English largely through the courts and government. Thus, English developed into a "borrowing" language of great flexibility and with a huge vocabulary . Dialects and accents vary amongst the four countries of
15400-455: The legal capacity to own property, to sue, and to be sued. Most of them were bound to the monarch or to a wealthier landlord, and only "guests" could freely move. Among freemen living in lands attached to a fortress, the castle warriors served in the army, and the castle folk cultivated the lands, forged weapons, or rendered other services. All freemen were to pay a special tax, the freemen's pennies —eight denars per person per year—to
15554-438: The list, more than 50 percent of his revenues derived from the annual renewal of the silver currency, and from trade-related duties. Austrian custom tariffs of the period indicate that Hungary was a major supplier of grain, leather, timber, wine, wax, honey, fish, cattle, sheep, pigs, copper, tin, lead, iron, and salt. Royal revenues were due either to the royal chamber or to the king as landowner. The distinction between them
15708-663: The local clergy with liturgical books, and the kings regularly donated codices to monasteries. The earliest extant literary works were composed in Latin during Stephen's reign. Bishop Gerard of Csanád , who had come from Venice, completed a Latin commentary on a chapter in the Book of Daniel in Hungary. Stephen's views on state administration were summarized around 1015 in a mirror for princes known as Admonitions . Stating that "the country that has only one language and one custom
15862-587: The lords and prelates elected Charles Robert king at a Diet on October 10, 1307. He was crowned king with the Holy Crown of Hungary in Székesfehérvár by the Archbishop of Esztergom, as required by customary law, on August 27, 1310. During the next decade, he launched a series of military campaigns against the oligarchs to restore royal authority. Charles Robert reunited the kingdom after
16016-496: The lowlands, but a native claimant, Petar Snačić , resisted in the Petrova Mounts . Nevertheless, Croatia and Hungary remained closely connected for more than nine centuries. Ladislaus I appointed his nephew, Álmos , to administer Croatia. Although a younger son, Álmos was also favored by the king against his brother, Coloman , for the succession. Even so, Coloman succeeded his uncle in 1095, while Álmos received
16170-404: The market. If, in violation of this anyone buys stolen property, everyone shall perish: the buyer, the seller, and the witnesses. If, however, they agreed to sell something of their own, they shall lose that thing and its price, and the witnesses shall lose as much too. But if the deal was made in the market, and agreement shall be concluded in front of a judge, a toll-gatherer, and witnesses, and if
16324-457: The mass internal migration to Northamptonshire in the 1940s and given its position between several major accent regions, it has become a source of various accent developments. In Northampton the older accent has been influenced by overspill Londoners. There is an accent known locally as the Kettering accent, which is a transitional accent between the East Midlands and East Anglian . It is
16478-463: The modern period, but due to their remoteness from the Germanic languages , influence on English was notably limited . However, the degree of influence remains debated, and it has recently been argued that its grammatical influence accounts for the substantial innovations noted between English and the other West Germanic languages. Initially, Old English was a diverse group of dialects, reflecting
16632-441: The monarchs after the withdrawal of the Mongols , led to the development of semi-autonomous "provinces" dominated by powerful magnates . Some of these magnates even challenged the authority of Andrew III (1290–1301), the last male descendant of the native Árpád dynasty . His death was followed by a period of interregnum and anarchy. Central power was re-established only in the early 1320s. The Magyars, or Hungarians , conquered
16786-507: The monarchs. Peasants known as udvornici were exempt from this tax, being somewhat transitory between the status of freemen and of serf. Serfs theoretically lacked the legal status available to freemen, but in practice they had their own property: they cultivated their masters' land with their own tools, and kept 50–66 percent of the harvest for themselves. Stephen's laws and charters suggest that most commoners lived in sedentary communities which formed villages. An average village
16940-451: The monarchs. Zadar , Split , and other Dalmatian towns also accepted Coloman's suzerainty in 1105, but their right to elect their own bishops and leaders remained unchanged. In Croatia and Slavonia, the sovereign was represented by governors bearing the title ban . Likewise, a royal official, the voivode , administered Transylvania , the eastern borderland of the kingdom. The central administration's highest offices developed from
17094-599: The newly formed Principality of Transylvania, a successor state of the Eastern Hungarian Kingdom. The Ottomans laid siege to the city in 1598, however the siege failed. After the Treaty of Vienna (1606) , the city was permanently incorporated in the Principality of Transylvania by imperial decree. As a result of Gyorgy Rakoczi II 's, at the time the Prince of Transylvania , failed attempt to gain
17248-436: The obligatory use of written petitions. Landowners also started to put their transactions into writing, which led to the appearance of the so-called " places of authentication ", such as cathedral chapters and monasteries authorized to issue deeds . Their emergence also evidences the employment of an educated staff. Indeed, students from the kingdom studied at the universities of Paris , Oxford , Bologna , and Padua from
17402-421: The pagans in 1046. His cooperation with his brother, Béla , a talented military commander, ensured the Hungarians' victory over Emperor Henry III, who attempted to conquer the kingdom two times: in 1050 and 1053. A new civil war broke out when Duke Béla claimed the crown for himself in 1059, but his three sons accepted the rule of Solomon , Andrew I's son, in 1063. Bishop Maurus of Pécs wrote his Life of
17556-462: The peasants' daily diet. Monasteries introduced the systematic growing of fruit trees. In their orchards, the trees were planted in holes dug at regular intervals. Even peasants were allowed to hunt and fish in the royal forests that covered large territories in the kingdom. Animal husbandry remained an important sector of agriculture, and millet and oats were produced for fodder. Both written sources and archaeological evidence indicate that famine
17710-478: The presence of "guests" speaking a Western Romance language , while the Németi ("Germans") and Szászi ("Saxons") place names imply German-speaking colonists throughout the entire kingdom. Most subjects of the early medieval Hungarian monarchs were peasants. They only cultivated the most fertile lands, and moved further out when the lands became exhausted. Wheat was the most widely produced crop, but barley ,
17864-466: The present Roman Catholic Diocese of Oradea . The Regestrum Varadinense is a record of the trials that took place between 1208 and 1235 containing 711 place names and 2500 personal names. The city flourished both economically and culturally during the 13th century as part of the Kingdom of Hungary . It was at this time that the Citadel of Oradea, first mentioned in 1241 during the Mongol invasion ,
18018-406: The purchased goods later appear to be stolen, the buyer shall escape penalty ... Ladislaus II:7, 1077–1095 The death of Ladislaus's brother-in-law King Zvonimir of Croatia , in 1089 or 1090, created an opportunity for him to claim Croatia for himself. Ladislaus's sister, Helena , and several noblemen (mainly from northern Croatia) supported his claim. Ladislaus's troops occupied
18172-513: The raw material for home brew, was also grown. Winegrowing flourished and vineyards existed in virtually all settlements with the exception of the highlands. The highest-ranking wines were produced in the Szerémség region (now Srem in Serbia), but the wines of Buda Hills , Hegyalja , Sopron , and Pressburg (Bratislava, Slovakia) were also popular. Fresh or dried fruits were common elements of
18326-583: The royal household's leading positions. Initially responsible for the management of the royal domains, the palatine emerged as the king's deputy by the early 12th century. His managerial tasks were transferred to a new official who quickly gained the functions of a chief justiciar as judge royal . Like Ladislaus I, Coloman proved to be a great legislator, but he prescribed less severe punishments than his uncle had done. He ordered that transactions between Christians and Jews were to be put into writing. He prohibited them to hold Christian slaves and introduced
18480-402: The same ordinance, its name was changed from Oradea Mare ("Great" Oradea) to simply Oradea. The Second Vienna Award brokered by Hitler and Mussolini in 1940 allowed Hungary to recover Northern Transylvania , including Oradea, and mass of celebrations welcomed the Hungarian administration. On 12 October 1944, Oradea was captured by Soviet troops of the 2nd Ukrainian Front in the course of
18634-480: The scarcely-inhabited forests of the Western Carpathians (in present-day Slovakia) developed a network of settlements under Béla IV. Huts disappeared, and new rural houses consisting of a living room, a kitchen and a pantry were built. The most advanced agricultural techniques, including asymmetric heavy ploughs, also spread throughout the kingdom. Internal migration was likewise instrumental in
18788-447: The secular and spiritual lords to "resist and speak against" the sovereign "without the charge of high treason ". Around this time, the structure of charters of grant underwent a significant change with the introduction of a narrative section about the beneficiaries' heroic acts in the king's service. These lengthy accounts contain more information about Hungary's 13th-century history than the chronicles. The Golden Bull also prohibited
18942-425: The sovereign, which threatened their legal status. Royal revenues decreased, which led to the introduction of new taxes and their farming out to Muslims and Jews. The new methods of raising funds for the royal treasury created widespread unrest. Andrew II was strongly influenced by his wife, Gertrude of Merania . She openly expressed her preference for her German compatriots, which led to her assassination by
19096-461: The spoken language. Globally, countries that are former British colonies or members of the Commonwealth tend to follow British English, as is the case for English used by European Union institutions. In China, both British English and American English are taught. The UK government actively teaches and promotes English around the world and operates in over 200 countries . English is
19250-484: The territories east of the river Danube. An eyewitness account of the devastation of eastern Hungary was compiled by Master Roger , archdeacon of the cathedral chapter at Várad. The Mongols crossed the Danube when it was frozen in early 1242. On learning of their acts, Hermann, abbot of the Austrian Niederaltaich Abbey recorded that "the Kingdom of Hungary, which had existed for 350 years,
19404-603: The theft of work tools worth £500 from a van at the Sprucefield park and ride car park in Lisburn. A football team can be treated likewise: Arsenal have lost just one of 20 home Premier League matches against Manchester City. This tendency can be observed in texts produced already in the 19th century. For example, Jane Austen , a British author, writes in Chapter 4 of Pride and Prejudice , published in 1813: All
19558-419: The throne from Béla II, received no internal support. If anyone of the rank of count has even in a trivial matter offended against the king or, as sometimes happens, has been unjustly accused of this, an emissary from the court, though he be of very lowly station and unattended, seizes him in the midst of his retinue, puts him in chains, and drags him off to various forms of punishment. No formal sentence
19712-461: The throne of Poland the Ottomans sent yet another punitive expedition against him and his Wallachian and Moldavian allies, Gheorghe Ștefan and Constantin Șerban . In 1660 the Ottomans, with a force of 45,000 men, besieged the city for the last time. The 850 defenders managed to hold out for 46 days, but eventually the city fell on 27 August due to internal treachery. The Ottomans designated
19866-524: The town from Kisvárda , a town in Hungary , with " kis " meaning little . " Vár " means castle or citadel , and " -ad " is a suffix used for settlement names. The city also has a German name, Großwardein , as well as a Yiddish one derived from it, גרױסװאַרדײן Groysvardeyn . In Turkish , the city was historically known as Varat or Varad . Other names include Latin Varadinum as well as
20020-403: The traditional accent of Newcastle upon Tyne , 'out' will sound as 'oot', and in parts of Scotland and North-West England, 'my' will be pronounced as 'me'. Long vowels /iː/ and /uː/ are diphthongised to [ɪi] and [ʊu] respectively (or, more technically, [ʏʉ], with a raised tongue), so that ee and oo in feed and food are pronounced with a movement. The diphthong [oʊ] is also pronounced with
20174-562: The traditional small square fields in the villages. Géza was succeeded in 1162 by his eldest son, Stephen III . His uncles, Ladislaus II and Stephen IV , claimed the crown for themselves. Emperor Manuel I Komnenos took advantage of the internal conflicts and forced the young king to cede Dalmatia and the Szerémség to the Byzantines in 1165. Stephen III set an example for the development of towns by granting liberties to
20328-750: The varied origins of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms of England. One of these dialects, Late West Saxon , eventually came to dominate. The original Old English was then influenced by two waves of invasion: the first was by speakers of the Scandinavian branch of the Germanic family, who settled in parts of Britain in the eighth and ninth centuries; the second was the Normans in the 11th century, who spoke Old Norman and ultimately developed an English variety of this called Anglo-Norman . These two invasions caused English to become "mixed" to some degree (though it
20482-456: The western part of Romania. The city is located in the north-west of the country. It's nestled between hills on the Crișana plain and situated on the banks of the river Crișul Repede . The Crișul Repede divides the city into almost equal halves. Oradea is located about 10 km (6.2 mi) from Borș , one of the most important crossing points on Romania's border with Hungary . Oradea ranks ninth among most populated Romanian cities (as of
20636-402: The word 'British' and as a result can be used and interpreted in two ways, more broadly or more narrowly, within a range of blurring and ambiguity". Variations exist in formal (both written and spoken) English in the United Kingdom. For example, the adjective wee is almost exclusively used in parts of Scotland, north-east England, Northern Ireland, Ireland, and occasionally Yorkshire , whereas
20790-568: The world are good and agreeable in your eyes. However, in Chapter 16, the grammatical number is used. The world is blinded by his fortune and consequence. Some dialects of British English use negative concords, also known as double negatives . Rather than changing a word or using a positive, words like nobody, not, nothing, and never would be used in the same sentence. While this does not occur in Standard English, it does occur in non-standard dialects. The double negation follows
20944-921: The year, with a maximum in June and a minimum in the late Autumn and Winter months of the year. [REDACTED] Kingdom of Hungary 1113–1526 [REDACTED] Eastern Hungarian Kingdom 1526–1570 [REDACTED] Principality of Transylvania 1570–1660 [REDACTED] Ottoman Empire 1660–1692 [REDACTED] Kingdom of Hungary 1692–1867 [REDACTED] Austria-Hungary 1867–1918 [REDACTED] Hungary 1918–1919 ( de jure Hungary until 1920 ) [REDACTED] Romania 1920–1940 ( de facto from 1919 to 1940) [REDACTED] Kingdom of Hungary 1940–1945 [REDACTED] Kingdom of Romania 1945–1947 [REDACTED] Romanian People's Republic 1947–1965 [REDACTED] Socialist Republic of Romania 1965–1989 [REDACTED] Romania 1989–present While modern Oradea
21098-586: The Șes hills. The main part of the settlement is situated on the floodplain and on the terraces situated down the river Crișul Repede. Oradea is famous for its thermal springs. The river Crișul Repede flows through the center of the city. Its flow depends on the season; the dykes near Tileagd have partly controlled it since they were built in the early 1980s. Oradea has a humid continental climate ( Köppen climate classification Dfb ) with oceanic influences. Summers are long and hot with cool nights. Winters are short and moderately cold. The city's topo-climatic action
21252-685: Was an exceptional phenomenon in medieval Hungary. Unsuccessful wars with the Republic of Venice , the Byzantine Empire, and other neighboring states characterized the reign of Coloman's son, Stephen II , who succeeded his father in 1116. The earliest mention of the Székelys —a Hungarian-speaking community of free warriors—is in connection with the young king's first war against the Duchy of Bohemia . The Székelys lived in scattered groups along
21406-415: Was centred at Biharea. Historians debate whether Menumorut was a historical ruler or a legendary character. According to Anonymus, Menumorut's duchy was populated primarily with Khazars and Székelys , and he acknowledged the suzerainty of the (unnamed) ruling Byzantine Emperor at the time. In the 11th century, St. King Ladislaus I of Hungary founded a bishopric settlement near the city of Oradea,
21560-678: Was concluded between Emperor Ferdinand I and John Zápolya here on 4 February 1538, in which they mutually recognized each other as legitimate monarchs. After the Ottoman invasion of Hungary , in the 16th century, the city became a constant point of contention between the Principality of Transylvania , the Ottoman Empire , and the Habsburg monarchy . After the 1570 Treaty of Speyer , parts of Crișana, including Oradea, became part of
21714-478: Was crowned king of Croatia after concluding an agreement with twelve local noblemen. Although most probably a forgery, the document reflects the actual status of Croatia proper, which was never incorporated into Hungary. In contrast, the region known as Slavonia , between the Petrova Mounts and the river Dráva , became closely connected to Hungary. Here many Hungarian noblemen received land grants from
21868-487: Was crowned the first king of Hungary on either December 25, 1000, or January 1, 1001. He consolidated his rule through a series of wars against semi-independent local rulers, including his maternal uncle, Gyula , and the powerful tribal chief, Ajtony . He proved his kingdom's military strength when he repelled an invasion by Conrad II, Holy Roman Emperor , in 1030. Marshlands, other natural obstacles, and barricades made of stone, earth, or timber provided defense at
22022-464: Was destroyed". [The Mongols] burnt the church [in Várad], together with the women and whatever there was in the church. In other churches they perpetrated such crimes to the women that it is better to keep silent ... Then they ruthlessly beheaded the nobles, citizens, soldiers and canons on a field outside the city. ... After they had destroyed everything, and an intolerable stench arose from
22176-491: Was even accused of initiating a second Mongol invasion in 1285, although the invaders were routed by the royal troops. When Ladislaus IV was murdered in 1290, the Holy See declared the kingdom a vacant fief . Although Rome granted the kingdom to his sister's son, Charles Martel , crown prince of the Kingdom of Naples , the majority of the Hungarian lords chose Andrew , the grandson of Andrew II and son of
22330-477: Was first built. The fortress would be destroyed and rebuilt several times over the course of the following centuries. The 14th and 15th centuries would prove to be of the most prosperous periods in the city's history up to that point. Many works of art would be added to the city, including statues of Saints Stephen, Emeric, and Ladislaus (before 1372) and the equestrian sculpture of St. King Ladislaus I (1390) were erected in Oradea. The fabled statue of St. Ladislaus
22484-508: Was first expressed in Simon of Kéza 's Gesta Hungarorum , a chronicle written in the 1280s. The wealthiest landholders forced the lesser nobles to join their retinue, which increased their power. One of the barons, Joachim of the Gutkeled clan, even captured Stephen V's heir, the infant Ladislaus , in 1272. Stephen V died some months later, causing a new civil war between
22638-481: Was forced to take an oath, which included his promise to respect the privileged position of clergymen and to dismiss all his Jewish and Muslim officials. A growing intolerance against non-Catholics is also demonstrated by the transfer of the Orthodox monastery of Visegrád to the Benedictines in 1221. Andrew II made several attempts to occupy the neighboring Principality of Halych . His son, Béla , persuaded
22792-557: Was headed by the grand prince , always a member of the family descending from Árpád , the Hungarians' leader around the time of their "land-taking". Contemporary authors described the Hungarians as nomads , but Ibn Rusta and others added that they also cultivated arable land. The great number of borrowings from Slavic languages prove that the Hungarians adopted new techniques and a more settled lifestyle in Central Europe. The cohabitation of Hungarians and local ethnic groups
22946-420: Was made up of no more than 40 semi-sunken timber huts with a corner hearth . The huts were surrounded by large courtyards. Ditches separated them, keeping the animals away and enabling the growing of grains and vegetables. Many of the villages were named after a profession, implying that the villagers were required to render a specific service to their lords. Stephen I survived his son, Emeric , which caused
23100-422: Was never a truly mixed language in the strictest sense of the word; mixed languages arise from the cohabitation of speakers of different languages, who develop a hybrid tongue for basic communication). The more idiomatic, concrete and descriptive English is, the more it is from Anglo-Saxon origins. The more intellectual and abstract English is, the more it contains Latin and French influences, e.g. swine (like
23254-522: Was of fundamental importance because the ispáns received one third of the chamber revenues collected in their counties. In-kind taxes were typically imposed on vineyards, and herds of pigs or oxen. Some privileged communities paid lump sum taxes to the royal chamber. Examples include the foreign settlers in Transylvania, who were to pay 15,000 marks per year. Béla emphasized the importance of making records on judicial proceedings, which substantiates reports in later Hungarian chronicles of his order regarding
23408-513: Was related to the royal family. Supported by Emperor Henry III , Peter returned and expelled Samuel in 1044. During his second rule, Peter accepted the emperor's suzerainty. His rule ended with a new rebellion , this time aimed at the restoration of paganism. There were many lords who opposed the destruction of the Christian monarchy. They proposed the crown to Andrew , one of Vazul's sons, who returned to Hungary, defeated Peter and suppressed
23562-670: Was the first proto-renaissance public square equestrian monument in Europe. Bishop Andreas Báthori (1329–1345) rebuilt the Cathedral in Gothic style. From that epoch dates also the Hermes, now preserved at Győr , which contains the skull of St. Ladislaus , and which is a masterpiece of the Hungarian goldsmith's art. It was at this time that astronomer Georg von Peuerbach wrote his Tabula Varadiensis , published posthumously in 1464, at (?)
23716-567: Was to build a parish church . The earliest churches were simple wood constructions, but the royal basilica at Székesfehérvár was built in Romanesque style. With the introduction of the Catholic church hierarchy, Latin emerged as the dominant language of ecclesiastic life and state administration, although some royal charters were likely written in Greek. The bishops were required to supply
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