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98-508: The Hồ/Hú family originated around modern-day Zhejiang province in the Southern Tang dynasty , which controlled much of southeast China, around the 940s. China was then in the midst of the chaotic Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period . The Hồ claimed descent from Duke Hu of Chen (Trần Hồ công, 陳胡公), who in turn was descended from the ancient Chinese Emperor Shun (Thuấn, 舜). Under Hồ Liêm (胡廉), Hồ Quý Ly's great-great-grandfather,

196-730: A South Sea slave at the eve of an important ceremonial state sacrifice. The Champa civilization and what would later be the Sultanate of Sulu which was still Hindu at that time and known as Lupah Sug , which is also in the Philippines, engaged in commerce with each other which resulted in merchant Chams settling in Sulu from the 10th-13th centuries, establishing trading centers. There they were called Orang Dampuan and, due to their wealth, many of them were killed by native Sulu Buranuns. The Buranun were then subjected to retaliatory killings by

294-673: A Cham Bani cleric – which was more successful and even briefly reestablished a Cham state for a short period of time, before being crushed by Minh Mang's forces. The unfortunate defeat of the people of Panduranga in their struggle against Vietnamese oppression also sealed their and remnant of Champa's fate. A large chunk of the Cham in Panduranga were subjected to forced assimilation by the Vietnamese, while many Cham, including indigenous highland peoples, were indiscriminately killed by

392-499: A Cham king named Jaya Prakāśadharma who ascended the throne of Champa as Vikrantavarman I (r. 653–686). Prakāśadharma had thorough knowledge of Sanskrit learning, Sanskrit literature, and Indian cosmology. He authorized many constructions of religious sanctuaries at My Son and several building projects throughout the kingdom, laying down the foundations for the Champa art and architectural styles. He also sent many embassies regularly to

490-399: A Vietnamese invasion in 982 led by king Le Hoan of Dai Viet , followed by Lưu Kế Tông (r. 986–989), a fanatical Vietnamese usurper who took the throne of Champa in 983, brought mass destruction to Northern Champa. Indrapura was still one of the major centers of Champa until being surpassed by Vijaya in the 12th century. The History of Song notes that to the east of Champa through

588-542: A confederation of kingdom(s) and individual city-states for most of its history. For several periods from the 700s to 1471, there was the king of kings or the overlord based out of the most significant powerful cities like Indrapura and Vijaya , who wielded more power, influence, and sense of unity over the other Cham kings and princes, and perhaps those minor local kings and princes (Yuvarāja – not necessary mean crown prince) or regional military commander/warlords (senāpati) were from local associates that had no connection with

686-406: A court fixture in the position of the emperors' indispensable advisor. In less than 20 years, while many others involved in court intrigues were being assassinated all around him, Hồ Quý Ly attained the highest post of General/Protector/Regent of the country in 1399. To facilitate his takeover, Hồ Quý Ly first had a new capital built, called Tây Đô (literally "Western Capital"). In 1399, he invited

784-440: A descendant of the legendary sage king Emperor Shun ) with the state of Chen (in modern Henan Province). His posthumous name was Duke Hu, and his descendants adopted Hu as their surname. Second, Hu could derive from two Zhou vassal states named Hu 胡, one located near Luohe ( Henan Province) or another near Fuyang ( Anhui Province). Third, Hu could derive from non-Chinese people adopting it as their surname. For example, in

882-655: A guerrilla resistance against the Yuan for two years, together with Dai Viet , eventually repelling the Mongols back to China by June 1285. After the Yuan wars ended decisively in 1288, Dai Viet king Trần Nhân Tông spent his retirement years in Northern Champa, and arranged a marriage between his daughter, Princess Huyền Trân , and Prince Harijit – now reigning as Jaya Simhavarman III (r. 1288–1307) - in 1306 in exchange for peace and territory. From 1307 to 1401, not even

980-485: A linga called Bhadresvara, whose name was a combination of the king's own name and that of the Hindu god of gods Shiva . The worship of the original god-king under the name Bhadresvara and other names continued through the centuries that followed. Being famously known as skillful sailors and navigators, as early as the 5th century CE, the Cham might have reached India by themselves. King Gangaraja (r. 413–?) of Champa

1078-477: A long time by scholars until Po Dharma . Cham literature also have been greatly preserved in approximately more than 3,000 Cham manuscripts and printed books dating from the 16th to 20th centuries. The Southeast Asia Digital Library (SEADL) at Northern Illinois University currently contains an extensive collection of 977 digitized Cham manuscripts, totaling more than 57,800 pages of multigenre content. Modern scholarship has been guided by two competing theories in

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1176-671: A mobile secretariat ( xingsheng ) in Champa for the purpose of dominating the South China Sea and the Indian Ocean trade networks. It demonstrated the strategic importance of Champa as a naval juggernaut of medieval maritime Eurasia. The Yuan campaign led by General Sogetu against the Cham began in February 1283 with their initial capture of Vijaya forcing the Cham king Indravarman V (r. 1258–1287) and Prince Harijit to wage

1274-525: A new Buddhist dynasty founded by Indravarman II (r. ? – 893) moved the capital or the major center of Champa to the north again. Indravarman II established the city of Indrapura , near My Son and ancient Simhapura . Mahayana Buddhism eclipsed Hinduism, becoming the state religion. Art historians often attribute the period between 875 and 982 as the Golden Age of Champa art and Champa culture (distinguish with modern Cham culture). Unfortunately,

1372-603: A new dynasty of Jaya Simhavarman VI (r. 1390–1400). His successor Indravarman VI (r. 1400–1441) reigned for the next 41 years, expanding Champa's territory to the Mekong Delta amidst the decline of the Angkorian Empire . One of Indravarman's nephews, Prince Śrīndra-Viṣṇukīrti Virabhadravarman , became king of Champa in 1441. By the mid 15th century, Champa might have been suffering a steady dooming decline. No inscription survived after 1456. The Vietnamese under

1470-454: A predecessor state in the region, began its existence in 192 CE. In the 4th century CE, wars with the neighbouring Kingdom of Funan in Cambodia and the acquisition of Funanese territory led to the infusion of Indian culture into Cham society. Sanskrit was adopted as a scholarly language, and Hinduism , especially Shaivism , became the state religion. Starting from the 10th century CE,

1568-450: A quasi-registral, incipiently tonal system . After the fall of Vijaya Champa in 1471, another group of Cham and Chamic might have moved west, forming Haroi , which has reversal Bahnaric linguistic influences. According to Cham folk legends, Champa was founded by Lady Po Nagar –the divine mother goddess of the kingdom. She came from the Moon, arrived in modern Central Vietnam and founded

1666-587: A single surviving indigenous source exists in Champa, and almost all of its 14th-century history has to rely on Chinese and Vietnamese sources. Engraving Sanskrit inscription, the prestige language of religious and political elites in Champa, stopped in 1253. No other grand temple or other construction project was built after 1300. These facts marked the beginning of Champa's decline. From 1367 to 1390, according to Chinese and Vietnamese sources, Che Bong Nga , who ruled as king of Champa from 1360 to 1390, had restored Champa. He launched six invasions of Dai Viet during

1764-498: A small fraction, or about 40,000 Cham people in the old Panduranga remained in 1885 when the French completed their acquisition of Vietnam . The French colonial administration prohibited Kinh discrimination and prejudice against Cham and indigenous highland peoples, putting an end to Vietnamese cultural genocide of the Cham. But French colonialists also exploited the ethnic hatred in situ between Vietnamese and Cham to deal with remnant of

1862-467: A species of flowering tree known for its fragrant flowers. Rolf Stein proposed that Champa might have been inspired when Austronesian sailors originating from Central Vietnam arrived in present-day Eastern India around the area of Champapuri , an ancient sacred city in Buddhism , for trade, then adopted the name for their people back in their homeland. While Louis Finot argued that the name Champa

1960-412: A strong monarch, the territories of the kingdom stretch from present-day Quảng Bình to Khánh Hòa . An internal division called viṣaya (district) was first introduced. There were at least two viṣaya: Caum and Midit. Each of them has a handful number of local koṣṭhāgāras –known as 'source of stable income to upkeep the worship of three gods. During the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, northern Champa

2058-657: A two-day journey lay the country of Ma-i at Mindoro, Philippines; which Champa had trade relations with. Afterwards, during the 1000s, Rajah Kiling, the Hindu king of the Philippine Rajahnate of Butuan instigated a commercial rivalry with the Champa Civilization by requesting diplomatic equality in court protocol towards his Rajahnate, from the Chinese Empire , which was later denied by

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2156-640: Is a Chinese surname . In 2006, it was the 15th most common surname in China . In 2013, it was the 13th most common in China, with 13.7 million Chinese sharing this surname. In 2019, Hu dropped to 15th most common surname in Mainland China. Some other, less common surnames pronounced Hu include 瓠 , 護 , 戶 , 扈 , 虎 , 呼 , 忽 , 斛 and 壶 . In Cantonese, “胡” is also pronounced as "Wu" or "Woo". In Classical Chinese , hú 胡 meant: " dewlap ; wattle " and

2254-636: Is also worshiped by the Vietnamese, a tradition that dates back to the 11th century during the Ly dynasty period. The Chams descended from seafaring settlers who reached the Southeast Asian mainland from Borneo about the time of the Sa Huỳnh culture between 1000 BCE and 200 CE, the predecessor of the Cham kingdom. The Cham language is part of the Austronesian family. According to one study, Cham

2352-485: Is rare in China to the point where many people are not aware that it is used as a surname. Some believe it comes from the name of a 4,300-year-old chancellor, while others believe it originates among the Hui Muslim minority. Champa Champa ( Cham : ꨌꩌꨛꨩ, چامفا; Khmer : ចាម្ប៉ា ; Vietnamese : Chiêm Thành 占城 or Chiêm Bá 占婆) was a collection of independent Cham polities that extended across

2450-688: Is related most closely to modern Acehnese in northern Sumatra. The Sa Huỳnh culture was an Austronesian seafaring culture that centered around present-day Central Vietnam coastal region. During its heyday, the culture distributed across the Central Vietnam coast and had commercial links across the South China Sea with the Philippine archipelago and even with Taiwan (through Maritime Jade Road , Sa Huynh-Kalanay Interaction Sphere ), which now most archaeologists and scholars have consentient determined and are no longer hesitant in linking with

2548-400: Is richest for Indrapura ; in the 12th century CE, it is richest for Vijaya ; following the 15th century CE, it is richest for Panduranga . Some scholars have taken these shifts in the historical record to reflect the movement of the Cham capital from one location to another. According to such scholars, if the 10th-century record is richest for Indrapura, it is so because at that time Indrapura

2646-479: Is spoken throughout maritime Southeast Asia. Although Cham culture is usually intertwined with the broader culture of Champa, the kingdom had a multiethnic population, which consisted of Austronesian Chamic-speaking peoples that made up the majority of its demographics. The people who used to inhabit the region are the present-day Chamic-speaking Cham , Rade and Jarai peoples in South and Central Vietnam and Cambodia;

2744-643: The Sakkarai dak rai patao , was a 5227-pages collection of Cham veritable records, documenting a history range from early legendary kings of 11th–13th century to the deposition of Po Thak The , the last king of Panduranga in 1832, reckoning in total 39 rulers of Panduranga, the tales of spread of Islam to Champa in 1000 CE, to Po Thak The . The annals were written in Akhar Thrah (traditional) Cham script with collection of Cham and Vietnamese seals imprinted by Vietnamese rulers. However, it had been dismissed for

2842-620: The Wu Hu 五胡 (" Five Barbarians ") "five nomadic tribes involved in the Wu Hu uprising " (304-316 CE) against the Jin dynasty . Hu ( Foochow Romanized : Hù; POJ : Hô or Ô) was also one of the eight surnames of the first Han Chinese clans who first moved out the Central Plains into Fujian province (八姓入閩; Foochow Romanized : Báik Sáng Ĭk Mìng) during this conflict. The Hồ 胡 clan which founded

2940-495: The Acehnese from Northern Sumatra , Indonesia , along with elements of Austroasiatic Bahnaric and Katuic -speaking peoples in Central Vietnam. Champa was preceded in the region by a kingdom called Lâm Ấp (Vietnamese), or Linyi ( 林邑 , Middle Chinese ( ZS ): * liɪm ʔˠiɪp̚ ), that was in existence since 192 AD; although the historical relationship between Linyi and Champa is not clear. Champa reached its apogee in

3038-640: The Arab maritime routes in Mainland Southeast Asia as a supplier of aloe . Despite the frequent wars between the Cham and the Khmer , the two nations also traded and their cultural influences moved in the same directions. Since royal families of the two countries intermarried frequently. Champa also had close trade and cultural relations with the powerful maritime empire of Srivijaya and later with

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3136-593: The Can Vuong movement in Binh Thuan. The King of Champa is the title ruler of Champa. Champa rulers often use two Hinduist style titles: raja-di-raja ( राजाधिराजः " raja of rajas" or king of kings : written here in Devanagari since the Cham used their own Cham script ) or pu po tana raya ("lord of all territories"). They would be addressed by style ganreh patrai (his Majesty). Officially,

3234-460: The Cham–Vietnamese War (1471) , Champa suffered serious defeats at the hands of the Vietnamese, in which 120,000 people were either captured or killed. 50 members of the Cham royal family and some 20–30,000 were taken prisoners and deported, including the king of Champa Tra Toan , who died along his way to the north in captivity. Contemporary reports from China record a Cham envoy telling to

3332-598: The Eastern Han dynasty of China in Xianglin who rebelled against Chinese rule in 192. Around the 4th century CE, Cham polities began to absorb much of Indic influences , probably through its neighbor, Funan . Hinduism was established as Champa began to create Sanskrit stone inscriptions and erect red brick Hindu temples . The first king acknowledged in the inscriptions is Bhadravarman , who reigned from 380 to 413 CE. At Mỹ Sơn , King Bhadravarman established

3430-704: The Hồ dynasty in Vietnam originated in Zhejiang province of China. The Hu family of Xidi are descended from Hu Shiliang, from Wuyuan, who was a descendant of Hu Changyi, a son of Emperor Zhaozong of Tang who was adopted by the Wuyuan Hu family. Based on a study in 2020, Hu is a common surname in Italy due to significant amount of immigration population from Zhejiang. The surname 虎 (Hǔ), which means "Tiger",

3528-653: The Majapahit of the Malay Archipelago , its easternmost trade relations being with the kingdoms of Ma-i . Butuan , and Sulu in the Philippines. Evidence gathered from linguistic studies around Aceh confirms that a very strong Chamic cultural influence existed in Indonesia; this is indicated by the use of the Chamic language Acehnese as the main language in the coastal regions of Aceh. Linguists believe

3626-656: The Rade , Jarai , Chru , Roglai peoples call the Cham by similar lexemes which likely derived from Čaṃ. Vietnamese historical accounts also have the Cham named as Chiêm. Most importantly, the official designation of Champa in Chinese historical texts was Zhànchéng –meaning "the city of the Cham," "why not city of the Champa?," Vickery doubts. The historiography of Champa relies upon four types of sources: Approximately four hundred Champa inscriptions have been found. Around 250 of them were deciphered and studied throughout

3724-653: The Tang Empire and neighboring Khmer. The Chinese reckoned Champa during the 7th century as the chief tributary state of the South, on par with the Korean kingdoms of Koguryŏ in the Northeast and Baekje in the East — "though the latter was rivaled by Japan." Between the 7th to 10th centuries CE, the Cham polities rose to become a naval power; as Cham ports attracted local and foreign traders, Cham fleets also controlled

3822-623: The matrilocal structure of Cham families. And compared to other Vietnamese ethnic groups, the Cham do not share ancestry with southern Han Chinese, along with Austronesian-speaking Mang. Champa was known to the Chinese as 林邑 Linyi in Mandarin, Lam Yap in Cantonese and to the Vietnamese, Lâm Ấp (which is the Sino-Vietnamese pronunciation of 林邑). The state of Champa was founded in 192 CE by Khu Liên (Ou Lian), an official of

3920-440: The Đông Yên Châu inscription , the oldest known native Southeast Asian literature written in a native Southeast Asian language dating to around c. 350 CE, predating first Khmer , Mon , Malay texts by centuries. Scholarly consensus has shifted several times as to what degree Champa functioned as a unified entity. Originally being viewed as a unified kingdom throughout most of its history, later authors suggested that Champa

4018-421: The 1370s and 1380s declined steadily after Trần Nghệ Tông 's reign (1370–1372). He had ceded the throne in favor of his son Trần Duệ Tông (r. 1372–77), his grandson Trần Phế Đế (r. 1377–88), and Trần Thuận Tông (r. 1388–98), one of his younger sons. The Trần dynasty became known for emperors who reigned for only a few years before relinquishing the throne to a favorite son, and becoming Thái Thượng Hoàng Đế,

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4116-461: The 496 Change of Xianbei names to Han names , Hegu/Gegu 紇骨 was changed to Hu 胡. Fourth, Hu could derive from the clan name of the ancient Tiele people within the Xiongnu confederation. Non-Chinese peoples and ethnic minorities in China sometimes took the Chinese exonym for their ethnic group as their surname. The best example is Hu 胡, which was anciently used to refer to "barbarian" groups on

4214-502: The 9th and 10th centuries CE. Thereafter, it began a gradual decline under pressure from Đại Việt , the Vietnamese polity centered in the region of modern Hanoi . In 1832, the Vietnamese emperor Minh Mạng annexed the remaining Cham territories. Hinduism , adopted through conflicts and conquest of territory from neighboring Funan in the 4th century CE, shaped the art and culture of the Cham Kingdom for centuries, as testified by

4312-1012: The Acehnese language, a descendant of the Proto-Chamic language, separated from the Chamic tongue sometime in the 1st millennium BCE. However, scholarly views on the precise nature of Aceh-Chamic relations vary. Tsat , a northern Chamic language spoken by the Utsul on the Hainan Island, is speculated to be separated from Cham at the time when contact between Champa and Islam had grown considerably, but precise details remain inadequate. Under Chinese language influence over Hainan, Tsat has become fully monosyllabic, while some certain shifts to monosyllabicity can be observed in Eastern Cham (in contact with Vietnamese). Eastern Cham has developed

4410-557: The Arab maritime trade introduces Islamic cultural and religious influences to the region. Although Hinduism was the predominant religion among the Cham people until the 16th century, Islam began to attract large numbers of Chams, when some members of the Cham royalty converted to Islam in the 17th century. Champa came to serve as an important link in the spice trade , which stretched from the Persian Gulf to South China , and later in

4508-681: The Bacam ( Bacham , Chiêm tục) who still retain and preserve their Hindu faith, rituals, and festivals. The Bacam is one of only two surviving non- Indic indigenous Hindu peoples in the world, with a culture dating back thousands of years. The other being the Balinese Hindus of the Balinese people of Indonesia . The name Champa derived from the Sanskrit word campaka (pronounced /tʃampaka/ ), which refers to Magnolia champaca ,

4606-407: The Cham of Panduranga a Tân Dân (new people), denoting the imposed mundanity that nothing to ever differentiate them with other Vietnamese. Minh Mang's son and successor Thiệu Trị , however, reverted most of his father's strict policies against Catholic Christians and ethnic minorities. Under Thiệu Trị and Tu Duc , the Cham were reallowed to practice their religions with little prohibition. Only

4704-409: The Cham subjects. Cham culture and Cham identity were rapidly, systematically destroyed. Vietnamese settlers seized most of Cham farmlands and commodity productions, pushing the Cham to far-inland arid highlands, and the Cham were subjected to heavy taxations and mandated conscriptions. Two widespread Cham revolts against Minh Mang's oppression arose in 1833–1835, the latter led by khatib Ja Thak Wa -

4802-495: The Champa Alliance. Started from the 17th century, Champa kings used title Paduka Seri Sultan in some occasions, a borrowed honorific from Muslim Malay rulers. The 13th-century Chinese gazetteer account Zhu Fan Zhi (c. 1225) describes the Cham king 'wears a headdress of gold and adorns his body with strings of jewels' and either rides on an elephant or is lifted on a 'cloth hammock by four men' when he goes outside

4900-463: The Champa rulers originated from the Hindu tradition, often consisting of titles and aliases. Titles (prefix) like: Jaya ( जय "victory"), Maha ( महा "great"), Sri ( श्री "glory"). Aliases (stem) like: Bhadravarman, Vikrantavarman, Rudravarman, Simhavarman, Indravarman, Paramesvaravarman, Harivarman... Among them, the suffix -varman belongs to the Kshatriya class and is only for those leaders of

4998-546: The Chinese Imperial court, mainly because of favoritism for the Champa civilization. However, the future Rajah of Butuan, Sri Bata Shaja later succeeded in attaining diplomatic equality with Champa by sending the flamboyant ambassador Likanhsieh. Likanhsieh shocked the Emperor Zhenzong by presenting a memorial engraved on a golden tablet, some white dragon ( Bailong 白龍) camphor , Moluccan cloves, and

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5096-403: The Chinese court: "Annam destroyed our country" with additional notes of massive burning and looting, in which 40 to 60,000 people were slaughtered. The kingdom was reduced to a small enclave near Nha Trang and Phan Rang with many Chams fleeing to Cambodia . Champa was reduced to the principalities of Panduranga and Kauthara at the beginning of the 16th century. Kauthara was annexed by

5194-562: The Hồ dynasty, the Chữ nôm script was promoted by the Hồ over Classical Chinese to write the vernacular Vietnamese language. In 1402 the army of the Hồ dynasty under general Đỗ Mãn made significant inroads against Champa , prompting the Champa king to cede large territory to Vietnam. Stable relations with the Ming dynasty were Hồ Quý Ly's foremost concern. Unfortunately, this matter proved impossible for

5292-635: The Hồ family were descendants of Shun of Yu (虞舜, "Ngu" is Vietnamese pronunciation for 虞 "Yu") through Gui Man (媯滿), the Duke Hu of Chen ("Hồ" is the Vietnamese pronunciation for "胡 Hu"). Taking a page from the ruling book of his Trần predecessors, Hồ Quý Ly reigned less than a year before relinquishing the throne to his second son, Hồ Hán Thương. He then became known as the Emperor's Highest Father (太上皇, Sino-Vietnamese : Thái thượng hoàng). Under

5390-490: The Hồ to pursue by that time of civil unrest. The descendants of the deposed Trần dynasty had begun agitating against the "usurper" Hồ Quý Ly. This internal disquiet kept the country in chaos and allowed an opportunity for the Ming to conquer Đại Việt with the help of the Trần sympathizers. In May 1403, Hồ Quý Ly's requested the recognition of his son from the Ming court on the account that the Trần lineage had died out and that his son

5488-526: The Khmer king, leading to a Cham occupation of Cambodia for the next four years. Jayavarman VII of Angkor launched several counterattack campaigns in the 1190s (1190, 1192, 1194–1195, 1198–1203), conquering Champa and making it a dependency of the Khmer Empire for 30 years. Champa was subjected to a Mongol Yuan invasion in 1283–1285. Before the invasion, Kublai Khan ordered the establishment of

5586-519: The Malay Peninsula, Sumatra and Java). In 767, the Tonkin coast was raided by a Javanese fleet (Daba) and Kunlun pirates, Champa was subsequently assaulted by Javanese or Kunlun vessels in 774 and 787. In 774 an assault was launched on Po-Nagar in Nha Trang where the pirates demolished temples, while in 787 an assault was launched on Virapura, near Phan Rang . The Javanese invaders continued to occupy southern Champa coastline until being driven off by Indravarman I (r. 787–801) in 799. In 875,

5684-512: The Orang Dampuan. Harmonious commerce between Sulu and the Orang Dampuan was later restored. The Yakans were descendants of the Taguima-based Orang Dampuan who came to Sulu from Champa. The twelfth century in Champa is defined by constant social upheavals and warfare, Khmer invasions were frequent. The Khmer Empire conquered Northern Champa in 1145, but were quickly repulsed by king Jaya Harivarman I (r. 1148–1167). Another Angkorian invasion of Champa led by Suryavarman II in summer 1150 also

5782-422: The Right and of the Left, respectively. (Zhu died of illness en route and was replaced by Zhang) The Ming Shilu 2 December 1407 entry recorded the Yongle Emperor's order to Marquis Zhang Fu not to harm any innocent Vietnamese. In 1407, the fall of Da Bang fortress, and the defeats of the Hồ at Moc Pham Giang and Ham Tu all precipitated the fall of the Hồ dynasty. At the Ham Tu battle, the Hồ family tried to escape

5880-403: The Vietnamese in 1471, Kauthara and Pāṇḍuraṅga persisted existing untouched. Kauthara fell to the Vietnamese 200 years later in 1653, while Panduranga was annexed in 1832. Pāṇḍuraṅga had its full list of kings ruled from the 13th century until 1832, which both Vietnamese and European sources had verified. So Pāṇḍuraṅga remained autonomous and could conduct its foreign affairs without permission from

5978-435: The Vietnamese in 1653. From 1799 to 1832, Panduranga lost its hereditary monarchy status, with kings selected and appointed by the Vietnamese court in Huế . The last remaining principality of Champa, Panduranga, survived until August 1832, when Minh Mang of Vietnam began his purge against rival Le Van Duyet 's faction, and accused the Cham leaders of supporting Duyet. Minh Mang ordered the last Cham king Po Phaok The and

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6076-445: The Vietnamese in massacres, particularly from 1832 to 1836, during the Sumat and Ja Thak Wa uprisings. Bani mosques were razed to the ground. Temples were set on fire. Cham villages and their aquatic livelihoods were annihilated. By that time, the Cham totally lost their ancestors' seafaring and shipbuilding traditions. After finalizing these heavy-handed pacifications of Cham rebels and assimilation policies, emperor Minh Mang declared

6174-442: The Yongle Emperor thus took no action until early 1405, when a Vietnamese envoy confirmed the pretender's story, whereupon he issued an edict reprimanding Hồ Quý Ly and demanding that the Trần be restored. Hồ Quý Ly had doubts about the pretender's claims, but nevertheless agreed to receive the pretender as king. Thus, Trần Thiên Bính was escorted back by a military convoy, accompanied by a Ming ambassador. However, on 4 April 1406, as

6272-439: The ancestors of the Austronesian Cham and Chamic -speaking peoples. While Northern Vietnam Kinh people assimilated Han Chinese immigrants into their population, have a sinicized culture, Cham people carry the patrilineal R-M17 haplogroup of South Asian Indian origin from South Asian merchants spreading Hinduism to Champa and marrying Cham females since Chams have no matrilineal South Asian mtDNA , and this fits with

6370-426: The coast of what is present-day central and southern Vietnam from approximately the 2nd century CE until 1832. According to earliest historical references found in ancient sources, the first Cham polities were established around the 2nd to 3rd centuries CE, in the wake of Khu Liên 's rebellion against the rule of China's Eastern Han dynasty , and lasted until when the final remaining principality of Champa

6468-526: The current emperor, Trần Thuận Tông, to visit this new capital. After coaxing the emperor into relinquishing the throne to Prince An (a three-year-old child) he had Trần Thuận Tông imprisoned in a pagoda and later executed. Prince An "reigned" for one year until Hồ Quý Ly deposed him in 1400 and declared himself to be the new emperor. After coronation, Hồ Quý Ly immediately changed the country's name from Đại Việt to Đại Ngu ( 大 虞 , meaning "Great Peace"), which might have been inspired by Hồ Quý Ly's claims that

6566-412: The deadly Champa–Đại Việt War (1367–1390) , sacking its capital in 1371, 1377, 1378, and 1383, nearly bringing the Dai Viet to its collapse. Che Bong Nga was only stopped in 1390 on a naval battle in which the Vietnamese deployed firearms for the first time, and miraculously killed the king of Champa, ending the devastating war. After Che Bong Nga , Champa seemingly rebounced to its status quo under

6664-424: The dominant ruling dynasty or could be a member of that royal lineage within the perimeter of the mandala. Mandala is the term coined by O. W. Wolters describing the distribution of state power among small states within large kingdoms in premodern Southeast Asia. Two notable examples of this multi-centric nature of Champa were the principalities of Kauthara and Pāṇḍuraṅga . When Northern Champa and Vijaya fell to

6762-410: The early East Asia–South Asian subcontinent maritime route, could have visited and made communications with local Chamic communities along the coast of Central Vietnam. They played some roles in disseminating Indian culture and Buddhism. But that was not sustained and decisive as active "Indianized native societies," he argues, or Southeast Asian kingdoms that had already been "Indianized" like Funan, were

6860-412: The early Southeast Asian peoples, Hinduism was somewhat similar to their original beliefs. This resulted in peaceful conversions to Hinduism and Buddhism in Champa with little resistance. Rudravarman I of Champa (r. 529–572), a descendant of Gangaraja through maternal line, became king of Champa in 529 CE. During his reign, the temple complex of Bhadresvara was destroyed by a great fire in 535/536. He

6958-410: The enemy but was caught by the Ming and sent to exile in China. Hồ Quý Ly initiated the introduction of the a country-wide paper currency around 1399 or 1400. His other reforms included land reform , opening of ports to foreign trade, reform of the judiciary, health care and opening the education system to study mathematics and agriculture alongside Confucian texts. Hu (surname) Hu ( 胡 )

7056-600: The family migrated south from the Southern Tang until they established themselves in northern Vietnam. Hồ Liêm moved further south and settled in Thanh Hóa Province (about 100 km south of the modern city of Hanoi ). Some historians bring attention to the fact that Hồ Quý Ly is also known as Lê Quý Ly. In his childhood, Hồ Quý Ly was adopted by Lê Huan, and took his family name. He did not change his family name from Lê back to Hồ until after he had deposed

7154-538: The first dynasty to take the name of Father of "Hoàng Đế" emperor title. Hồ Quý Ly was a skillful and sly politician that arose during the Tran dynasty. He was widely known for his cunning, courage, and boldness, and had distinguished himself in a successful campaign against the Chams of Champa . Through his scheming and shrewd marriage alliances (to a sister of Emperor Trần Duệ Tông and Trần Thuận Tông), Hồ Quý Ly made himself

7252-409: The historiography of Champa. Scholars agree that historically Champa was divided into several regions or principalities spread out from south to north along the coast of modern Vietnam and united by a common language, culture, and heritage. It is acknowledged that the historical record is not equally rich for each of the regions in every historical period. For example, in the 10th century CE, the record

7350-430: The illusion of a unified Champa. Recent revisionist historians in the 1980s, for example Po Dharma and Trần Quốc Vượng , refuted the concept of single Champa. Chinese historical texts, Cham inscriptions, and especially the Cham annals, the Sakkarai dak rai patao , both confirm the existence of multi-Campa scenarios. Po Dharma argues that Champa was not a single kingdom or centralized in the manner of Đại Việt but likely

7448-461: The key factors of the process. On the other hand, Paul Mus suggests the reason for the peaceful acceptance of Hinduism by the Cham elite was likely related to the tropical monsoon climate background shared by areas like the Bay of Bengal , coastal mainland Southeast Asia all the way from Myanmar to Vietnam. Monsoon societies tended to practice animism , most importantly, the creed of earth spirit. To

7546-426: The king was the patron of art and construction. Majestic temples and shrines were built dedicated to the honor of the king of kings, his ancestors, and their beloved gods (usually Śiva). Some charismatic Cham kings declared themselves Protector of Champa in celebrating royal ceremony and coronation ( abhiseka ) which involves supernatural and spiritual rituals to demonstrate the king's authority. The regnal name of

7644-462: The kingdom, but a typhoon drifted her away and left her stranded on the coast of China, where she married a Chinese prince, and returned to Champa. The Po Nagar temple built in Nha Trang during the 8th century, and rebuilt in the 11th century was dedicated to her. Her portrayal image in the temple is said to date from 965 CE, it is of a commanding personage seated cross-legged upon a throne. She

7742-881: The last century. Many Cham inscriptions were destroyed by American bombing during the Vietnam War . Currently, the Project Corpus of the Inscriptions of Campā launched by French School of Asian Studies (EFEO) partnering with the Institute for Study of the Ancient World (ISAW) of New York University is tasked for cataloging, sustaining and preserving ancient Cham inscriptions into an online index library and publications of scholarship's epigraphical studies into English, French, and Vietnamese. The Cham have their written records in form of paper book, known as

7840-494: The last king of the Trần dynasty. Because of the short span of the Hồ dynasty and the tragic circumstances they brought upon the country, the family name "Hồ" was disgraced thereafter. However, historians have attributed to the Hồ family quite a few notable scholars, dignitaries, and government officials under both the Lý dynasty and the Trần dynasty . The Trần dynasty's authority and power in

7938-501: The many Cham Hindu statues and red brick temples that dotted the landscape in Cham lands. Mỹ Sơn , a former religious center, and Hội An , one of Champa's main port cities, are now World Heritage Sites . Today, many Cham people adhere to Islam , a conversion which began in the 10th century, with the ruling dynasty having fully adopted the faith by the 17th century; they are called the Bani ( Ni tục , from Arabic: Bani ). There are, however,

8036-665: The northern and western frontiers of China. Hu (胡) was used for various northern and western peoples of non-Han Chinese stock. It has been used for people of Persian, Sogdian, Turkic, Xianbi , Indian and Kushan origin and occasionally for the Xiongnu (probably because of their connections with the Tonghu or Eastern Hu – a separate tribe conquered by the Xiongnu). Two historically significant Hu names are Donghu 東胡 (literally "Eastern Barbarians") "ancient Mongolian nomadic group" and

8134-410: The palace. When the king attends the court audience, he is encircled by 'thirty female attendants who carry swords and shields or betel nuts'. Court officials would make reports to the king, then make one prostration before leaving. The last king of Champa, Po Phaok The , was deposed by Minh Mạng in 1832. During the reign of the king Prakasadharma (r. 653–686 AD), when Champa was briefly ruled by

8232-479: The party crossed the border into Lạng Sơn , Hồ's forces ambushed them and killed both the prince and the Ming ambassador. Hồ also begun harassing the southern border of the Ming. On 11 May 1406, the Yongle Emperor sent two forces for an invasion. Zhu Neng , Duke of Chengguo, was appointed Commander-in-Chief, Zhang Fu , Marquis of Xincheng, and Mu Sheng , Marquis of Xiping, were appointed Vice-Generals of

8330-487: The seafaring Austronesian Chamic Sa Huỳnh culture off the coast of modern-day Vietnam. Its emergence in the late 2nd century CE exemplifies early Southeast Asian statecraft at a crucial stage of the making of Southeast Asia . The peoples of Champa maintained a system of lucrative trade networks across the region, connecting the Indian Ocean and Eastern Asia , until the 17th century. In Champa, historians also found

8428-530: The strong king Le Thanh Tong launched an invasion of Champa in early 1471 , decimating the capital of Vijaya and most of northern Champa. For early historians like Georges Maspero , "the 1471 conquest had concluded the end of the Champa Kingdom." Maspero, like other early orientalist scholars, by his logics, arbitrated the history of Champa as becoming a "worthy" subject for their study when it adapted and maintained "superior" Indian civilization. In

8526-620: The trade in spices and silk in the South China Sea , between China, the Indonesian archipelago and India . They supplemented their income from the trade routes not only by exporting ivory and aloe, but also by engaging in piracy and raiding. However, the rising influence of Champa caught the attention of a neighbouring thalassocracy that considered Champa as a rival, the Javanese ( Javaka , probably refers to Srivijaya , ruler of

8624-746: The vice-king Po Dhar Kaok to be arrested in Hue, while incorporating the last remnants of Champa into what are the Ninh Thuan and Binh Thuan provinces . To enforce his finger grip, Minh Mang appointed Vietnamese bureaucrats from Hue to govern the Cham directly in phủ Ninh Thuan while removing the traditional Cham customary laws. Administratively, Panduranga was integrated into Vietnam proper with harsh measures. These reforms were known as cải thổ quy lưu ("replacing thổ [aboriginal] chieftains by circulating bureaucratic system"). Speaking Vietnamese and following Vietnamese customs became strictly mandatory for

8722-479: Was a variant Chinese character for "how; why; what" ( he 何 ), "long-lasting; far-reaching" ( xia 遐 ), "part of a dagger-axe ", hu- in "butterfly" ( hudie 蝴蝶 ), or possibly "Northern Barbarians". According to tradition, the Hu (胡) surname has several historical origins. First, Hu could derive from the family of Duke Hu of Chen . King Wu of Zhou (r. 1046-043 BCE) enfeoffed his son-in-law Gui Man 媯滿 (supposedly

8820-611: Was a imperial nephew. Unaware of Hồ's coup, the Yongle Emperor granted him this request. In October 1404, a Trần Thiên Bính (陳添平) arrived at the Ming court in Nanjing , claiming to be a Trần prince, and appealed to the Yongle Emperor to press his claim to the throne. However, in the 1395 Ancestral injunctions , the Yongle Emperor's father, the Hongwu Emperor , specifically ordered that China should never attack Annam –

8918-663: Was annexed by Emperor Minh Mạng of the Vietnamese Nguyễn dynasty as part of the expansionist Nam tiến policy. The kingdom was known variously as Nagaracampa ( Sanskrit : नगरचम्प ), Champa (ꨌꩌꨛꨩ) in modern Cham , and Châmpa ( ចាម្ប៉ា ) in the Khmer inscriptions , Chiêm Thành in Vietnamese , Campa in Malay , Zhànchéng ( Mandarin : 占城) in Chinese records, and al-Ṣanf ( Arabic : صَنْف) in Middle Eastern Muslim records. Early Champa evolved from

9016-467: Was better considered to be a federation of independent states. A number of modern scholars have suggested that Champa did form a unified kingdom in some periods but was disunified in others. The Chams of modern Vietnam and Cambodia are the major remnants of this former kingdom. They speak Chamic languages, a subfamily of Malayo-Polynesian closely related to the Malayic and Bali–Sasak languages that

9114-562: Was brought by Indians to Central Vietnam. Recent academics however dispute the Indic origin explanation, which was conceived by Louis Finot , a colonial-era board director of the École française d'Extrême-Orient . In his 2005 Champa revised, Michael Vickery challenges Finot's idea. He argues that the Cham people always refer themselves as Čaṃ rather than Champa (pa–abbreviation of peśvara , Campādeśa , Campānagara ). Most indigenous Austronesian ethnic groups in Central Vietnam such as

9212-403: Was consisted by several known districts (viṣaya, zhou 洲): Amaravati ( Quảng Ngãi ), Ulik ( Thừa Thiên–Huế ), Vvyar ( Quảng Trị ), Jriy (southern Quảng Bình ), and Traik (northern Quảng Bình ). Other junctions like Panduranga remained quietly autonomous. The classical narrative of 'the Champa Kingdom' brought by earlier generations of scholarship, Georges Maspero and George Coedes , created

9310-459: Was perhaps the only known Southeast Asian ruler who traveled all the way to India shortly after his abdication. He personally went on pilgrimage in the Ganges River , Northeast India . His itinerary was confirmed by both indigenous Cham sources and Chinese chronicles. George Coedès notes that during the 2nd and 3rd century, an influx of Indian traders, priests, and scholars travelled along

9408-465: Was quickly stalled, and Suryavarman died en route. Champa then plummeted into an eleven-year civil war between Jaya Harivarman and his oppositions, which resulted in Champa reunifying under Jaya Harivarman by 1161. After having restored the kingdom and its prosperity, in June 1177 Jaya Indravarman IV (r. 1167–1192) launched a surprise naval assault on Angkor , capital of Cambodia, plundering it, slaying

9506-606: Was succeeded by his son Sambhuvarman (r. 572–629). He reconstructed the temple of Bhadravarman and renamed it Shambhu-bhadreshvara. In 605, the Sui Empire launched an invasion of Lam Ap , overrunning Sambhuvarman's resistance, and sacked the Cham capital at Tra Kieu . He died in 629 and was succeeded by his son, Kandarpadharma , who died in 630–31. Kandarpadharma was succeeded by his son, Prabhasadharma , who died in 645. Several granite tablets and inscriptions from My Son , Tra Kieu , Hue , Khanh Hoa dated 653–687 report

9604-581: Was the capital of Champa. Other scholars have disputed this contention, holding that Champa was never a united country, and arguing that the presence of a particularly rich historical record for a given region in a given period is no basis for claiming that the region functioned as the capital of a united Champa during that period. Through the centuries, Cham culture and society were influenced by forces emanating from Cambodia , China, Java and India amongst others. An official successfully revolted against Chinese rule in modern central Vietnam, and Lâm Ấp ,

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