163-506: The José Guadalupe Posada Museum is located in the Mexican city of Aguascalientes , capital of the State of Aguascalientes , and birthplace of the graphic artist José Guadalupe Posada . The museum displays the original signed printed plates with which he created his graphic images. The museum opened in 1972 and is run jointly by the state and federal governments. It is housed in what was
326-548: A constitutional monarch from Europe. When no member of a European royal house desired the position, Iturbide himself was declared Emperor Agustín I. The United States was the first country to recognize Mexico's independence, sending an ambassador to the court and sending a message to Europe via the Monroe Doctrine not to intervene in Mexico. The emperor's rule was short (1822–1823) and he was overthrown by army officers in
489-491: A major conflict with the Catholic Church and Catholic guerrilla armies when he strictly enforced anticlerical articles of the 1917 Constitution which ended with an agreement. Although the constitution prohibited the reelection of the president, Obregón wished to run again and the constitution was amended to allow non-consecutive re-election and won the 1928 elections but was assassinated by a Catholic activist, causing
652-562: A Conservative coup overthrew Arista, and brought back Santa Anna for what would end up being his final dictatorship. Juárez fell victim to the restored Santa Anna, and the authorities confined him to the fortress of San Juan de Ullua. He was eventually released and exiled to Havana, from which he then traveled to New Orleans . There he found a day job as a cigar maker in one of the city's factories, while his wife remained in Mexico with their children, and were looked after by Liberal partisans. His time as governor of Oaxaca had not left him with
815-526: A Liberal body of troops under Miguel Cruz de Aedo arrived in order to negotiate. Landa was allowed to leave Guadalajara, and the Liberal prisoners were released as well. Juárez and his cabinet now made their way to the port of Manzanillo from which they embarked for the Liberal stronghold of Veracruz by way of Panama. On 4 May 1858, Juárez arrived in Veracruz where the government of Manuel Gutiérrez Zamora
978-616: A cook. In 1818, while the Mexican War of Independence was ongoing, a twelve year old Juárez entered domestic service under the lay Franciscan and bookbinder Antonio Salanueva. The young boy showed potential at primary school, upon which Salanueva sought to sponsor Juárez to enter a seminary to study for the priesthood. Juárez entered the seminary in Spring of 1821, only a few months before Mexico won its independence in September of
1141-495: A decade of civil war, the "wind that swept Mexico." The Mexican Revolution was a decade-long transformational conflict. It began with scattered uprisings against President Díaz after the fraudulent 1910 election, his resignation in May 1911, demobilization of rebel forces, an interim presidency of a member of the old guard and the democratic election of a rich, civilian landowner, Francisco I. Madero in fall 1911. In February 1913 ,
1304-436: A decree on 6 November 1860, fixing the date of presidential and congressional elections for the following January, with the newly elected congress scheduled to meet on 19 February. After Guadalajara was captured on 20 December 1860, the Liberal armies had an unrestricted path back towards Mexico City. Liberal troops entered the capital on Christmas Day 1860 without encountering any military Conservative resistance. Juárez won
1467-407: A function of elevation. This gives Mexico one of the world's most diverse weather systems. Maritime air masses bring seasonal precipitation from May until August. Many parts of Mexico, particularly the north, have a dry climate with only sporadic rainfall, while parts of the tropical lowlands in the south average more than 2,000 mm (78.7 in) of annual precipitation. For example, many cities in
1630-645: A military coup d'état overthrew Madero's government, with the support of the U.S., resulting in Madero's murder by agents of Federal Army General Victoriano Huerta . During the Revolution, the U.S. Republican administration of Taft supported the Huerta coup against Madero, but when Democrat Woodrow Wilson was inaugurated as president in March 1913, Wilson refused to recognize Huerta's regime and allowed arms sales to
1793-458: A natural southern border between Mexico and Guatemala. The climate of Mexico is varied due to the country's size and topography. Tropic of Cancer effectively divides the country into temperate and tropical zones. Land north of the Tropic of Cancer experiences cooler temperatures during the winter months. South of the Tropic of Cancer, temperatures are fairly constant year-round and vary solely as
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#17327727996841956-530: A new Constitution of 1857 , separating Church and State, stripping the Church and the military of their special privileges ( fueros ); mandating the sale of Church-owned property and sale of indigenous community lands, and secularizing education. Conservatives revolted, touching off civil war between rival Liberal and Conservative governments (1858–1861). The Liberals defeated the Conservative army on
2119-508: A new generation of leaders. But his announcement set off a frenzy of political activity, including the unlikely candidacy of the scion of a rich landowning family, Francisco I. Madero . Madero won a surprising amount of political support when Díaz changed his mind and ran in the election, jailing Madero. The September centennial celebration of independence was the last celebration of the Porfiriato . The Mexican Revolution starting in 1910 saw
2282-747: A number of controversial measures, including his negotiation of the McLane–Ocampo Treaty , which would have granted the United States perpetual extraterritorial rights across the Isthmus of Tehuantepec ; a decree extending his presidential term for the duration of French Intervention; his proposal to revise the liberal Constitution of 1857 to strengthen the power of the federal government; and his decision to run for reelection in 1871. His opponent, liberal general, and fellow Oaxacan Porfirio Díaz opposed his re-election and rebelled against Juárez in
2445-561: A peaceful political solution, but the coalition splintered, plunging Mexico again into a civil war. Constitutionalist general Pancho Villa , commander of the Division of the North, broke with Carranza and allied with Zapata. Carranza's best general Alvaro Obregón defeated Villa, his former comrade-in-arms in the Battle of Celaya in 1915, and Villa's northern forces melted away Carranza became
2608-541: A period of unprecedented constitutional change for Mexico, and Juárez was to be a key figure throughout this era. Prior to La Reforma , and dating back to the legal system of New Spain , neither clerics nor soldiers were under the jurisdiction of the civil judiciary, and could only be tried for all offenses under their own respective, independent court systems. It was the aim of the Liberal Party to abolish all such sovereign court systems and bring all offenses under
2771-448: A plurality of around 38% and did not have a legislative majority. During the twenty-first century, Mexico has contended with high crime rates , bureaucratic corruption , narcotrafficking , and a stagnant economy. Many state-owned industrial enterprises were privatized starting in the 1990s with neoliberal reforms, but Pemex , the state-owned petroleum company is only slowly being privatized, with exploration licenses being issued. In
2934-557: A political crisis of succession. Calles could not become president again, so he sought to set up a structure to manage presidential succession, founding the Institutional Revolutionary Party , which went on to dominate Mexico for the rest of the 20th century. Despite not holding the presidency, Calles remained the key political figure during the period known as the Maximato (1929–1934), that ended during
3097-446: A priest, whom they accused of abuses. He did not win the case, and was thrown into jail along with community members, "thanks to the collusion between Church and the state," writing later that it "strengthened in me the goal of working constantly to destroy the pernicious power of the privileged classes." Juárez gained the goal of fighting for equality before the law in the face of the lingering legal privileges that remained in Mexico from
3260-402: A push against government corruption, the ex-CEO of Pemex, Emilio Lozoya Austin , was arrested in 2020. After founding the new political party MORENA , Andrés Manuel López Obrador (commonly known as AMLO) won the 2018 presidential election with over 50% of the vote. His political coalition, led by his left-wing party founded after the 2012 elections, included parties and politicians from across
3423-619: A shift towards neoliberal policies, exemplified by the signing of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) in 1994, amidst unrest in Chiapas . Mexico is a newly industrialized and developing country , with the world's 12th-largest economy by nominal GDP and 12th-largest by PPP . Mexico ranks first in the Americas and seventh in the world by the number of UNESCO World Heritage Sites . It
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#17327727996843586-466: A signatory of the Plan of Iguala that achieved independence, became president in a disputed election. During his short term in office, from April to December 1829, he abolished slavery. His Conservative vice president, former Royalist General Anastasio Bustamante , led a coup against him and Guerrero was judicially murdered . Mexico's ability to maintain its independence and establish a viable government
3749-520: A system of parallel voting that includes plurality and proportional representation . The Chamber of Deputies has 500 deputies. Of these, 300 are elected by plurality vote in single-member districts (the federal electoral districts ) and 200 are elected by proportional representation with closed party lists for which the country is divided into five electoral constituencies. The Senate comprises 128 senators: 64 (two for each state and two for Mexico City) are elected by plurality vote in pairs, 32 are
3912-627: A time of a "second struggle for independence, a second defeat for the European powers, and a second reversal of the Conquest". After his death, the city of Oaxaca added "de Juárez" to its name in his honor, and numerous other places and institutions have been named after him. He is the only individual whose birthday (21 March) is celebrated as a national public and patriotic holiday in Mexico. Many cities (most notably Ciudad Juárez ), streets, institutions, and other locations are named after him. He
4075-601: A vast fortune, and he survived off of his cigar rolling job and funds sent to him from Mexico by his wife. Juárez met other Liberal exiles in New Orleans including the anti-clerical former governor of Michoacan Melchor Ocampo , and the Cuban separatist exile, Pedro Santacicilia , who later married Juárez's oldest daughter, and served as a valuable ally during the Reform War and the second French intervention As
4238-926: Is a member of United Nations , the G20 , the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), the World Trade Organization (WTO), the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation forum, the Organization of American States , Community of Latin American and Caribbean States , and the Organization of Ibero-American States . Mēxihco is the Nahuatl term for the heartland of the Aztec Empire , namely
4401-815: Is also one of the world's 17 megadiverse countries , ranking fifth in natural biodiversity . It is a major tourist destination: as of 2022, it is the sixth most-visited country in the world , with 42.2 million international arrivals. Mexico's large economy and population, global cultural influence, and steady democratization make it a regional and middle power , increasingly identifying as an emerging power . Mexico has made significant political and socioeconomic gains in recent decades. However, as with much of Latin America , Mexico continues to struggle with poverty , systemic corruption , and extensive crime . Since 2006, an ongoing conflict between drug trafficking syndicates has led to over 127,000 deaths. Mexico
4564-700: Is among the world's most populous metropolitan areas . The country borders the United States to the north; as well as Guatemala and Belize to the southeast. It has maritime borders with the Pacific Ocean to the west, the Caribbean Sea to the southeast, and the Gulf of Mexico to the east. Human presence in Pre-Columbian Mexico dates back to 8,000 BC as one of six cradles of civilization . Mesoamerica hosted civilizations including
4727-695: Is considered one of the six independent cradles of civilization , this era saw the origin of distinct cultural traits such as religious and symbolic traditions, maize cultivation, artistic and architectural complexes as well as a vigesimal (base 20) numeric system that spread from the Mexican cultures to the rest of the Mesoamerican cultural area. In this period, villages became more dense in terms of population, becoming socially stratified with an artisan class, and developing into chiefdoms . The most powerful rulers had religious and political power, organizing
4890-539: Is considered the most popular Mexican president of the 19th century. Benito Juárez was born on 21 March 1806, in the village of San Pablo Guelatao , Oaxaca , located in the mountain range since named for him, the Sierra Juárez . It was a small settlement of about two hundred inhabitants, made up of straw huts, and a small church, the village being located at the edge of a mountain pond known for its picturesque transparent waters, and called La Laguna Encantada ,
5053-438: Is home of 10–12% of the world's biodiversity. Mexico ranks first in biodiversity in reptiles with 707 known species, second in mammals with 438 species , fourth in amphibians with 290 species, and fourth in flora, with 26,000 different species. Mexico is also considered the second country in the world in ecosystems and fourth in overall species. About 2,500 species are protected by Mexican legislation. In 2002 , Mexico had
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5216-460: Is incompatible with agriculture due to aridity, soil, or terrain. In 2018, an estimated 54.9% of land is agricultural; 11.8% is arable; 1.4% is in permanent crops; 41.7% is permanent pasture; and 33.3% is forest. Mexico is irrigated by several rivers, with the longest being the Rio Grande , which serves as a natural eastern border with the United States. The Usumacinta River in turn, serves as
5379-566: Is now referred to as the Mexican Dirty War . In the 1980s the first cracks emerged in the PRI's complete political dominance. In Baja California , the PAN candidate was elected as governor. When De la Madrid chose Carlos Salinas de Gortari as the candidate for the PRI, and therefore a foregone presidential victor, Cuauhtémoc Cárdenas , son of former President Lázaro Cárdenas , broke with
5542-586: Is responsible for executing and enforcing the law and has the power to veto bills. The highest organ of the judicial branch of government is the Supreme Court of Justice , the national supreme court , which has eleven judges appointed by the President and approved by the Senate. The Supreme Court of Justice interprets laws and judges cases of federal competency. Other institutions of the judiciary are
5705-551: Is the world's 13th largest country by total area . It has coastlines on the Pacific Ocean and Gulf of California , as well as the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean Sea , the latter two forming part of the Atlantic Ocean . Within these seas are about 6,000 km (2,317 sq mi) of islands (including the remote Pacific Guadalupe Island and the Revillagigedo Islands ). Almost all of Mexico lies in
5868-648: The Ley Lerdo , which with the aim of selling them off to stimulate economic development, had nationalized most of the Catholic Church's properties, along with the communal properties of Mexico's Indigenous communities. The new constitution which would come to be known as the Constitution of 1857 , was promulgated on 5 February 1857, with the aim of coming into effect on Mexican Independence Day, 16 September of that year. It had abandoned Roman Catholicism as
6031-459: The 2024 presidential election in a landslide and upon taking office in October became the first woman to lead the country in Mexico's history. She was sworn in as Mexico's president on 1 October 2024. Mexico is located between latitudes 14° and 33°N , and longitudes 86° and 119°W in the southern portion of North America, with a total area of 1,972,550 km (761,606 sq mi),
6194-599: The Archdiocese of Mexico in 1546, with the archbishop as the head of the ecclesiastical hierarchy. Castilian Spanish was the language of rulers. The Catholic faith was the only one permitted, with non-Catholics and Catholics (excluding Indians) holding unorthodox views being subject to the Mexican Inquisition , established in 1571. Spanish military forces, sometimes accompanied by native allies, led expeditions to conquer territory or quell rebellions through
6357-470: The Centralist Republic of Mexico in which the states of the nation were replaced by departments directly administered by Mexico City. For this, Juárez was briefly imprisoned, but he was shortly released. Juárez then returned to private practice. After practicing law for several years. In 1842 Liberal governor of Oaxaca Antonio León , appointed Juárez to serve as a Civil and Revenue Judge for
6520-604: The Constitution to allow the Mexican Army, Air Force or Navy to collaborate with the United Nations in peacekeeping missions , or to provide military help to countries that officially ask for it. The Mexican Federal Police was dissolved in 2019 by a constitutional amendment during the administration of President López Obrador and the Mexican National Guard established, amalgamating units of
6683-631: The Constitution of 1857 prompted domestic conflict, French intervention , and the establishment of an Empire , countered by the Republican resistance led by Benito Juárez . The rise of Porfirio Díaz 's dictatorship in the 19th century sparked the Mexican Revolution in 1910, which led to profound changes, such as the 1917 Constitution . Over the 20th century, Mexico experienced significant economic growth ; as well as issues of repression and electoral fraud . The late 20th century saw
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6846-903: The Cordillera Neo-Volcánica , the Gulf Coastal Plain , the Southern Highlands, and the Yucatán Peninsula . An important geologic feature of the Yucatán peninsula is the Chicxulub crater , the scientific consensus is that the Chicxulub impactor was responsible for the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event . Although Mexico is large (a little over 2,000 mi (3,219 km) in length from its farthest land points), much of its land mass
7009-865: The Council of the Indies based in Spain to oversee State power in its overseas territories; in New Spain the crown established a high court in Mexico City, the Real Audiencia ('royal audience' or 'royal tribunal'), and then in 1535 created the Viceroyalty of New Spain . The viceroy was the highest official of the State. In the religious sphere, the Diocese of Mexico was created in 1530 and elevated to
7172-736: The Federal Electoral Tribunal , collegiate, unitary, and district tribunals, and the Council of the Federal Judiciary. Three parties have historically been the dominant parties in Mexican politics: the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI), a catch-all party and member of the Socialist International that was founded in 1929 to unite all the factions of the Mexican Revolution and held an almost hegemonic power in Mexican politics since then;
7335-423: The Mexican peso crisis , requiring a $ 50 billion IMF bailout. Major macroeconomic reforms were started by Zedillo, and the economy rapidly recovered and growth peaked at almost 7% by the end of 1999. After 71 years of rule, the incumbent PRI lost the 2000 presidential election to Vicente Fox of the opposing conservative National Action Party (PAN). In the 2006 presidential election , Felipe Calderón from
7498-839: The National Action Party (PAN), a conservative party founded in 1939 and belonging to the Christian Democrat Organization of America ; and the Party of the Democratic Revolution (PRD) a left-wing party, founded in 1989 as the successor of the coalition of socialists and liberal parties. The foreign relations of Mexico are directed by the President of Mexico and managed through the Ministry of Foreign Affairs . The principles of
7661-738: The North American Plate , with small parts of the Baja California peninsula on the Pacific and Cocos Plates . Geophysically , some geographers include the territory east of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec (around 12% of the total) within Central America. Geopolitically , however, Mexico is entirely considered part of North America, along with Canada and the United States. The majority of Mexican central and northern territories are located at high altitudes, and as such
7824-484: The Olmec , Maya , Zapotec , Teotihuacan , and Purepecha . Aztec domination of the area preceded Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire , which established the colony of New Spain centered in the former capital, Tenochtitlan (now Mexico City ). The Mexican War of Independence in the early 19th century was followed by political and socioeconomic upheaval. The Mexican–American War resulted in significant territorial losses in 1848. Liberal reforms introduced in
7987-478: The Plan de la Noria . Juárez came to be seen as "a preeminent symbol of Mexican nationalism and resistance to foreign intervention". His policies advocated civil liberties , equality before the law , the sovereignty of civilian power over the Catholic Church and the military , the strengthening of the Mexican federal government , and the depersonalization of political life. For Juárez's success in ousting French invasion, Mexicans considered Juárez's tenure as
8150-440: The Plan of Casa Mata . After the forced abdication of the monarch, Central America and Chiapas left the union to form the Federal Republic of Central America . In 1824, the First Mexican Republic was established. Former insurgent General Guadalupe Victoria became the first president of the republic — the first of many army generals to hold the presidency. In 1829, former insurgent general and fierce Liberal Vicente Guerrero ,
8313-416: The Seven Years' War . It created a standing military, increased coastal fortifications, and expanded the northern presidios and missions into Alta California . The volatility of the urban poor in Mexico City was evident in the 1692 riot in the Zócalo. The riot over the price of maize escalated to a full-scale attack on the seats of power, with the viceregal palace and the archbishop's residence attacked by
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#17327727996848476-433: The Spanish Empire in 1821 and became a sovereign state the Intendency came to be known as the State of Mexico , with the new country being named after its capital: Mexico City . The country's official name has changed as the form of government has changed. The declaration of independence signed on 6 November 1813 by the deputies of the Congress of Anáhuac called the territory América Septentrional (Northern America);
8639-431: The United Mexican States , is a country in the southern portion of North America . Covering 1,972,550 km (761,610 sq mi), it is the world's 13th largest country by area; with a population of almost 130 million, it is the 10th most populous country and has the most Spanish speakers in the world. Mexico is a constitutional republic comprising 31 states and Mexico City , its capital and largest city , which
8802-440: The Valley of Mexico and surrounding territories, with its people being known as the Mexica . It is generally believed that the toponym for the valley was the origin of the primary ethnonym for the Aztec Triple Alliance , but it may have been the other way around. In the colonial era (1521–1821) when Mexico was known as New Spain this central region became the Intendency of Mexico . After New Spain achieved independence from
8965-479: The Yucatán Peninsula ), have a yearly median temperature between 24 and 28 °C (75.2 and 82.4 °F). Temperatures here remain high throughout the year, with only a 5 °C (9 °F) difference between winter and summer median temperatures. The Pacific coast is subject to natural hazards such as tsunamis and both Mexican coasts with the exception of the south coast of the Bay of Campeche and northern Baja California are vulnerable to serious hurricanes during
9128-422: The foreign policy are constitutionally recognized in the Article 89, Section 10, which include: respect for international law and legal equality of states , their sovereignty and independence , trend to non-interventionism in the domestic affairs of other countries, peaceful resolution of conflicts , and promotion of collective security through active participation in international organizations . Since
9291-460: The 1821 Plan of Iguala also used América Septentrional. On two occasions (1821–1823 and 1863–1867), the country was known as Imperio Mexicano ( Mexican Empire ). All three federal constitutions (1824, 1857, and 1917, the current constitution) used the name Estados Unidos Mexicanos —or the variant Estados-Unidos Mexicanos , all of which have been translated as "United Mexican States". The phrase República Mexicana , "Mexican Republic",
9454-446: The 1824 constitution and promulgating the Seven Laws , which placed power in his hands. As a result, civil war spread across the country. Three new governments declared independence: the Republic of Texas , the Republic of the Rio Grande and the Republic of Yucatán . The largest blow to Mexico was the U.S. invasion of Mexico in 1846 in the Mexican–American War . Mexico lost much of its sparsely populated northern territory, sealed in
9617-486: The 1848 Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo . Despite that disastrous loss, Santa Anna returned to the presidency yet again before being ousted and exiled in the Liberal Revolution of Ayutla . The overthrow of Santa Anna and the establishment of a civilian government by Liberals allowed them to enact laws that they considered vital for Mexico's economic development. The Liberal Reform attempted to modernize Mexico's economy and institutions along liberal principles. They promulgated
9780-456: The 1920 presidential election. Since Carranza could not run for re-election, he chose a civilian to succeed him, intending to remain the power behind the presidency. Obregón and two other Sonoran revolutionary generals drew up the Plan of Agua Prieta , overthrowing Carranza, who died fleeing Mexico City in 1920. General Adolfo de la Huerta became interim president, followed by the election of General Álvaro Obregón . The first quarter-century of
9943-421: The 1930s, the Estrada Doctrine has served as a crucial complement to these principles. Mexico is a founding member of several international organizations, most notably the United Nations, the Organization of American States , the Organization of Ibero-American States , the OPANAL and the CELAC . In 2008, Mexico contributed over 40 million dollars to the United Nations regular budget. In addition, it
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#173277279968410106-511: The Aztec Empire began in February 1519 when Hernán Cortés founded the Spanish city of Veracruz . The 1521 capture of Tenochtitlan and posterior founding of the Spanish capital Mexico City on its ruins was the beginning of a 300-year-long colonial era during which Mexico was known as Nueva España ( New Spain ). Two factors made Mexico a jewel in the Spanish Empire: the existence of large, hierarchically organized Mesoamerican populations that rendered tribute and performed obligatory labor and
10269-493: The British government aimed to respect Mexican sovereignty and maintain cordial relations between both countries. On 27 May, Wyke met with the Mexican Minister of Foreign Affairs Zarco, with the latter attempting to convince Wyke of the impossibility for Mexico to meet its current foreign debts. On 3 June, President Juárez issued a decree, under the authority of congress postponing all payments to foreign creditors for one year. Events were now set in motion which would culminate in
10432-449: The Constitutionalists. Wilson ordered troops to occupy the strategic port of Veracruz in 1914, which was lifted. A coalition of anti-Huerta forces in the North, the Constitutional Army led by Governor of Coahuila Venustiano Carranza , and a peasant army in the South under Emiliano Zapata defeated the Federal Army in 1914, leaving only revolutionary forces. Following the revolutionaries' victory against Huerta, they sought to broker
10595-440: The Crown's monopoly of revenue, only two ports were open to foreign trade—Veracruz on the Atlantic (connecting to Spain ) and Acapulco on the Pacific (connecting to the Philippines ). Among the best-known pirate attacks are the 1663 Sack of Campeche and 1683 Attack on Veracruz . Of greater concern to the crown was the issue of foreign invasion, especially after Britain seized in 1762 the Spanish ports of Havana and Manila in
10758-428: The Epi-Classic, Nahua peoples began moving south into Mesoamerica from the North, and became politically and culturally dominant in central Mexico, as they displaced speakers of Oto-Manguean languages . During the early post-classic era (ca. 1000–1519 AD), Central Mexico was dominated by the Toltec culture, Oaxaca by the Mixtec , and the lowland Maya area had important centers at Chichén Itzá and Mayapán . Toward
10921-577: The Federal Police, Military Police, and Naval Police. As of 2022, the National Guard is estimated at 110,000. López Obrador has increasingly used military forces for domestic law enforcement, particularly against drug cartels. There have been serious abuses of power reported in security operations in the southern part of the country and in indigenous communities and poor urban neighborhoods. The National Human Rights Commission has had little impact in reversing this trend, engaging mostly in documentation but failing to use its powers to issue public condemnations to
11084-454: The French invaders and Liberalism became synonymous with patriotism. The Mexican Army that had its roots in the colonial royal army and then the army of the early republic was destroyed and new military leaders had emerged from the War of the Reform and the conflict with the French, most notably Porfirio Díaz , a hero of the Cinco de Mayo , who now sought civilian power and challenged Juárez on his re-election in 1867. Díaz then rebelled but
11247-487: The Liberal Plan of Ayutla broke out against Santa Anna in March, 1855, Juárez sought to return to Mexico. He arrived at the port of Acapulco near the Southern center of the revolt in the summer of 1855. Santa Anna fled the nation and a subsequent Liberal assembly elected Juan Alvarez as the new president. Juárez, who had been secretary to the assembly was made Minister of Justice and Religion. The Plan of Ayutla had inaugurated what would come to be known as La Reforma ,
11410-447: The Liberal armies were making advances upon Mexico City. General Degollado occupied the suburbs of Mexico City throughout February and March, 1859, only to be repulsed by the efforts of the Conservative General Marquez, who then gained infamy for shooting all of his prisoners of war in the suburb of Tacubaya. Juárez remained entrenched in Vera Cruz. In the course of the war through 1859, the Liberals captured Mazatlan and Colima. By April,
11573-429: The Liberals during the Reform War and returned to banditry after the war's end. The reconstruction of the country also involved a reorganization of finances, but for the time being the Mexican government found it impossible to meet its domestic and its foreign obligations. A British Minister Plenipotentiary, Sir Charles Wyke , was commissioned on 30 March 1861, to negotiate British claims while providing reassurance that
11736-486: The Mexican government encouraged Anglo-American immigration into present-day Texas, a region that bordered that United States. Mexico by law was a Catholic country; the Anglo-Americans were primarily Protestant English speakers from the southern United States. Some brought their black slaves, which after 1829 was contrary to Mexican law. In 1835, Santa Anna sought to centralize government rule in Mexico, suspending
11899-528: The Mexican revolution met at a constitutional convention to draft the Constitution of 1917 , which was ratified in February 1917. The Constitution empowered the government to expropriate resources including land, gave rights to labor, and strengthened anticlerical provisions of the 1857 Constitution. With amendments, it remains the governing document of Mexico. It is estimated that the revolutionary war killed 900,000 people out of Mexico's 15 million population at
12062-650: The National Guard, which was formed in 2019 from the disbanded Federal Police and military police of the Army and Navy. Figures vary on personnel, but as of are approximately 223,000 armed forces personnel (160,000 Army; 8,000 Air Force; 55,000 Navy, including about 20,000 Marines); approximately 100,000 National Guard (2021). Government expenditures on the military are a small proportion of GDP: 0.7% of GDP (2021 est.), 0.6% of GDP (2020). The Mexican Armed Forces maintain significant infrastructure, including facilities for
12225-478: The PAN was declared the winner, with a very narrow margin (0.58%) over leftist politician Andrés Manuel López Obrador of the Party of the Democratic Revolution (PRD). López Obrador, however, contested the election and pledged to create an "alternative government". After twelve years, in the 2012 presidential election , the PRI again won the presidency with the election of Enrique Peña Nieto . However, he won with
12388-450: The PRI and challenged Salinas in the 1988 elections. In 1988 there was massive electoral fraud , with results showing that Salinas had won the election by the narrowest percentage ever. There were massive protests in Mexico City over the stolen election. Salinas took the oath of office on 1 December 1988. In 1990 the PRI was famously described by Mario Vargas Llosa as the "perfect dictatorship", but by then there had been major challenges to
12551-524: The PRI's hegemony. Salinas embarked on a program of neoliberal reforms that fixed the exchange rate of the peso, controlled inflation, opened Mexico to foreign investment, and began talks with the U.S. and Canada to join their free-trade agreement , which culminated in the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) on 1 January 1994; the same day, the Zapatista Army of National Liberation (EZLN) in Chiapas began armed peasant rebellion against
12714-648: The Pacific Ocean, and the Isthmus of Tehuantepec was the narrowest crossing in Mexico between the bodies of water. Juárez needing allies against the Conservatives, and his government proceeded to negotiate and ratify the McLane-Ocampo Treaty by December 1859. The treaty would have granted the United States perpetual extraterritorial rights for its citizens and its military through key strategic routes in Mexico. The treaty however, ultimately
12877-670: The Reform War as it would come to be known, was marked by repeated Conservative victories, albeit indecisive ones. On 10 March 1858, the Liberals lost the Battle of Salamanca , near Juárez’ base in Guanajuato City , upon which he and his government retreated to Guadalajara . While the Liberal government was ensconced there, the garrison mutinied against them, and Juárez along with his ministers which included Melchor Ocampo and Guillermo Prieto were imprisoned. The commander of
13040-762: The Second French Intervention in Mexico, and the failed efforts of the Second French Empire to overthrow the government of the Mexican Republic and impose a monarchy upon the nation. The main French pretext for subsequently invading Mexico had been specifically the issue of the Jecker Bonds, a series of high interest loans which had been contracted through a Swiss banker named Jecker, by the Conservative government during
13203-567: The Supreme Court, he succeeded to the presidency upon the resignation of the Liberal president Ignacio Comonfort in the early weeks of the Reform War between the Liberal Party and the Conservative Party , and led the Liberal Party to victory after three years of warfare. Almost immediately after the Reform War had ended, President Juárez was faced with a French invasion , the Second French Intervention aimed at overthrowing
13366-476: The U.S. entered World War I. Although often viewed as an internal conflict, the revolution had significant international elements: Germany attempted to get Mexico to side with it, sending a coded telegram in 1917 to incite war between the U.S. and Mexico, with Mexico to regain the territory it lost in the Mexican-American War but Mexico remained neutral in the conflict. In 1916, the winners of
13529-445: The United States had recognized the Liberal government as the legitimate government of Mexico and sent Robert Milligan McLane as its official representative. On 7 July 1859, Juárez laid out an agenda of legislation decreeing the de jure separation of church and state, the greater independence of the judiciary, the expansion of affordable education, a program of road construction, a program of railroad construction, financial reform,
13692-524: The army for a short period were incorporated as sectors of the single party that dominated Mexican politics from its founding in 1929. Obregón instigated land reform and strengthened the power of organized labor. He gained recognition from the United States and took steps to settle claims with companies and individuals that lost property during the Revolution. He imposed his fellow former Sonoran revolutionary general, Calles, as his successor, prompting an unsuccessful military revolt. As president, Calles provoked
13855-415: The arts and sciences. Díaz ruled with a group of advisors that became known as the científicos ('scientists'). The most influential científico was Secretary of Finance José Yves Limantour . The Porfirian regime was influenced by positivism . They rejected theology and idealism in favor of scientific methods being applied towards national development. An integral aspect of the liberal project
14018-460: The battlefield, Lerdo fled from office into exile. After the turmoil in Mexico from 1810 to 1876, the 35-year rule of Liberal General Porfirio Díaz (r.1876–1911) allowed Mexico to rapidly modernize in a period characterized as one of " order and progress ". The Porfiriato was characterized by economic stability and growth, significant foreign investment and influence, an expansion of the railroad network and telecommunications, and investments in
14181-490: The battlefield, but Conservatives sought another solution to gain power via foreign intervention by the French, asking Emperor Napoleon III to place a European monarch as head of state in Mexico. The French Army defeated the Mexican Army and placed Maximilian Habsburg on the newly established throne of Mexico, supported by Mexican Conservatives and propped up by the French Army. The Liberal Republic under Benito Juárez
14344-457: The broadsides, from its permanent collection, as well as changing exhibits of Posada's work. Also included in the collection are a number of extant broadsides which Posada created, his covers for a series of storybooks and song collections as well as engravings by a Posada predecessor, Manuel Manilla. There are two other galleries devoted to changing exhibits as well as a display of antique engraving equipment. Mexico Mexico , officially
14507-608: The capabilities to manufacture nuclear weapons, but abandoned this possibility with the Treaty of Tlatelolco in 1968 and pledged to use its nuclear technology only for peaceful purposes. Mexico signed the UN treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons . Historically, Mexico has remained neutral in international conflicts, with the exception of World War II . However, in recent years some political parties have proposed an amendment of
14670-626: The colonial era. Notable Amerindian revolts in sporadically populated northern New Spain include the Chichimeca War (1576–1606), Tepehuán Revolt (1616–1620), and the Pueblo Revolt (1680), the Tzeltal Rebellion of 1712 was a regional Maya revolt. Most rebellions were small-scale and local, posing no major threat to the ruling elites. To protect Mexico from the attacks of English, French, and Dutch pirates and protect
14833-605: The colonial legal system, as were accorded to the Mexican Catholic Church, the army, and Indigenous communities. He became a prosecutor for the State of Oaxaca and was soon elected to the Oaxaca state legislature in 1832, serving for two years during the Liberal presidency of Valentin Gomez Farias . A Conservative Party coup led by Santa Anna overthrew the presidency of Gomez Farias in 1834. As part of
14996-474: The constitutional reorganization involved in the subsequent transition from the First Mexican Republic to the Centralist Republic of Mexico , Oaxaca became a department controlled by Mexico City and the state legislature of Oaxaca was dissolved. Juárez protested the dissolution of local government that was being imposed upon Oaxaca, and in fact, the rest of Mexico, as part of the transition to
15159-686: The construction of large ceremonial centers. The earliest complex civilization in Mexico was the Olmec culture, which flourished on the Gulf Coast from around 1500 BC. Olmec cultural traits diffused through Mexico into other formative-era cultures in Chiapas, Oaxaca, and the Valley of Mexico. In the subsequent pre-classical period , the Maya and Zapotec civilizations developed complex centers at Calakmul and Monte Albán , respectively. During this period
15322-413: The cornfields and as a shepherd until the age of 12. Up until then Juárez had also been illiterate and could not speak Spanish knowing then only his native Zapotec language. However, his sister had previously moved to the city of Oaxaca for work, and that year Juárez moved to the city to attend school. There he took a job as a domestic servant in the household of Antonio Maza, where his sister worked as
15485-446: The country had begun to fragment into civil war. This was much more than he had intended, and he began to back away from the Conservatives. Juárez was released from prison on 11 January 1858, shortly before Comonfort himself left the country, the presidency thus passing over to Juárez who as Chief Justice was next in line to succeed the presidency. Meanwhile, the Conservatives elected Zuloaga as their president. As Mexico City fell into
15648-415: The country; temperate humid and sub-humid being found mostly on pastures at an elevation of 1,800 meters and higher in central Mexico and cold climate usually found at an elevation of 3,500 meters and beyond. Most of the country's territory has a temperate to dry climate. Areas south of the Tropic of Cancer with elevations up to 1,000 m (3,281 ft) (the southern parts of both coastal plains as well as
15811-479: The de facto head of Mexico, and the U.S. recognized his government while Zapata's forces in the south reverted to guerrilla warfare. After Pancho Villa was defeated by revolutionary forces in 1915, he led an incursion raid into Columbus, New Mexico , prompting the U.S. to send 10,000 troops led by General John J. Pershing in an unsuccessful attempt to capture Villa. Carranza pushed back against U.S. troops being in northern Mexico. The expeditionary forces withdrew as
15974-563: The design, research, and testing of weapons, vehicles, aircraft, naval vessels, defense systems and electronics; military industry manufacturing centers for building such systems, and advanced naval dockyards that build heavy military vessels and advanced missile technologies. Since the 1990s, when the military escalated its role in the war on drugs , increasing importance has been placed on acquiring airborne surveillance platforms, aircraft, helicopters , digital war-fighting technologies, urban warfare equipment and rapid troop transport. Mexico has
16137-645: The discovery of vast silver deposits in northern Mexico. The Kingdom of New Spain was created from the remnants of the Aztec empire. The two pillars of Spanish rule were the State and the Roman Catholic Church, both under the authority of the Spanish crown. In 1493 the pope had granted sweeping powers to the Spanish monarchy for its overseas empire, with the proviso that the crown spread Christianity in its new realms. In 1524, King Charles I created
16300-549: The elections of 1861 with a large majority over his only rival General Jesús González Ortega . Juárez passed an amnesty towards the Conservatives who had fought against him during the Reform War with certain exceptions including leading generals and clergy. The former Conservative president Miramon had fled the country, but certain Conservative Generals remained at large in the countryside including Leonardo Marquez and Tomás Mejía Camacho . Melchor Ocampo, one of
16463-437: The enchanted pond. His parents, Brígida García and Marcelino Juárez were Zapotec peasants. He described his parents as " indios de la raza primitiva del país " ( Spanish : " Indians from the primitive race of the country" ). He had two older sisters, Josefa and Rosa. Juárez became an orphan at the age of 3. His grandparents also died shortly after, and Juárez was raised by his uncle Bernardino Juárez. Juárez worked in
16626-678: The end of the post-Classic period, the Aztecs (or Mexica ) established dominance, establishing a political and economic empire based in the city of Tenochtitlan (modern Mexico City ), extending from central Mexico to the border with Guatemala. Although the Spanish Empire had established colonies in the Caribbean starting in 1493 the Spanish first learned of Mexico during the Juan de Grijalva expedition of 1518. The Spanish conquest of
16789-826: The extension of the Rocky Mountains from northern North America crossed the country from north to south and a fourth mountain range, the Sierra Madre del Sur , runs from Michoacán to Oaxaca . The Mexican territory is prone to volcanism . Mexico has nine distinct regions: Baja California , the Pacific Coastal Lowlands, the Mexican Plateau , the Sierra Madre Oriental , the Sierra Madre Occidental ,
16952-480: The extremists on both sides in check and pursue a middle course, always his object. It soon became obvious that such an assumption was merely wishful thinking." Comonfort accepted and had Juárez imprisoned in the capital. Comonfort however had blundered in overestimating the support he could expect among the state governors. The strategic port state of Veracruz disowned the Plan of Tacubaya, and Comonfort realized that
17115-454: The federal government, which captured a few towns but brought world attention to the situation in Mexico. The armed conflict was short-lived and has continued as a non-violent opposition movement against neoliberalism and globalization . In 1994, following the assassination of the PRI's presidential candidate Luis Donaldo Colosio , Salinas was succeeded by victorious PRI candidate Ernesto Zedillo . Salinas left Zedillo's government to deal with
17278-551: The first minority or first-runner-up (one for each state and one for Mexico City), and 32 are elected by proportional representation from national closed party lists. The executive is the President of the United Mexican States , who is the head of state and government , as well as the commander-in-chief of the Mexican military forces. The President also appoints the Cabinet and other officers. The President
17441-612: The first true Mesoamerican writing systems were developed in the Epi-Olmec and Zapotec cultures. The Mesoamerican writing tradition reached its height in the Classic Maya Hieroglyphic script , the earliest written histories date from this era. The tradition of writing was important after the Spanish conquest in 1521, with indigenous scribes learning to write their languages in alphabetic letters, while also continuing to create pictorial texts. In Central Mexico,
17604-462: The garrison, Colonel Landa, was far from having effective control over the entire city. Landa offered Juárez his liberty if he would order the remaining Liberal troops in Guadalajara to surrender. Juárez refused and Landa responded by ordering his troops to shoot the prisoners. Guillermo Prieto intervened, and the soldiers hesitated. Landa did not repeat his orders, and it was at this point that
17767-622: The government of the Mexican Republic and replacing it with a French-aligned monarchy, the Second Mexican Empire . The French soon gained the collaboration of the Conservative Party who aimed at returning themselves to power after their defeat in the Reform War, but Juárez continued to lead the government and armed forces of the Mexican Republic, even as he was forced by the advances of the French to flee to
17930-547: The guerrillas on 15 June, and his command was handed over to González Ortega. Conservative General Leonardo Márquez took refuge in the Sierra Gorda of Querétaro . In the wake of the Reform War and the demobilization of combatants, Juárez established the Rural Guard or Rurales , aimed at enforcing public security, particularly as banditry and rural unrest grew. Many brigands and bandits had allied themselves with
18093-515: The hands of the Conservatives, President Juárez transferred himself to Guanajuato City , where on 19 January, he assembled his cabinet and vowed to defend the Constitution through war if necessary. The states of Tamaulipas , Sinaloa , Durango , Jalisco , Tabasco , San Luis Potosi , Oaxaca , Guanajuato , and Veracruz proclaimed their loyalty to the Juárez government. The first year of
18256-442: The height of the classic period saw the ascendancy of Teotihuacán , which formed a military and commercial empire. Teotihuacan, with a population of more than 150,000 people, had some of the largest pyramidal structures in the pre-Columbian Americas. After the collapse of Teotihuacán around 600 AD, competition ensued between several important political centers in central Mexico such as Xochicalco and Cholula . At this time, during
18419-543: The highest elevations are found at the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt which crosses Mexico east to west: Pico de Orizaba (5,700 m or 18,701 ft), Popocatépetl (5,462 m or 17,920 ft) and Iztaccihuatl (5,286 m or 17,343 ft) and the Nevado de Toluca (4,577 m or 15,016 ft). Two mountain ranges known as Sierra Madre Oriental and Sierra Madre Occidental , which are
18582-613: The increase of inequality between urban and rural areas. The Green Revolution , a technological movement that led to a significant worldwide increase in crop production, began in the Yaqui Valley of Sonora in the middle of the 20th century. With robust economic growth, Mexico sought to showcase it to the world by hosting the 1968 Summer Olympics . The government poured huge resources into building new facilities, prompting political unrest among university students and others. Demonstrations in central Mexico City went on for weeks before
18745-431: The indigenous language of Nahuatl . Tequila , the distilled alcoholic drink made from cultivated agave cacti is a major industry. Because of its high biodiversity Mexico has also been a frequent site of bioprospecting by international research bodies. The first highly successful instance was the discovery in 1947 of the tuber " Barbasco " ( Dioscorea composita ) which has a high content of diosgenin , revolutionizing
18908-664: The jurisdiction of the state. This was done through the Ley Juárez , named for the Minister of Justice, and promulgated under the presidency of Alvarez. The law would remain on the books, but President Alvarez resigned in December 1855, amid increasing opposition to his administration, passing over the presidency to the more moderate Liberal Ignacio Comonfort , whom it was hoped could more effectively pass progressive reforms. Juárez did not continue as Minister of Justice, and spent
19071-406: The leading Liberals during the Reform War was assassinated by Marquez on 17 June 1861. Ocampo's assassination led to severe outrage in the capital. Many Conservatives were arrested and faced deadly retaliation, but Juárez intervened on their behalf. Santos Degollado , who had been dismissed from his military command, requested permission from congress to pursue Ocampo's killers. He too was killed by
19234-517: The legitimacy of the claims. The Conservatives meanwhile were suffering infighting, and after a series of victories, General Miguel Miramon became the new Conservative president in December 1858. President Miramon gathered an army and prepared a siege of Veracruz. On 29 December 1858, President Juárez called upon the inhabitants of Veracruz to prepare for an attack by collecting arms, provisions, and organizing fortifications. The first Conservative siege of Veracruz failed in March, 1859. Meanwhile,
19397-523: The mob. On 16 September 1810, secular priest Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla declared against "bad government" in the small town of Dolores , Guanajuato. This event, known as the Cry of Dolores ( Spanish : Grito de Dolores ) is commemorated each year, on 16 September, as Mexico's independence day. The upheaval in the Spanish Empire that resulted in the independence of most of its New World territories
19560-534: The municipal council of Oaxaca City. In 1832, he graduated from the Institute of Arts and Sciences with a degree in law. He was eventually admitted to the bar on 13 January 1834. From the very beginning of his legal career, Juárez became an active partisan of the Liberal Party . As a lawyer, Juárez took cases of indigenous villagers. Community members of Loxicha, Oaxaca hired him for their denunciation of
19723-621: The nation. Upon finishing his one term permitted by the state constitution, Juárez became the director of the Oaxaca Institute of Science and Arts where he had previously studied law and also taught science. Juárez also continued his practice of law. Mexico experienced relative peace and stability in the years immediately following the conclusion of the Mexican-American War , through the moderate presidencies of José Joaquín de Herrera and Mariano Arista but in 1852
19886-481: The north like Monterrey , Hermosillo , and Mexicali experience temperatures of 40 °C (104 °F) or more in summer. In the Sonoran Desert temperatures reach 50 °C (122 °F) or more. There are 7 major climate types in Mexico with warm sub-humid climate being coastal up to 900 meters found mostly in the southern region of Mexico; dry and desertic climates being found in the northern half of
20049-404: The north of the country. The Second Mexican Empire would finally collapse in 1867 after the departure of the last French troops two months previously and President Juárez returned to Mexico City where he continued as president until his death due to a heart attack in 1872, but with growing opposition from fellow Liberals who believed he was becoming autocratic. During his presidency, he supported
20212-444: The officials who ignore its recommendations. Most Mexicans have low confidence in the police or the judicial system, and therefore, few crimes are actually reported by the citizens. There have been public demonstrations of outrage against what is considered a culture of impunity . Benito Ju%C3%A1rez Benito Pablo Juárez García ( Spanish: [beˈnito ˈpaβlo ˈxwaɾes ɣaɾˈsi.a] ; 21 March 1806 – 18 July 1872)
20375-643: The pivotal year of 1856, peacefully retired in Oaxaca, although continuing to correspond with his Liberal allies in Mexico City as they continued their aims in furthering La Reforma . Juárez personally lobbied for a measure expelling the Jesuits from Mexico which was passed in June, 1856. Meanwhile, the Mexican Congress was drafting a new Constitution which integrated into itself the Ley Juárez along with
20538-487: The planned opening of the games, with the government of Gustavo Díaz Ordaz cracking down. The culmination was the Tlatelolco Massacre , which killed around 300 protesters based on conservative estimates and perhaps as many as 800. Although the economy continued to flourish for some, social inequality remained a factor of discontent. PRI rule became increasingly authoritarian and at times oppressive in what
20701-597: The plates, which brings a sense of immediacy to the viewer, and reaches across the centuries, putting the viewer in touch with the artist. One is struck by the small size of some of the plates, especially if one is familiar with his images, which are often re-printed monumentally. The museum itself features a few life-size cut-outs of some of his famous personages. It is a mark of the true excellence of his work that these small images, originally intended for newspaper or broadside publication, do not suffer by being blown up in size. The collection features original plates for printing
20864-486: The political spectrum. The coalition also won a majority in both the upper and lower Congress chambers. His success is attributed to the country's opposing political forces exhausting their chances as well as AMLO's adoption of a moderate discourse with a focus on reconciliation. The first confirmed case of COVID-19 in Mexico occurred on 28 February 2020. The COVID-19 vaccination in Mexico began in December 2020. Claudia Sheinbaum , López Obrador's political successor, won
21027-525: The politics for the next 25 years, often known as the "Age of Santa Anna", until his overthrow in 1855. Mexico also contended with indigenous groups that controlled the territory that Mexico claimed in the north. For example, the Comanche controlled a huge territory in sparsely populated central and northern Texas. Wanting to stabilize and develop that area — and as few people from central Mexico had chosen to resettle to this remote and hostile territory —
21190-489: The post-revolutionary period (1920–1946) was characterized by revolutionary generals serving as Presidents of Mexico , including Álvaro Obregón (1920–24), Plutarco Elías Calles (1924–28), Lázaro Cárdenas (1934–40), and Manuel Avila Camacho (1940–46). The post-revolutionary project of the Mexican government sought to bring order to the country, end military intervention in politics, and create organizations of interest groups. Workers, peasants, urban office workers, and even
21353-494: The presidency of Lázaro Cárdenas , who expelled Calles from the country and implemented many economic and social reforms. This included the Mexican oil expropriation in March 1938, which nationalized the U.S. and Anglo-Dutch oil company known as the Mexican Eagle Petroleum Company , which would result in the creation of the state-owned Pemex . Cárdenas's successor, Manuel Ávila Camacho (1940–1946)
21516-526: The presidency of the Supreme Court . During his presidency, he led the Liberals to victory in the Reform War and in the Second French intervention in Mexico . Born in Oaxaca to a poor rural Indigenous family and orphaned as a child, Juárez passed into the care of his uncle, eventually moving to Oaxaca City at the age of 12, where he found work as a domestic servant. Sponsored by his employer, who
21679-527: The priest's cloisters and residence, in front of the gardens and a colonial fountain, and immediately next to the beautiful 18th century baroque Church of "El Señor del Encino" (Our Lord of the Oak, for a Black Crist made of live oak, worshiped in the church), in the Triana historic colonial neighbourhood. The museum is not large and there is no bookstore or gift shop. It is possible to see the artist's hand at work on
21842-401: The production of synthetic hormones in the 1950s and 1960s and eventually leading to the invention of combined oral contraceptive pills . The United Mexican States are a federation whose government is representative , democratic, and republican based on a presidential system according to the 1917 Constitution . The Constitution establishes three levels of government: the federal Union,
22005-436: The reduction of duties, the encouragement of foreign commerce, the subdivision of great estates to encourage peasant proprietorship, and the encouragement of immigration. On 12 July, a series of anti-clerical laws were passed adding upon those that had already been implemented as part of the Constitution of 1857. The properties of the Catholic Church were almost entirely nationalized, the responsibility of carrying out marriages
22168-464: The same year. He continued his theological studies for six years, but eventually decided that he was not interested in the priesthood. An Institute of Arts and Sciences had been founded by the Oaxacan state legislature in 1826, and Juárez transferred there in 1827. In 1829, Juárez was appointed a teacher of physics. In 1831, Juárez accepted the post of Regidor del Ayuntamiento , or judicial secretary to
22331-974: The second fastest rate of deforestation in the world, second only to Brazil. It had a 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 6.82/10, ranking it 63rd globally out of 172 countries. According to SGI there is Deforestation and soil erosion especially in rural areas of Mexico. In the 2022 report it was noted environmental protection laws have improved in major cities but remain unenforced or unregulated in rural regions. In Mexico, 170,000 square kilometers (65,637 sq mi) are considered "Protected Natural Areas". These include 34 biosphere reserves (unaltered ecosystems), 67 national parks , 4 natural monuments (protected in perpetuity for their aesthetic, scientific or historical value), 26 areas of protected flora and fauna, 4 areas for natural resource protection (conservation of soil, hydrological basins, and forests) and 17 sanctuaries (zones rich in diverse species). Plants indigenous to Mexico are grown in many parts of
22494-642: The state governments, and the municipal governments. The federal legislature is the bicameral Congress of the Union , composed of the Senate of the Republic and the Chamber of Deputies . The Congress makes federal law , declares war, imposes taxes, approves the national budget and international treaties, and ratifies diplomatic appointments. The federal Congress, as well as the state legislatures, are elected by
22657-507: The state of Oaxaca, a position which he held until 1846. The Centralist Republic itself would be overthrown in 1846 at the beginning of the Mexican American War , and Oaxaca regained its federal autonomy, its executive now led by a triumvirate which included Juárez. He was subsequently elected to the national congress as a deputy for Oaxaca. Juárez supported President Valentín Gómez Farías , who had returned to power. There
22820-410: The state religion, and aimed to establish religious freedom, freedom of association, civil rights, the abolition of monopolies, and the abolition of hereditary privileges. As opposition to the Constitution of 1857 threatened civil war, Comonfort's ministers resigned on 20 October 1857, and among the replacements was Juárez who was appointed as Secretary of Home Affairs ( Secretario de Gobernacion ), and
22983-412: The summer and fall. Although low-lying areas north of the Tropic of Cancer are hot and humid during the summer, they generally have lower yearly temperature averages (from 20 to 24 °C or 68.0 to 75.2 °F) because of more moderate conditions during the winter. Mexico ranks fourth in the world in biodiversity and is one of the 17 megadiverse countries . With over 200,000 different species, Mexico
23146-744: The support of Canada, Italy, Pakistan and other nine countries, which form a group informally called the Coffee Club . The Mexican Armed Forces are administered by the Secretariat of National Defense ( Secretaria de Defensa Nacional , SEDENA). There are two branches: the Mexican Army (which includes the Mexican Air Force ), and the Mexican Navy . The Secretariat of Public Security and Civil Protection has jurisdiction over
23309-510: The time. Consolidating power, President Carranza had peasant leader Emiliano Zapata assassinated in 1919. Carranza had gained the support of the peasantry during the Revolution, but once in power, he did little to institute land reform, which had motivated many to fight in the Revolution. Carranza returned some confiscated land to their original owners. President Carranza's best general, Obregón, served briefly in his administration but returned to his home state of Sonora to position himself to run in
23472-403: The world and integrated into their national cuisines. Some of Mexico's native culinary ingredients include maize, tomato, beans, squash, chocolate, vanilla , avocado , guava , chayote , epazote , camote , jícama , nopal , zucchini , tejocote , huitlacoche , sapote , mamey sapote , and a great variety of chiles , such as the habanero and the jalapeño . Most of these names come from
23635-426: Was a Mexican politician, military commander, and lawyer who served as the 26th president of Mexico from 1858 until his death in office in 1872. Of Zapotec ancestry, he was the first indigenous president of Mexico and the first democratically elected indigenous president in the postcolonial Americas. A member of the Liberal Party , he previously held a number of offices, including the governorship of Oaxaca and
23798-712: Was a government in internal exile, but with the end of the Civil War in the United States in April 1865, the Reunified U.S. government began aiding the Mexican Republic. Two years later, the French Army withdrew its support, but Maximilian remained in Mexico. Republican forces captured him and he was executed. The "Restored Republic" saw the return of Juárez, "the personification of the embattled republic," as president. The Conservatives had been not only defeated militarily but also discredited politically for their collaboration with
23961-432: Was a revolt against the state of Oaxaca during this time, causing Juárez to abandon his congressional post and return to Oaxaca to try and maintain order. In November, 1847, he assumed the governorship. When Santa Anna fell from power disgraced by his loss in the Mexican-American War, Governor Juárez did not allow the ex-president to establish himself in Oaxaca, which gained for him the future enmity of Santa Anna. Juárez
24124-446: Was already announcing that the Constitution ought to be reformed. Chief Justice Juárez rebuffed Comonfort's invitation to join him in abandoning the constitution. On 17 December, Conservatives led by Felix Zuloaga proclaimed the Plan of Tacubaya , which dissolved congress and invited Comonfort to accept the presidency with extraordinary powers in a self-coup . Comonfort "felt that by temporarily assuming dictatorial powers he could hold
24287-408: Was also a lay Franciscan , Juárez temporarily enrolled in a seminary and studied to become a priest, but he later switched his studies to law at the Institute of Sciences and Arts , where he became active in liberal politics . He began to practice law and was eventually appointed as a judge, after which he married Margarita Maza , a woman from a socially distinguished family in Oaxaca City. Juárez
24450-415: Was completely removed from the Catholic Church and was declared to be a purely civil contract, and the registration of births and deaths was also removed from the Church and handed over to the state. Furthermore, monasteries were dissolved although nunneries were allowed to remain with the condition that they accept no more novices. The U.S. at this time was seeking a route for transit from the Caribbean to
24613-424: Was crushed by Juárez. Having won re-election, Juárez died in office in July 1872, and Liberal Sebastián Lerdo de Tejada became president, declaring a "religion of the state" for the rule of law, peace, and order. When Lerdo ran for re-election, Díaz rebelled against the civilian president, issuing the Plan of Tuxtepec . Díaz had more support and waged guerrilla warfare against Lerdo. On the verge of Díaz's victory on
24776-625: Was due to Napoleon Bonaparte 's invasion of Spain in 1808. Hidalgo and some of his soldiers were eventually captured, Hidalgo was defrocked, and they were executed by firing squad on 31 July 1811. The first 35 years after Mexico's independence were marked by political instability and the changing of the Mexican state from a transient monarchy to a fragile federated republic. There were military coups d'état, foreign invasions, ideological conflict between Conservatives and Liberals , and economic stagnation . Former Royal Army General Agustín de Iturbide became regent, as newly independent Mexico sought
24939-409: Was eventually elected Governor of Oaxaca and became involved in national politics after the ousting of Antonio López de Santa Anna in the Plan of Ayutla . Juárez was made Minister of Justice under the new Liberal president Juan Álvarez . He was instrumental in passing the Juárez Law as part of the broader program of constitutional reforms known as La Reforma (The Reform). Later, as the head of
25102-457: Was faced with chaos in the state finances, the state justice department, and the state police organization. Juárez proceeded to carry out a program of economic improvements which included an elimination of the state deficit, the construction of roads and bridges, and the development of education. Governor Juárez also prepared and published a Civil and Penal Code. Oaxaca became a model state, and Juárez’ gained fame as an able administrator throughout
25265-427: Was in question. Spain attempted to reconquer its former colony during the 1820s but eventually recognized its independence. France attempted to recoup losses it claimed for its citizens during Mexico's unrest and blockaded the Gulf Coast during the so-called Pastry War of 1838–1839. General Antonio López de Santa Anna emerged as a national hero because of his role in both these conflicts; Santa Anna came to dominate
25428-430: Was made Chairman of the Council of Ministers. When, one month later, Comonfort was formally elected as the first president under the new constitution, Juárez was appointed Chief Justice of the Supreme Court. In the face of increasing opposition however and with civil conflict already erupting in the state of Puebla , the moderate President Comonfort sought to distance himself from the Constitution of 1857 and by December
25591-403: Was more moderate, and relations between the U.S. and Mexico vastly improved during World War II , when Mexico was a significant ally. From 1946 the election of Miguel Alemán , the first civilian president in the post-revolutionary period, Mexico embarked on an aggressive program of economic development, known as the Mexican miracle , which was characterized by industrialization, urbanization, and
25754-402: Was one of increasing Liberal victories and Miramon once again indecisively attacked Veracruz in March. In September, the Juárez government suffered a scandal when the Liberal General Santos Degollado raided a mule train of money being sent to European merchants. Juárez made efforts to recover the money and gave orders for restitution. As an inevitable Liberal victory approached, Juárez issued
25917-419: Was rejected by the United States Senate. The American recognition of the Juárez government at Veracruz also led the United States to defend it against another one of Miramon's siege attempts. Towards the end of 1859, the Conservative government commissioned two gun boats to depart from Cuba and attack Veracruz while Miramon attacked from the land, but they were seized by the U.S. Navy as pirates. The year 1860
26080-403: Was secular education. The Díaz government led a protracted conflict against the Yaqui that culminated with the forced relocation of thousands of Yaqui to Yucatán and Oaxaca. As the centennial of independence approached, Díaz gave an interview where he said he was not going to run in the 1910 elections, when he would be 80. Political opposition had been suppressed and there were few avenues for
26243-403: Was stationed with General Ignacio de la Llave . Upon his arrival Juárez was joined by his wife and greeted with enthusiasm by the population. One of Juárez's first challenges in the new capital was meeting French and English claims over loans that had been forced upon English and French merchants by the Liberal General Garza. Juárez warded off the threat of military intervention by recognizing
26406-407: Was the only Latin American member of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development since it joined in 1994 until Chile gained full membership in 2010. Mexico is considered a regional power hence its presence in major economic groups such as the G8+5 and the G-20 . Since the 1990s Mexico has sought a reform of the United Nations Security Council and its working methods with
26569-490: Was used in the 1836 Constitutional Laws . The earliest human artifacts in Mexico are chips of stone tools found near campfire remains in the Valley of Mexico and radiocarbon-dated to circa 10,000 years ago. Mexico is the site of the domestication of maize, tomato, and beans , which produced an agricultural surplus. This enabled the transition from paleo-Indian hunter-gatherers to sedentary agricultural villages beginning around 5000 BC. The formative period of Mesoamerica
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