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69-509: Guajiboan consists of 5 languages: Churuya is now extinct . It was formerly spoken in Meta , Colombia. Macaguane is listed as a dialect of Guajibo in Kaufman (1994) and Campbell (1997). Gordon (2005) lists Playero (also Rio Arauca Guahibo), a dialect of Guajibo, as a separate language with a "low intelligibility of other Guahibo". Guajibo and Cuiva form a dialect continuum . Guajibo has

138-518: A dead language is a language that no longer has any first-language speakers, but does have second-language speakers or is used fluently in written form, such as Latin . A dormant language is a dead language that still serves as a symbol of ethnic identity to an ethnic group ; these languages are often undergoing a process of revitalisation . Languages that have first-language speakers are known as modern or living languages to contrast them with dead languages, especially in educational contexts. In

207-434: A vernacular language . The revival of Hebrew has been largely successful due to extraordinarily favourable conditions, notably the creation of a nation state (modern Israel in 1948) in which it became the official language, as well as Eliezer Ben-Yehuda 's extreme dedication to the revival of the language, by creating new words for the modern terms Hebrew lacked. Revival attempts for minor extinct languages with no status as

276-515: A dictionary, and several local newspapers. Persian or New Persian has been used continually as the literary language of major areas in Western Asia , the Caucasus , Central Asia and South Asia . The language written today remains essentially the same as that used by Ferdowsi despite variant colloquial dialects and forms. For many centuries, people belonging to the educated classes from

345-490: A diglossic continuum. The formal style is generally used in formal writing and speech. It is, for example, the language of textbooks, of much of Kannada literature and of public speaking and debate. Novels, even popular ones, will use the literary style for all description and narration and use the colloquial form only for dialogue, if they use it at all. In recent times, however, the modern colloquial form has been making inroads into areas that have traditionally been considered

414-420: A historical language may remain in use as a literary or liturgical language long after it ceases to be spoken natively. Such languages are sometimes also referred to as "dead languages", but more typically as classical languages . The most prominent Western example of such a language is Latin , and comparable cases are found throughout world history due to the universal tendency to retain a historical stage of

483-407: A language as the liturgical language . In a view that prioritizes written representation over natural language acquisition and evolution, historical languages with living descendants that have undergone significant language change may be considered "extinct", especially in cases where they did not leave a corpus of literature or liturgy that remained in widespread use (see corpus language ), as

552-399: A language. It can sometimes differ noticeably from the various spoken lects , but the difference between literary and non-literary forms is greater in some languages than in others. If there is a strong divergence between a written form and the spoken vernacular , the language is said to exhibit diglossia . The understanding of the term differs from one linguistic tradition to another and

621-774: A literary language in countries that were formerly part of the British Empire , for instance in India up to the present day, Malaysia in the early 20th century and Nigeria , where English remains the official language. Written in Early Modern English , the King James Bible and works by William Shakespeare from the 17th century are defined as prototype mediums of literary English and are taught in advanced English classes. Furthermore, many literary words that are used today are found in abundance in

690-408: A literary variant, literary Finnish, and a spoken variant, spoken Finnish . Both are considered a form of non-dialectal standard language, and are used throughout the country. Literary Finnish is a consciously created fusion of dialects for use as a literary language, which is rarely spoken at all, being confined to writing and official speeches. The Georgian language has a literary liturgical form,

759-509: A liturgical language typically have more modest results. The Cornish language revival has proven at least partially successful: after a century of effort there are 3,500 claimed native speakers, enough for UNESCO to change its classification from "extinct" to "critically endangered". A Livonian language revival movement to promote the use of the Livonian language has managed to train a few hundred people to have some knowledge of it. This

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828-468: A modern colloquial form. These styles shade into each other, forming a diglossic continuum. The modern literary style is generally used in formal writing and speech. It is, for example, the language of textbooks, of much of Tamil literature and of public speaking and debate. Novels, even popular ones, will use the literary style for all description and narration and use the colloquial form only for dialogue, if they use it at all. In recent times, however,

897-518: A new generation of native speakers. The optimistic neologism " sleeping beauty languages" has been used to express such a hope, though scholars usually refer to such languages as dormant. In practice, this has only happened on a large scale successfully once: the revival of the Hebrew language . Hebrew had survived for millennia since the Babylonian exile as a liturgical language, but not as

966-500: A speaker switches back and forth between the two varieties of the language, sometimes even within the same sentence. In instances in which highly educated Arabic-speakers of different nationalities engage in conversation but find their dialects mutually unintelligible (e.g. a Moroccan speaking with a Kuwaiti), they are able to code switch into MSA for the sake of communication. The Aramaic language has been diglossic for much of its history, with many different literary standards serving as

1035-416: A substantial trace as a substrate in the language that replaces it. There have, however, also been cases where the language of higher prestige did not displace the native language but left a superstrate influence. The French language for example shows evidence both of a Celtic substrate and a Frankish superstrate. Institutions such as the education system, as well as (often global) forms of media such as

1104-470: A variety of dialects (including the Żejtun dialect , Qormi dialect and Gozitan amongst others) that co-exist alongside Standard Maltese. Literary Maltese, unlike Standard Maltese, features a preponderance of Semitic vocabulary and grammatical patterns; however, this traditional separation between Semitic and Romance influences in Maltese literature (especially Maltese poetry and Catholic liturgy on

1173-414: Is a list of languages reported as having become extinct since 2010. For a more complete list, see Lists of extinct languages . Literary language Literary language is the form (register) of a language used when writing in a formal, academic , or particularly polite tone; when speaking or writing in such a tone, it can also be known as formal language . It may be the standardized variety of

1242-575: Is dependent on the terminological conventions adopted. For much of its history, there has been a distinction in the English language between an elevated literary language (written) and a colloquial or vernacular language (spoken, but sometimes also represented in writing). After the Norman conquest of England , for instance, Latin and French displaced English as the official and literary languages, and standardized literary English did not emerge until

1311-540: Is the case with Old English or Old High German relative to their contemporary descendants, English and German. Some degree of misunderstanding can result from designating languages such as Old English and Old High German as extinct, or Latin dead, while ignoring their evolution as a language or as many languages. This is expressed in the apparent paradox "Latin is a dead language, but Latin never died." A language such as Etruscan , for example, can be said to be both extinct and dead: inscriptions are ill understood even by

1380-578: Is the country's national language and one of two official languages, alongside English. Today, Filipino is considered the proper term for the language of the Philippines, especially by Filipino-speakers who are not of Tagalog origin, with many referring to the Filipino language as "Tagalog-based". The language is taught in schools throughout the country and is the official language of education and business. Native Tagalog-speakers meanwhile comprise one of

1449-481: Is the only form of Arabic taught in schools at all stages . The sociolinguistic situation of Arabic in modern times provides a prime example of the linguistic phenomenon of diglossia —the use of two distinct varieties of the same language, usually in different social contexts. Educated Arabic speakers are usually able to communicate in MSA in formal situations. This diglossic situation facilitates code-switching in which

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1518-738: The Bosphorus to the Bay of Bengal would be expected to know some Persian. It was once the language of culture (especially of poetry), from the Balkans to the Deccan , functioning as a lingua franca . Until the late 18th century, Persian was the dominant literary language of Georgia 's elite. Persian was the second major vehicle after Arabic in transmitting Islamic culture and has a particularly prominent place in Sufism. Slavonic-Serbian ( slavenosrpski )

1587-761: The Classical period , it was the language of the Mai State , Tondo Dynasty (according to the Laguna Copperplate Inscription ) and southern Luzon . It was written using Baybayin , a syllabary which is a member of the Brahmic family, before the Spanish Romanised the alphabet beginning in the late 15th century. Tagalog was also the spoken language of the 1896 Philippine Revolution . The 1987 Constitution maintains that Filipino

1656-496: The Javanese language , alphabet characters derived from the alphabets used to write Sanskrit , no longer in ordinary use, are used in literary words as a mark of respect. Kannada exhibits a strong diglossia , like Tamil , also characterised by three styles: a classical literary style modelled on the ancient language, a modern literary and formal style, and a modern colloquial form. These styles shade into each other, forming

1725-773: The Mande languages of West Africa . It blends the principal elements of the partially mutually intelligible Manding languages . The movement promoting N'Ko literacy was instrumental in shaping the Maninka cultural identity in Guinea, and has also strengthened the Mande identity in other parts of West Africa. N'Ko publications include a translation of the Qur'an , a variety of textbooks on subjects such as physics and geography , poetic and philosophical works, descriptions of traditional medicine,

1794-905: The Meiji period , some authors started to use the colloquial form of the language in their literature. Following the government policy after the World War II , the standard form of contemporary Japanese language is used for most literature published since the 1950s. The standard language is based on the colloquial language in Tokyo area, and its literary stylistics in polite form differs little from its formal speech. Notable characteristics of literary language in contemporary Japanese would include more frequent use of Chinese origin words, less use of expressions against prescriptive grammar (such as " ら抜き言葉 "), and use of non-polite normal form (" -だ / -である ") stylistics that are rarely used in colloquial language. In

1863-523: The Old Georgian language , while the vernacular spoken varieties are the Georgian dialects and other related Kartvelian languages like Svan language , Mingrelian language , and Laz language . German differentiates between Hochdeutsch / Standarddeutsch ( Standard German ) and Umgangssprache (everyday/vernacular language). Amongst the differences is the regular use of the genitive case or

1932-661: The Präteritum is considered somewhat declamatory. The German Konjunktiv I / II ("er habe" / "er hätte") is also used more regularly in written form being replaced by the conditional ("er würde geben") in spoken language, although in some southern German dialects the Konjunktiv II is used more often. Generally there is a continuum between more dialectical varieties to more standard varieties in German, while colloquial German nonetheless tends to increase analytic elements at

2001-540: The Yanomami , Arawak , Nadahup , Puinave-Kak , Bora-Muinane , and Choko language families due to contact. Meléndez-Lozano (2014) has also noted that Guahiban has borrowed from Arawakan languages , especially the Achagua and Piapoco languages. An automated computational analysis ( ASJP 4) by Müller et al. (2013) found that there are apparent lexical similarities with Yanomami and Ticuna-Yuri . However, since

2070-478: The modern period , languages have typically become extinct as a result of the process of cultural assimilation leading to language shift , and the gradual abandonment of a native language in favor of a foreign lingua franca , largely those of European countries. As of the 2000s, a total of roughly 7,000 natively spoken languages existed worldwide. Most of these are minor languages in danger of extinction; one estimate published in 2004 expected that some 90% of

2139-570: The spoken language . At the same time, Literary Chinese was based largely upon the Classical Chinese, and writers frequently borrowed from the classical language into their literary writings. Literary Chinese therefore shows a great deal of similarity to Classical Chinese, even though the similarity decreased over the centuries. Starting from early 20th century, written vernacular Chinese ( simplified Chinese : 白话文 ; traditional Chinese : 白話文 ; pinyin : báihuàwén ) became

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2208-742: The "high" liturgical languages, including Syriac language , Jewish Palestinian Aramaic , Jewish Babylonian Aramaic , Samaritan Aramaic language and Mandaic language , while the vernacular Neo-Aramaic languages serve as the vernacular language spoken by the common people like Northeastern Neo-Aramaic ( Assyrian Neo-Aramaic , Bohtan Neo-Aramaic , Chaldean Neo-Aramaic , Hértevin language , Koy Sanjaq Syriac language , Senaya language ), Western Neo-Aramaic , Northeastern Neo-Aramaic , Central Neo-Aramaic ( Mlahsô language , Turoyo language ), Neo-Mandaic , Hulaulá language , Lishana Deni , Lishanid Noshan , Lishán Didán , Betanure Jewish Neo-Aramaic , and Barzani Jewish Neo-Aramaic . The Armenian language

2277-501: The "kill the Indian, save the man" policy of American Indian boarding schools and other measures was to prevent Native Americans from transmitting their native language to the next generation and to punish children who spoke the language of their culture of origin. The French vergonha policy likewise had the aim of eradicating minority languages. Language revival is the attempt to re-introduce an extinct language in everyday use by

2346-736: The 3rd century AD, while Vulgar Latin was the common, spoken variety used across the Roman Empire . The Latin brought by Roman soldiers to Gaul , Iberia , or Dacia was not identical to the Latin of Cicero , and differed from it in vocabulary, syntax, and grammar. Some literary works with low-register language from the Classical Latin period give a glimpse into the world of early Vulgar Latin. The works of Plautus and Terence , being comedies with many characters who were slaves , preserve some early basilectal Latin features, as does

2415-531: The Classical Arabic of the Qur'an and early Islamic (7th to 9th centuries) literature ; and Modern Standard Arabic (MSA), the standard language in use today. The modern standard language is closely based on the Classical language, and most Arabs consider the two varieties to be two registers of the same language. Literary Arabic or classical Arabic is the official language of all Arab countries and

2484-468: The Internet, television, and print media play a significant role in the process of language loss. For example, when people migrate to a new country, their children attend school in the country, and the schools are likely to teach them in the majority language of the country rather than their parents' native language. Language death can also be the explicit goal of government policy. For example, part of

2553-414: The analysis was automatically generated, the similarities could be either due to mutual lexical borrowing, genetic inheritance, or chance resemblances. Below are Proto-Guahiban reconstructions by Christian and Matteson (1972): Extinct language An extinct language is a language with no living descendants that no longer has any first-language or second-language speakers. In contrast,

2622-550: The currently spoken languages will have become extinct by 2050. Normally the transition from a spoken to an extinct language occurs when a language undergoes language death by being directly replaced by a different one. For example, many Native American languages were replaced by Dutch , English , French , Portuguese , or Spanish as a result of European colonization of the Americas . In contrast to an extinct language, which no longer has any speakers, or any written use,

2691-496: The dominant lingua francas of world commerce: English, Mandarin Chinese , Spanish, and French. In their study of contact-induced language change, American linguists Sarah Grey Thomason and Terrence Kaufman (1991) stated that in situations of cultural pressure (where populations are forced to speak a dominant language), three linguistic outcomes may occur: first – and most commonly – a subordinate population may shift abruptly to

2760-453: The dominant language, leaving the native language to a sudden linguistic death. Second, the more gradual process of language death may occur over several generations. The third and most rare outcome is for the pressured group to maintain as much of its native language as possible, while borrowing elements of the dominant language's grammar (replacing all, or portions of, the grammar of the original language). A now disappeared language may leave

2829-574: The end of the Middle Ages . At this time and into the Renaissance , the practice of aureation (the introduction of terms from classical languages , often through poetry) was an important part of the reclamation of status for the English language, and many historically aureate terms are now part of general common usage . Modern English no longer has quite the same distinction between literary and colloquial registers. English has been used as

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2898-446: The expense of synthetic elements . From the early nineteenth century until the mid-20th century, Katharevousa , a form of Greek , was used for literary purposes. In later years, Katharevousa was used only for official and formal purposes (such as politics, letters, official documents, and newscasting) while Dimotiki , 'demotic' or popular Greek, was the daily language. This created a diglossic situation until in 1976, Dimotiki

2967-680: The high register in Mongolia itself while in Inner Mongolia a standard Mongolian based on Chakhar Mongolian serves as the high register for all Mongols in China. The Buryat language, which is seen by some as part of the Mongolian language, has been turned into a standard literary form itself in Russia. N'Ko is a literary language devised by Solomana Kante in 1949 as a writing system for

3036-482: The island) is changing. Standard Manchu was based on the language spoken by the Jianzhou Jurchens during Nurhaci's time, while other unwritten Manchu dialects such as that of Aigun and Sanjiazi were also spoken in addition to the related Xibe language . The Classical Mongolian language was the high register used for religious and official purposes, while the various Mongolian dialects served as

3105-548: The language in question must be conceptualized as frozen in time at a particular state of its history. This is accomplished by periodizing English and German as Old; for Latin, an apt clarifying adjective is Classical, which also normally includes designation of high or formal register . Minor languages are endangered mostly due to economic and cultural globalization , cultural assimilation, and development. With increasing economic integration on national and regional scales, people find it easier to communicate and conduct business in

3174-485: The largest linguistic and cultural groups of the Philippines, numbering an estimated 14 million. Notably, in Eastern European and Slavic linguistics, the term "literary language" has also been used as a synonym of " standard language ". Tamil exhibits a strong diglossia , characterised by three styles: a classical literary style modelled on the ancient language, a modern literary and formal style and

3243-630: The literary standard and had the Uzbek language standardized as a literary language for, and the Taranchi dialect of Ili was chosen as the literary standard for Modern Uyghur, while other dialects like the Kashgar and Turpan dialects continue to be spoken. Standard Yoruba is the literary form of the Yoruba language of West Africa , the standard variety learnt at school and that spoken by newsreaders on

3312-522: The literary standard. This is mostly aligned with a standardized form of Mandarin Chinese , which however means there exists considerable divergence between written vernacular Chinese and other Chinese variants like Cantonese , Shanghainese , Hokkien and Sichuanese . Some of these variants have their own literary form, but none of them are currently used in official formal registers, although they may be used in legal transcription, and in certain media and entertainment settings. The Finnish language has

3381-646: The low register, like Khalkha Mongolian , Chakhar Mongolian , Khorchin Mongolian , Kharchin Mongolian , Baarin Mongolian , Ordos Mongolian and the Buryat language . The Tibetan Buddhist canon was translated into Classical Mongolian. The Oirat Mongols who spoke the Oirat Mongol language and dialects like Kalmyk language or Torgut Oirat used a separate standard written with the Clear script . The Mongolian language , based on Khalkha Mongolian, now serves as

3450-805: The modern colloquial form has been making inroads into areas that have traditionally been considered the province of the modern literary style: for instance most cinema , theatre and popular entertainment on television and radio. Classical Tibetan was the high register used universally by all Tibetans while the various mutually unintelligible Tibetic languages serve as the low register vernacular, like Central Tibetan language in Ü-Tsang (Tibet proper), Khams Tibetan in Kham , Amdo Tibetan in Amdo , Ladakhi language in Ladakh and Dzongkha in Bhutan . Classical Tibetan

3519-446: The most knowledgeable scholars, and the language ceased to be used in any form long ago, so that there have been no speakers, native or non-native, for many centuries. In contrast, Old English, Old High German and Latin never ceased evolving as living languages, thus they did not become extinct as Etruscan did. Through time Latin underwent both common and divergent changes in phonology, morphology, syntax, and lexicon, and continues today as

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3588-534: The most speakers (over 23,000) and is the largest indigenous group in eastern Colombia. Approximately 9,000 in Venezuela. Guayabero is the most divergent language of the family. Guajiboan has often been grouped together with Arawakan , Arauan , and Candoshi by many classifiers. However, this now seems unlikely as the similarity between Guajiboan and Arawakan has been attributed to language contact . Jolkesky (2016) notes that there are lexical similarities with

3657-420: The native language of hundreds of millions of people, renamed as different Romance languages and dialects (French, Italian, Spanish, Corsican , Asturian , Ladin , etc.). Similarly, Old English and Old High German never died, but developed into various forms of modern English and German, as well as other related tongues still spoken (e.g. Scots from Old English and Yiddish from Old High German). With regard to

3726-939: The political fragmentation of the time. Now, it is the standard language of Italy. Until the late 1940s, the prominent literary language in Japan was the Classical Japanese language ( 文語 , bungo ) , which is based on the language spoken in Heian period ( Late Old Japanese ) and is different from the contemporary Japanese language in grammar and some vocabulary. It still has relevance for historians, literary scholars, and lawyers (many Japanese laws that survived World War II are still written in bungo , although there are ongoing efforts to modernize their language). Bungo grammar and vocabulary are occasionally used in modern Japanese for effect, and fixed form poetries like Haiku and Tanka are still mainly written in this form. In

3795-463: The popular language, known as Serbo-Croatian . Tagalog was the basis of the Filipino language ; both share the same vocabulary and grammatical system and are mutually intelligible. However, there is a significant political and social history that underlies the reasons for differentiating between Tagalog and Filipino. Modern Tagalog is derived from Archaic Tagalog , which was likely spoken during

3864-413: The province of the modern literary style: for instance most cinema , theatre and popular entertainment on television and radio. There are also many dialects of Kannada, Which are Dharwad Kannada of North Karnataka , Arebhashe of Dakshina Kannada and Kodagu, Kundakannada of Kundapura, Havyaka Kannada are major dialects. Classical Latin was the literary register used in writing from 75 BC to

3933-528: The radio. Standard Yoruba has its origin in the 1850s, when Samuel A. Crowther , native Yoruba and the first African Anglican Bishop in Nigeria, published a Yoruba grammar and started his translation of the Bible. Though for a large part based on the Ọyọ and Ibadan dialects, Standard Yoruba incorporates several features from other dialects. Additionally, it has some features peculiar to itself only, for example

4002-658: The recorded speech of the freedmen in the Cena Trimalchionis by Petronius Arbiter . At the Third Council of Tours in 813, priests were ordered to preach in the vernacular language—either in the rustica lingua romanica (Vulgar Latin), or in the Germanic vernaculars —since the common people could no longer understand formal Latin. The Malay language exists in a classical variety, two modern standard variety and several vernacular dialects. Maltese has

4071-399: The simple past tense Präteritum in written language. In vernacular German, genitive phrases ("des Tages") are frequently replaced with a construction of "von" + dative object ("von dem Tag") - comparable to English "the dog's tail" vs. "the tail of the dog" - likewise the Präteritum ("ich ging") can be substituted with the perfect ("ich bin gegangen") to a certain degree. Nevertheless,

4140-597: The standard official language learned are now the unrelated languages Urdu and English, and in Baltistan , the Tibetan Balti language serves as the low register while the unrelated Urdu is the official language. The Turkic Chagatai language served as the high register literary standard for Central Asian Turkic peoples, while the vernacular low register languages were the Uzbek language and Eastern Turki (Modern Uyghur) . The Soviet Union abolished Chagatai as

4209-417: The two forms are identical; differing forms, such as verb conjugations, are easily converted from one form to another. However, the vocabulary is quite different from one form to the other and must be learned separately. Among the works of Rabindranath Tagore are examples of both shadhubhasha (especially among his earlier works) and chôlitôbhasha (especially among his later works). The national anthem of India

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4278-404: The use of neither the Präteritum nor especially the genitive case is totally unusual in daily language, though it is considered rare, and might be dependent on a region's dialect and/or the grade of education of the speaker. People of higher education use the genitive more regularly in their casual speech and the use of perfect instead of Präteritum is especially common in southern Germany, where

4347-506: The works of Shakespeare and as well as in King James Bible, hence the literary importance of early modern English in contemporary English literature and English studies . Modern Standard Arabic is the contemporary literary and standard register of Classical Arabic used in writing across all Arabic -speaking countries and any governing body with Arabic as an official language. Many western scholars distinguish two varieties:

4416-492: The written language, skills in reading or writing Etruscan are all but non-existent, but trained people can understand and write Old English, Old High German, and Latin. Latin differs from the Germanic counterparts in that an approximation of its ancient form is still employed to some extent liturgically. This last observation illustrates that for Latin, Old English, or Old High German to be described accurately as dead or extinct,

4485-531: Was a diglossic language for much of its history, with Classical Armenian serving as the "high" literary standard and liturgical language, and the Western Armenian and Eastern Armenian dialects serving as the vernacular language of the Armenian people. Western Armenian and Eastern Armenian were eventually standardized into their own literary forms. Standard Bengali has two forms: Grammatically,

4554-521: Was made the official language. During the revival of the Hebrew language , spoken and literary Hebrew were revived separately, causing a dispersion between the two. The dispersion started to narrow sometime after the two movements merged, but substantial differences between the two still exist. When Italy unified in 1860, Italian existed mainly as a literary language. Different languages were spoken throughout Italy, almost all of which were Romance languages which had developed in every region, due to

4623-461: Was originally written in the shadhubhasha form of Bengali. Literary Chinese ( 文言文 ; wényánwén ; 'written-speech writing') is the form of written Chinese used from the end of the Han dynasty to the early 20th century. Literary Chinese continually diverged from Classical Chinese , as the dialects of China became more disparate and as the classical written language became less representative of

4692-511: Was the literary language of Serbs in the Habsburg monarchy used from the mid-18th century to 1825. It was a linguistic blend of Church Slavonic of the Russian recension, vernacular Serbian ( Štokavian dialect ), and Russian . At the beginning of the 19th century, it was severely attacked by Vuk Karadžić and his followers, whose reformatory efforts formed modern literary Serbian based on

4761-693: Was used for official and religious purposes, such as in Tibetan Buddhist religious texts like the Tibetan Buddhist canon and taught and learned in monasteries and schools in Tibetan Buddhist regions. Now, Standard Tibetan , based on the Lhasa dialect, serves as the high register in China. In Bhutan, the Tibetan Dzongkha language has been standardised and replaced Classical Tibetan for official purposes and education, in Ladakh ,

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