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118-649: According to medieval chronicles, exemption from feudalism was granted to the Frisians by Charlemagne , although the earliest clear evidence of the Frisian freedom has been dated to the 13th century. Throughout the Middle Ages, Frisians resisted the expansion of feudalism into their lands, fighting a series of wars against the County of Holland in order to maintain their autonomy . During this period, Frisian society

236-529: A birth year of 742. The ninth-century biographer Einhard reports Charlemagne as being 72 years old at the time of his death; the Royal Frankish Annals imprecisely gives his age at death as about 71, and his original epitaph called him a septuagenarian. Einhard said that he did not know much about Charlemagne's early life; some modern scholars believe that, not knowing the emperor's true age, he still sought to present an exact date in keeping with

354-484: A bride for his son. Charlemagne refused the arrangement, and the marriage did not take place. Charlemagne and Offa entered into a formal peace in 796, protecting trade and securing the rights of English pilgrims to pass through Francia on their way to Rome. Charlemagne was also the host and protector of several deposed English rulers who were later restored: Eadbehrt of Kent , Ecgberht, King of Wessex , and Eardwulf of Northumbria . Nelson writes that Charlemagne treated

472-468: A charter that they alleged had been written by Charlemagne and confirmed their freedom from serfdom , feudal duties and taxation . In 1248, William II of Holland confirmed "all the rights, liberties and privileges conceded to all Frisians by the emperor Charlemagne", but the terms were kept vague, so the decree had little significant effect. In 1338, Frisian communitates sent a letter to Philip VI of France , in which they request he be "mindful of

590-411: A copy of the agreement between Pepin and Stephen III outlining the papal lands and rights Pepin had agreed to protect and restore. It is unclear which lands and rights the agreement involved, which remained a point of dispute for centuries. Charlemagne placed a copy of the agreement in the chapel above St. Peter's tomb as a symbol of his commitment, and left Rome to continue the siege. Disease struck

708-482: A distinctly-Frankish context. Charlemagne's coronation led to a centuries-long ideological conflict between his successors and Constantinople known as the problem of two emperors , which could be seen as a rejection or usurpation of the Byzantine emperors' claim to be the universal, preeminent rulers of Christendom. Historian James Muldoon writes that Charlemagne may have had a more limited view of his role, seeing

826-493: A famine in Francia. Hildegard gave birth to another daughter, Bertha . Charlemagne returned to Saxony in 780, holding assemblies at which he received hostages from Saxon nobles and oversaw their baptism. He and Hildegard traveled with their four younger children to Rome in the spring of 781, leaving Pepin and Charles at Worms , to make a journey first requested by Adrian in 775. Adrian baptised Carloman and renamed him Pepin,

944-517: A fictionalised portrayal of the Frisian freedom, which deeply influenced later Frisian historiography. It was later recast as a national myth by Frisian nationalism , which depicted freedom as an inherent trait of the Frisian people and portrayed a level of historical continuity that is disputed by historians. The region of Frisia extends along the North Sea coastline , from the Zuiderzee in

1062-587: A joint pact to protect Frisian freedom from "coercion by oppression". This alliance was later invoked during attempts by the Burgundian State to conquer Frisia. According to a Frisian law book from c.  1295 , Frisians collaborated with Rudolf I of Germany on military campaigns, in return for the protection of the Frisian freedom. In 1417, the German king Sigismund issued a charter that granted Frisia "imperial liberty" from princely rule. But as

1180-769: A kingdom in Gaul in the wake of the Fall of the Western Roman Empire . This kingdom, Francia , grew to encompass nearly all of present-day France and Switzerland, along with parts of modern Germany and the Low Countries under the rule of the Merovingian dynasty . Francia was often divided under different Merovingian kings, due to the partible inheritance practised by the Franks. The late seventh century saw

1298-674: A large part of Europe. Charlemagne spread Christianity to his new conquests (often by force), as seen at the Massacre of Verden against the Saxons . He also sent envoys and initiated diplomatic contact with the Abbasid caliph Harun al-Rashid in the 790s, due to their mutual interest in Iberian affairs. In 800, Charlemagne was crowned emperor in Rome by Pope Leo III . Although historians debate

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1416-533: A letter to both Frankish kings decrying the marriage and separately sought closer ties with Carloman. Charlemagne had already had a relationship with the Frankish noblewoman Himiltrude , and they had a son in 769 named Pepin . Paul the Deacon wrote in his 784 Gesta Episcoporum Mettensium that Pepin was born "before legal marriage", but does not say whether Charles and Himiltrude ever married, were joined in

1534-648: A monastery, and Charlemagne absorbed Bavaria into his kingdom. Charlemagne spent the next few years based in Regensburg , largely focused on consolidating his rule of Bavaria and warring against the Avars. Successful campaigns against them were launched from Bavaria and Italy in 788, and Charlemagne led campaigns in 791 and 792. Charlemagne gave Charles the Younger rule of Maine in Neustria in 789, leaving Pepin

1652-857: A name he shared with his half-brother. Louis and the newly renamed Pepin were then anointed and crowned. Pepin was appointed king of the Lombards, and Louis king of Aquitaine. This act was not nominal, since the young kings were sent to live in their kingdoms under the care of regents and advisers. A delegation from the Byzantine Empire , the remnant of the Roman Empire in the East, met Charlemagne during his stay in Rome; Charlemagne agreed to betroth his daughter Rotrude to Empress Irene 's son, Emperor Constantine VI . Hildegard gave birth to her eighth child, Gisela , during this trip to Italy. After

1770-671: A non-canonical marriage ( friedelehe ), or married after Pepin was born. Pope Stephen's letter described the relationship as a legitimate marriage, but he had a vested interest in preventing Charlemagne from marrying Desiderius's daughter. Carloman died suddenly on 4 December 771, leaving Charlemagne sole king of the Franks. He moved immediately to secure his hold on his brother's territory, forcing Carloman's widow Gerberga to flee to Desiderius's court in Lombardy with their children. Charlemagne ended his marriage to Desiderius's daughter and married Hildegard , daughter of count Gerold ,

1888-563: A number of crimes and physically attacked him in April 799, attempting to remove his eyes and tongue. Leo escaped and fled north to seek Charlemagne's help. Charlemagne continued his campaign against the Saxons before breaking off to meet Leo at Paderborn in September. Hearing evidence from the pope and his enemies, he sent Leo back to Rome with royal legates who were instructed to reinstate

2006-527: A number of reforms in administration, law, education, military organization, and religion, which shaped Europe for centuries. The stability of his reign began a period of cultural activity known as the Carolingian Renaissance . Charlemagne died in 814 and was laid to rest at Aachen Cathedral in Aachen , his imperial capital city. He was succeeded by his only surviving legitimate son, Louis

2124-476: A period of war and instability following the murder of King Childeric II , which led to factional struggles among the Frankish aristocrats. Pepin of Herstal , mayor of the palace of Austrasia , ended the strife between various kings and their mayors with his 687 victory at the Battle of Tertry . Pepin was the grandson of two important figures of Austrasia: Arnulf of Metz and Pepin of Landen . The mayors of

2242-538: A powerful magnate in Carloman's kingdom. This was a reaction to Desiderius's sheltering of Carloman's family and a move to secure Gerold's support. Charlemagne's first campaigning season as sole king of the Franks was spent on the eastern frontier in his first war against the Saxons , who had been engaging in border raids on the Frankish kingdom when Charlemagne responded by destroying the pagan Irminsul at Eresburg and seizing their gold and silver. The success of

2360-449: A rift between the kings. It is uncertain why Carloman abandoned the campaign; the brothers may have disagreed about control of the territory, or Carloman was focused on securing his rule in the north of Francia. Regardless of the strife between the kings, they maintained a joint rule for practical reasons. Charlemagne and Carloman worked to obtain the support of the clergy and local elites to solidify their positions. Pope Stephen III

2478-560: Is a river in the Netherlands . It forms part of the border between the provinces of Friesland and Groningen . From the 730s to Widukind 's defeat in 785, it was part of the border of the Frankish Empire . The former Lauwerszee and the present-day Lauwersmeer are both named after the river, which as a small stream has its source southeast of the village of Surhuisterveen . Near Gerkesklooster / Stroobos , it crosses

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2596-485: Is not certain. The contemporary Royal Frankish Annals routinely call him Carolus magnus rex ("Charles the great king"). That epithet is attested in the works of the Poeta Saxo around 900, and it had become commonly applied to him by 1000. Charlemagne was named after his grandfather, Charles Martel . That name, and its derivatives, are unattested before their use by Charles Martel and Charlemagne. Karolus

2714-518: The Aduard Abbey also recognised that the Frisians "utterly abhorred the state of servitude for reason of the severity of the princes, as they had experienced earlier." A largely leaderless society, from 1298, references began to be made to urban officeholders known as aldermen and elected military leaders known as haedlingen , which were often compared to the Italian podestà . By

2832-463: The Battle of Roncevaux Pass . The Franks, defeated in the battle, withdrew with most of their army intact. Charlemagne returned to Francia to greet his newborn twin sons, Louis and Lothair, who were born while he was in Spain; Lothair died in infancy. Again, Saxons had seized on the king's absence to raid. Charlemagne sent an army to Saxony in 779 while he held assemblies, legislated, and addressed

2950-536: The Capitulatio "constituted a program for the forced conversion of the Saxons " and was "aimed ... at suppressing Saxon identity". Charlemagne's focus for the next several years would be on his attempt to complete the subjugation of the Saxons. Concentrating first in Westphalia in 783, he pushed into Thuringia in 784 as his son Charles the Younger continued operations in the west. At each stage of

3068-534: The County of East Frisia , ending the Frisian freedom there and finally establishing feudal rule in the east. The Frisian freedom finally came to an end as a result of civil war between the Schieringers and Vetkopers , two factions of the Frisian nobility. In 1498, Maximilian appointed Albert III, Duke of Saxony as governor of the region, with the support of the Schieringers . In 1504, Frisia

3186-889: The Prinsesmargrietkanaal / van Starkenborghkanaal . The Lauwers achieves the width of a true river at the place that it gains its tributary, the Oude Vaart , near the Schalkendam . Further along its course, the Lauwers splits into two branches, the Frisian Oude Lauwers and the Zijldiep , in Groningen province. The Lauwers meets the sea at the Wadden Sea , emptying into a channel between

3304-462: The Royal Frankish Annals , Leo prostrated himself before Charlemagne after crowning him (an act of submission standard in Roman coronation rituals from the time of Diocletian ). This account presents Leo not as Charlemagne's superior, but as the agent of the Roman people who acclaimed Charlemagne as emperor. Historian Henry Mayr-Harting claims that the assumption of the imperial title by Charlemagne

3422-569: The Saxon Wars . Charlemagne travelled to Italy in 786, arriving by Christmas. Aiming to extend his influence further into southern Italy, he marched into the Duchy of Benevento. Duke Arechis fled to a fortified position at Salerno before offering Charlemagne his fealty. Charlemagne accepted his submission and hostages, who included Arechis's son Grimoald . In Italy, Charlemagne also met with envoys from Constantinople. Empress Irene had called

3540-678: The centralisation of polities into states was a slow-moving process. Rural communes became the dominant institutional form in Frisia, with higher-level subdivisions coalescing into self-governing districts, known as communitates terrae ( West Frisian : Steatsmienskippen ; German : Landesgemeinden ). Frisians largely governed themselves through community assemblies, also known as things . Each year, Frisians elected judges from their own ranks. All freeholders were eligible to become adjudicators and were rotated out on an annual basis. The Frisian historian Ubbo Emmius later claimed that

3658-679: The ecclesia as the Pope conceived it, of the Roman Church, regarded as the universal Church". The Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire remained a significant contemporary power in European politics for Leo and Charlemagne, especially in Italy. The Byzantines continued to hold a substantial portion of Italy, with their borders not far south of Rome. Empress Irene had seized the throne from her son Constantine VI in 797, deposing and blinding him. Irene,

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3776-488: The massacre of Verden . Fried writes, "Although this figure may be exaggerated, the basic truth of the event is not in doubt", and Alessandro Barbero calls it "perhaps the greatest stain on his reputation." Charlemagne issued the Capitulatio de partibus Saxoniae , probably in the immediate aftermath of (or as a precursor of) the massacre. With a harsh set of laws which included the death penalty for pagan practices,

3894-523: The 11th century. Although Frisia was officially brought under the rule of the Holy Roman Empire, a de facto system of self-governance developed in the region. The Frisians disregarded the rights of local feudal lords, but still recognised the rule of the Empire, although this remained at a distance in practice. The earliest references to a "Frisian freedom" date back to the 13th century; with

4012-565: The 19th century and have debated the historical continuity of the Frisian freedom. Charlemagne This is an accepted version of this page Charlemagne ( / ˈ ʃ ɑːr l ə m eɪ n / SHAR -lə-mayn ; 2 April 748 – 28 January 814) was King of the Franks from 768, King of the Lombards from 774, and Emperor of what is now known as the Carolingian Empire from 800, holding these titles until his death in 814. He united most of Western and Central Europe , and

4130-415: The 775 Saxon and Friulian campaigns, his daughter Rotrude was born in Francia. Returning north, Charlemagne waged another brief, destructive campaign against the Saxons in 776. This led to the submission of many Saxons, who turned over captives and lands and submitted to baptism . In 777, Charlemagne held an assembly at Paderborn with Frankish and Saxon men; many more Saxons came under his rule, but

4248-419: The 787 Second Council of Nicaea , but did not inform Charlemagne or invite any Frankish bishops. Charlemagne, probably in reaction to the perceived slight of the exclusion, broke the betrothal of his daughter Rotrude and Constantine VI. After Charlemagne left Italy, Arechis sent envoys to Irene to offer an alliance; he suggested that she send a Byzantine army with Adalgis, the exiled son of Desiderus, to remove

4366-470: The Alamannian noblewoman Luitgard shortly afterwards. Charlemagne gathered an army after the council of Frankfurt as Saxon resistance continued, beginning a series of annual campaigns which lasted through 799. The campaigns of the 790s were even more destructive than those of earlier decades, with the annal writers frequently noting Charlemagne "burning", "ravaging", "devastating", and "laying waste"

4484-503: The Anglo-Saxon kingdoms "like satellite states," establishing direct relations with English bishops. Charlemagne also forged an alliance with Alfonso II of Asturias , although Einhard calls Alfonso his "dependent". Following his sack of Lisbon in 798, Alfonso sent Charlemagne trophies of his victory, including armour, mules and prisoners. After Leo III became pope in 795, he faced political opposition. His enemies accused him of

4602-417: The Avars in the south, which led to the collapse of their kingdom and the eastward expansion of Frankish rule. Charlemagne also worked to expand his influence through diplomatic means during the 790s wars, focusing on the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms of Britain. Charles the Younger proposed a marriage pact with the daughter of King Offa of Mercia , but Offa insisted that Charlemagne's daughter Bertha also be given as

4720-508: The Bavarian city of Bolzano . Charlemagne gathered his forces to prepare for an invasion of Bavaria in 787. Dividing the army, the Franks launched a three-pronged attack. Quickly realizing his poor position, Tassilo agreed to surrender and recognise Charlemagne as his overlord. The following year, Tassilo was accused of plotting with the Avars to attack Charlemagne. He was deposed and sent to

4838-519: The Byzantines. This formulation (with the continuation of his earlier royal titles) may also represent a view of his role as emperor as being the ruler of the people of the city of Rome, as he was of the Franks and the Lombards. Charlemagne left Italy in the summer of 801 after adjudicating several ecclesiastical disputes in Rome and experiencing an earthquake in Spoleto . He never returned to

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4956-736: The East Frankish count Radolf, by the end of the year. In summer 782, Widukind returned from Denmark to attack the Frankish positions in Saxony. He defeated a Frankish army, possibly due to rivalry among the Frankish counts leading it. Charlemagne came to Verden after learning of the defeat, but Widukind fled before his arrival. Charlemagne summoned the Saxon magnates to an assembly and compelled them to turn prisoners over to him, since he regarded their previous acts as treachery. The annals record that Charlemagne had 4,500 Saxon prisoners beheaded in

5074-482: The East Frisian chieftains culminated with the establishment of a "Freedom League", in which an alliance of Frisian communities attempted to end their quasi-feudal rule. In the mid-to-late 15th century, the Frisian haedlingen recast the Frisian freedom to simply mean freedom from external taxation. In 1464, one of the most powerful East Frisian chieftains, Ulrich I , had reorganised the eastern territories into

5192-416: The Frankish annals during his father's lifetime. By 751 or 752, Pepin had deposed Childeric and replaced him as king. Early Carolingian-influenced sources claim that Pepin's seizure of the throne was sanctioned beforehand by Pope Stephen II , but modern historians dispute this. It is possible that papal approval came only when Stephen travelled to Francia in 754 (apparently to request Pepin's aid against

5310-461: The Frankish borderlands, leading to a Frankish counter-raid in the autumn of 774 and a reprisal campaign the following year. Charlemagne was soon drawn back to Italy as Duke Hrodgaud of Friuli rebelled against him. He quickly crushed the rebellion, distributing Hrodgaud's lands to the Franks to consolidate his rule in Lombardy. Charlemagne wintered in Italy, consolidating his power by issuing charters and legislation and taking Lombard hostages. Amid

5428-432: The Franks from power in Lombardy. Before his plans could be finalised, Aldechis and his elder son Romuald died of illness within weeks of each other. Charlemagne sent Grimoald back to Benevento to serve as duke and return it to Frankish suzerainty. The Byzantine army invaded , but were repulsed by the Frankish and Lombard forces. As affairs were being settled in Italy, Charlemagne turned his attention to Bavaria. Bavaria

5546-481: The Franks in 768 following Pepin's death and became the sole ruler three years later. Charlemagne continued his father's policy of protecting the papacy and became its chief defender, removing the Lombards from power in northern Italy in 774. His reign saw a period of expansion that led to the conquests of Bavaria , Saxony and northern Spain , as well as other campaigns that led Charlemagne to extend his rule over

5664-547: The Frisian freedom was reinterpreted during the Dutch Revolt , when it was used to argue for the reinstatement of historic rights that had been lost under Habsburg rule . In Friesland, the revolt was seen as a restoration of the Frisian freedom, as described in the writings of the Frisian republican Ubbo Emmius . Towards the end of the 16th century, a fictionalised version of the history of Frisia , Andreas Cornelius's Croniicke ende waarachtige Beschrijvinge van Vrieslant ,

5782-405: The Frisians' freedom from feudal rule and serfdom, as well as their annual election of judges, writing that they "hazard their life for liberty and prefer death to being oppressed by the yoke of servitude". In the early 13th century, mentions of Frisian liberties having been granted by Charlemagne began to appear in historical literature. According to these medieval chronicles, the Frisian freedom

5900-524: The Hunchback his only son without lands. His relationship with Himiltrude was now apparently seen as illegitimate at his court, and Pepin was sidelined from the succession. In 792, as his father and brothers were gathered in Regensburg, Pepin conspired with Bavarian nobles to assassinate them and install himself as king. The plot was discovered and revealed to Charlemagne before it could proceed; Pepin

6018-462: The Lombard king directly, Adrian sent emissaries to Charlemagne to gain his support for recovering papal territory. Charlemagne, in response to this appeal and the dynastic threat of Carloman's sons in the Lombard court, gathered his forces to intervene. He first sought a diplomatic solution, offering gold to Desiderius in exchange for the return of the papal territories and his nephews. This overture

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6136-476: The Lombards shortly after his return to Pavia, and they surrendered the city by June 774. Charlemagne deposed Desiderius and took the title of King of the Lombards. The takeover of one kingdom by another was "extraordinary", and the authors of The Carolingian World call it "without parallel". Charlemagne secured the support of the Lombard nobles and Italian urban elites to seize power in a mainly-peaceful annexation. Historian Rosamond McKitterick suggests that

6254-480: The Lombards" instead of the earlier form "Charles, by the grace of God king of the Franks and Lombards and patrician of the Romans." Leo acclaimed Charlemagne as "emperor of the Romans" during the coronation, but Charlemagne never used this title. The avoidance of the specific claim of being a "Roman emperor", as opposed to the more-neutral "emperor governing the Roman empire", may have been to improve relations with

6372-541: The Lombards), and on this trip anointed Pepin as king; this legitimised his rule. Charlemagne was sent to greet and escort the Pope, and he and his younger brother Carloman were anointed with their father. Pepin sidelined Drogo around the same time, sending him and his brother to a monastery. Charlemagne began issuing charters in his own name in 760. The following year, he joined his father's campaign against Aquitaine . Aquitaine, led by Dukes Hunald and Waiofar ,

6490-547: The Pious . After Louis, the Frankish kingdom was divided and eventually coalesced into West and East Francia , which later became France and Germany , respectively. Charlemagne's profound influence on the Middle Ages and influence on the territory he ruled has led him to be called the "Father of Europe" by many historians. He is seen as a founding figure by multiple European states and a number of historical royal houses of Europe trace their lineage back to him. Charlemagne has been

6608-521: The Roman imperial biographies of Suetonius , which he used as a model. All three sources may have been influenced by Psalm 90 : "The days of our years are threescore years and ten". Historian Karl Ferdinand Werner challenged the acceptance of 742 as the Frankish king's birth year, citing an addition to the Annales Petaviani which records Charlemagne's birth in 747. Lorsch Abbey commemorated Charlemagne's date of birth as 2 April from

6726-518: The Saxon lands. Charlemagne forcibly removed a large number of Saxons to Francia, installing Frankish elites and soldiers in their place. His extended wars in Saxony led to his establishing his court in Aachen , which had easy access to the frontier. He built a large palace there, including a chapel which is now part of the Aachen Cathedral . Einhard joined the court at that time. Pepin of Italy (Carloman) engaged in further wars against

6844-468: The Saxon magnate Widukind fled to Denmark to prepare for a new rebellion. Also at the Paderborn assembly were representatives of dissident factions from al-Andalus (Muslim Spain). They included the son and son-in-law of Yusuf ibn Abd al-Rahman al-Fihri , the former governor of Córdoba ousted by Caliph Abd al-Rahman in 756, who sought Charlemagne's support for al-Fihri's restoration. Also present

6962-613: The Short , who succeeded him after his death in 741. The brothers placed the Merovingian Childeric III on the throne in 743. Pepin married Bertrada , a member of an influential Austrasian noble family, in 744. In 747, Carloman abdicated and entered a monastery in Rome. He had at least two sons; the elder, Drogo , took his place. Charlemagne's year of birth is uncertain, although it was most likely in 748. An older tradition based on three sources, however, gives

7080-487: The authority of feudal lords. These communes extended personal freedoms including public participation to its populace, which cultivated within them an antagonism towards feudalism. Within the Holy Roman Empire , some of these communes, including in Frisia, eliminated the power of local princes, establishing quasi- republican systems of government. Frisian lands existed in a state of autonomy from at least

7198-428: The boys were forced into a monastery (a common solution of dynastic issues), or "an act of murder smooth[ed] Charlemagne's ascent to power." Adalgis was not captured by Charlemagne, and fled to Constantinople. Charlemagne left the siege in April 774 to celebrate Easter in Rome. Pope Adrian arranged a formal welcome for the Frankish king, and they swore oaths to each other over the relics of St. Peter. Adrian presented

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7316-462: The brothers was the ongoing uprising in Aquitaine. They marched into Aquitaine together, but Carloman returned to Francia for unknown reasons and Charlemagne completed the campaign on his own. Charlemagne's capture of Duke Hunald marked the end of ten years of war that had been waged in the attempt to bring Aquitaine into line. Carloman's refusal to participate in the war against Aquitaine led to

7434-414: The campaigns, the Frankish armies seized wealth and carried Saxon captives into slavery. Unusually, Charlemagne campaigned through the winter instead of resting his army. By 785, he had suppressed the Saxon resistance and completely commanded Westphalia. That summer, he met Widukind and persuaded him to end his resistance. Widukind agreed to be baptised with Charlemagne as his godfather, ending this phase of

7552-400: The church if he knew about the pope's plan; modern historians have regarded his report as truthful or rejected it as a literary device demonstrating Charlemagne's humility. Collins says that the actions surrounding the coronation indicate that it was planned by Charlemagne as early as his meeting with Leo in 799, and Fried writes that Charlemagne planned to adopt the title of emperor by 798 "at

7670-614: The city of Groningen attempted to revive the Upstalsboom League as its leading polity. It was not until the Late Middle Ages that Frisian freedom was officially recognised by foreign feudal powers. In 1232, the Prince-Bishopric of Utrecht recognised that the Frisians "are free men, and released from any yoke of servitude or anyone’s oppressive rule." The French Bartholomaeus Anglicus also recognised

7788-408: The city. Continuing trends and a ruling style established in the 790s, Charlemagne's reign from 801 onward is a "distinct phase" characterised by more sedentary rule from Aachen. Although conflict continued until the end of his reign, the relative peace of the imperial period allowed for attention on internal governance. The Franks continued to wage war, though these wars were defending and securing

7906-637: The coronation's significance, the title represented the height of his prestige and authority. Charlemagne's position as the first emperor in the West in over 300 years brought him into conflict with the Eastern Roman Empire in Constantinople . Through his assumption of the imperial title, he is considered the forerunner to the line of Holy Roman Emperors , which persisted into the nineteenth century. As king and emperor, Charlemagne engaged in

8024-399: The election of judges was "the principle element of liberty". Frisian freedom incentivised the codification of customary law ; the earliest surviving Frisian legal manuscripts date back to the late 13th century and the most recent date to the early 16th century. Medieval Frisian legal codes established a kind of honour system , in which compensation tariffs were used to prevent feuds . This

8142-487: The elective nature of the Lombard monarchy eased Charlemagne's takeover, and Roger Collins attributes the easy conquest to the Lombard elite's "presupposition that rightful authority was in the hands of the one powerful enough to seize it". Charlemagne soon returned to Francia with the Lombard royal treasury and with Desiderius and his family, who would be confined to a monastery for the rest of their lives. The Saxons took advantage of Charlemagne's absence in Italy to raid

8260-489: The empire's frontiers, and Charlemagne rarely led armies personally. A significant expansion of the Spanish March was achieved with a series of campaigns by Louis against the Emirate of Cordoba, culminating in the 801 capture of Barcelona . The 802 Capitulare missorum generale was an expansive piece of legislation, with provisions governing the conduct of royal officials and requiring that all free men take an oath of loyalty to Charlemagne. The capitulary reformed

8378-415: The fact that at this moment a woman was reigning in Constantinople." Leo's main motivations may have been the desire to increase his standing after his political difficulties, placing himself as a power broker and securing Charlemagne as a powerful ally and protector. The Byzantine Empire's lack of ability to influence events in Italy and support the papacy were also important to Leo's position. According to

8496-522: The first Byzantine empress, faced opposition in Constantinople because of her gender and her means of accession. One of the earliest narrative sources for the coronation, the Annals of Lorsch , presented a female ruler in Constantinople as a vacancy in the imperial title which justified Leo's coronation of Charlemagne. Pirenne disagrees, saying that the coronation "was not in any sense explained by

8614-558: The first documentary evidence of self-governance being found in c.  1220 , while the encyclopedist Bartholomaeus Anglicus referred to Frisian attitudes towards liberty in c.  1240 . Although medieval Frisia has been compared to the Italian city-states and Old Swiss Confederacy , due to their shared quasi-republican systems of government, Frisia was unique in its contemporary understanding of liberty as an intrinsic value. For most of its history, Frisian self-governance

8732-583: The formal language of writing and diplomacy. Charles is the modern English form of these names. The name Charlemagne , as the emperor is normally known in English, comes from the French Charles-le-magne ('Charles the Great'). In modern German, he is known as Karl der Große . The Latin epithet magnus ('great') may have been associated with him during his lifetime, but this

8850-470: The institution of the missi dominici , officials who would now be assigned in pairs (a cleric and a lay aristocrat) to administer justice and oversee governance in defined territories. The emperor also ordered the revision of the Lombard and Frankish legal codes. In addition to the missi , Charlemagne also ruled parts of the empire with his sons as sub-kings. Although Pepin and Louis had some authority as kings in Italy and Aquitaine, Charlemagne had

8968-529: The late-15th century, as increasing levels of class stratification in the East culminated in the establishment of the County of East Frisia , while West Frisia was brought under the rule of Saxony . Since the 16th century, the Frisian freedom has been subject to numerous reinterpretations. During the Dutch Revolt , it was used to argue for the restoration of rights lost under Habsburg rule , and Frisian freedom later inspired American and French Revolutionaries . One Frisian history book from this period contained

9086-454: The latest." During the years before the coronation, Charlemagne's courtier Alcuin referred to his realm as an Imperium Christianum ("Christian Empire") in which "just as the inhabitants of the Roman Empire had been united by a common Roman citizenship", the new empire would be united by a common Christian faith. This is the view of Henri Pirenne , who says that "Charles was the Emperor of

9204-445: The marriages of his daughters to their dukes, and an alliance with Charlemagne would add to his influence. Charlemagne's mother, Bertrada, went on his behalf to Lombardy in 770 and brokered a marriage alliance before returning to Francia with his new bride. Desiderius's daughter is traditionally known as Desiderata , although she may have been named Gerperga. Anxious about the prospect of a Frankish–Lombard alliance, Pope Stephen sent

9322-456: The mid-14th century, haedlingen had grown more rich and powerful, developing into an agrarian aristocracy and becoming the region's de facto ruling class . Between the Ems and Jade rivers in eastern Frisia, the strength of communal institutions were diminished and the communes effectively disappeared, while in the west, village heads increasingly exerted more influence over the communes. As

9440-511: The mid-ninth century, and this date is likely to be genuine. Matthias Becher built on Werner's work and showed that 2 April in the year recorded would have actually been in 748, since the annalists recorded the start of the year from Easter rather than 1 January. Presently, most scholars accept April 748 for Charlemagne's birth. Charlemagne's place of birth is unknown. The Frankish palaces in Vaires-sur-Marne and Quierzy are among

9558-435: The most beneficial gift of Frisian freedom, [...] conceded to us by Charlemagne, king of the Romans [...], in perpetuity." That same year, following a dispute between Frisians and the city of Groningen , arbitrators issued a charter that declared Groningen would agree to protect the Frisian freedom from feudal lords. In 1361, another charter was issued by a league of Frisian terrae and the city of Groningen, which reaffirmed

9676-474: The palace had gained influence as the Merovingian kings' power waned due to divisions of the kingdom and several succession crises. Pepin was eventually succeeded by his son Charles, later known as Charles Martel. Charles did not support a Merovingian successor upon the death of King Theuderic IV in 737, leaving the throne vacant. He made plans to divide the kingdom between his sons, Carloman and Pepin

9794-461: The places suggested by scholars. Pepin the Short held an assembly in Düren in 748, but it cannot be proved that it took place in April or if Bertrada was with him. Einhard refers to Charlemagne's patrius sermo ("native tongue"). Most scholars have identified this as a form of Old High German , probably a Rhenish Franconian dialect . Due to the prevalence in Francia of " rustic Roman ", he

9912-509: The pope and conduct a further investigation. In August of the following year, Charlemagne made plans to go to Rome after an extensive tour of his lands in Neustria. Charlemagne met Leo in November near Mentana at the twelfth milestone outside Rome, the traditional location where Roman emperors began their formal entry into the city. Charlemagne presided over an assembly to hear the charges, but believed that no one could sit in judgement of

10030-449: The pope. Leo swore an oath on 23 December, declaring his innocence of all charges. At mass in St. Peter's Basilica on Christmas Day 800, Leo proclaimed Charlemagne "emperor of the Romans" ( Imperator Romanorum ) and crowned him. Charlemagne was the first reigning emperor in the west since the deposition of Romulus Augustulus in 476. His son, Charles the Younger , was anointed king by Leo at

10148-657: The power of the haedlingen grew, elements of the Frisian freedom such as personal freedom and the election of judges were discarded, as freedom was recast to mean freedom from foreign princes. In 1420, the East Frisian chieftains Ocko II tom Brok and Sibet Papinga  [ fy ] formed an alliance to protect the Frisian freedom from the Teutonic Order ; they reinterpreted Frisian freedom in as political freedom from foreign rule, rather than freedom from feudal servitude. In 1430, mounting opposition to

10266-574: The production of the Libri Carolini , a detailed argument against Nicea's canons. In 794, Charlemagne called another council in Frankfurt . The council confirmed Regensburg's positions on adoptionism and Nicea, recognised the deposition of Tassilo, set grain prices, reformed Frankish coinage, forbade abbesses from blessing men, and endorsed prayer in vernacular languages. Soon after the council, Fastrada fell ill and died; Charlemagne married

10384-424: The royal family's return to Francia, she had her final pregnancy and died from its complications on 30 April 783. The child, named after her, died shortly thereafter. Charlemagne commissioned epitaphs for his wife and daughter, and arranged for a Mass to be said daily at Hildegard's tomb. Charlemagne's mother Bertrada died shortly after Hildegard, on 12 July 783. Charlemagne was remarried to Fastrada , daughter of

10502-404: The same time. Historians differ about the intentions of the imperial coronation, the extent to which Charlemagne was aware of it or participated in its planning, and the significance of the events for those present and for Charlemagne's reign. Contemporary Frankish and papal sources differ in their emphasis on, and representation of, events. Einhard writes that Charlemagne would not have entered

10620-552: The sap of liberty preserving its strength and its verdure." By the end of the early modern period , when Friesland was integrated into the United Kingdom of the Netherlands , the concept was again reinterpreted during the rise of Frisian nationalism ; the Frisian freedom lost its political connotations and was reconceived as a cultural trait of the Frisian people. To nationalists of the 19th and 20th centuries, liberty

10738-650: The subject of artworks, monuments and literature during and after the medieval period and is venerated by the Catholic Church . Several languages were spoken in Charlemagne's world, and he was known to contemporaries as Karlus in the Old High German he spoke; as Karlo to Early Old French (or Proto-Romance ) speakers; and as Carolus (or Karolus ) in Medieval Latin ,

10856-499: The terms of the charter required that they pay tribute to the state, the Frisians rejected it. Instead, in 1421, they briefly recognised the count of Holland and the Empire subsequently declared Frisia to be a rebellious province. In 1493, German king Maximilian I issued a charter that granted the West Frisians imperial privilege, but this too was rejected by the Frisians, as it stipulated the payment of tribute. A chronicle at

10974-402: The title as representing dominion over lands he already ruled. However, the title of emperor gave Charlemagne enhanced prestige and ideological authority. He immediately incorporated his new title into documents he issued, adopting the formula "Charles, most serene augustus , crowned by God, great peaceful emperor governing the Roman empire, and who is by the mercy of God king of the Franks and

11092-583: The ultimate authority and directly intervened. Charles, their elder brother, had been given lands in Neustria in 789 or 790 and made a king in 800. The 806 charter Divisio Regnorum ( Division of the Realm ) set the terms of Charlemagne's succession. Charles, as his eldest son in good favour, was given the largest share of the inheritance: rule of Francia, Saxony, Nordgau , and parts of Alemannia. The two younger sons were confirmed in their kingdoms and gained additional territories; most of Bavaria and Alemmannia

11210-403: The war helped secure Charlemagne's reputation among his brother's former supporters and funded further military action. The campaign was the beginning of over thirty years of nearly-continuous warfare against the Saxons by Charlemagne. Pope Adrian I succeeded Stephen III in 772, and sought the return of papal control of cities that had been captured by Desiderius. Unsuccessful in dealing with

11328-625: The way. Charlemagne left Bernard to maintain the siege at Pavia while he took a force to capture Verona, where Desiderius's son Adalgis had taken Carloman's sons. Charlemagne captured the city; no further record exists of his nephews or of Carloman's wife, and their fate is unknown. Recent biographer, Janet Nelson compares them to the Princes in the Tower in the Wars of the Roses . Fried suggests that

11446-540: The west to the Weser in the east. In most of western Europe during the High Middle Ages , social organisation developed along the lines of feudalism , as nobles gained the right of sovereignty over certain territories; but Frisia notably developed along a different path. Beginning in the mid-11th century, Medieval communes spread from northern Italy across much of Europe, gathering strength in areas outside

11564-480: The whole of [Italy]", considering this a motivation for the coronation. He notes the "element of political and military risk" inherent in the affair due to the opposition of the Byzantine Empire and potential opposition from the Frankish elite, as the imperial title could draw him further into Mediterranean politics. Collins sees several of Charlemagne's actions as attempts to ensure that his new title had

11682-494: Was Sulayman al-Arabi , governor of Barcelona and Girona, who wanted to become part of the Frankish kingdom and receive Charlemagne's protection rather than remain under the rule of Córdoba. Charlemagne, seeing an opportunity to strengthen the security of the kingdom's southern frontier and extend his influence, agreed to intervene. Crossing the Pyrenees, his army found little resistance until an ambush by Basque forces in 778 at

11800-421: Was itinerant . Charlemagne also asserted his own education in the liberal arts in encouraging their study by his children and others, although it is unknown whether his study was as a child or at court during his later life. The question of Charlemagne's literacy is debated, with little direct evidence from contemporary sources. He normally had texts read aloud to him and dictated responses and decrees, but this

11918-533: Was adapted by Slavic languages as their word for "king" ( Russian : korol' , Polish : król and Slovak : král ) through Charlemagne's influence or that of his great-grandson, Charles the Fat . By the sixth century, the western Germanic tribe of the Franks had been Christianised ; this was due in considerable measure to the conversion of their king, Clovis I , to Catholicism. The Franks had established

12036-727: Was an effort to incorporate the Saxons into the Frankish realm, since they did not have a native tradition of kingship. However, Costambeys et al. note in The Carolingian World that "since Saxony had not been in the Roman empire it is hard to see on what basis an emperor would have been any more welcomed." These authors write that the decision to take the title of emperor was aimed at furthering Charlemagne's influence in Italy, as an appeal to traditional authority recognised by Italian elites within and (especially) outside his control. Collins also writes that becoming emperor gave Charlemagne "the right to try to impose his rule over

12154-404: Was an innate characteristic of the Frisian national identity. The Frisian freedom then became a national myth , assuming a continuous history of Frisian independence that lasted for over eight centuries, and the concept was subjected to increased commodification . This reconception has been disputed by academic historians, who have pointed out that the national myth was retroactively constructed in

12272-627: Was constantly in rebellion during Pepin's reign. Pepin fell ill on campaign there and died on 24 September 768, and Charlemagne and Carloman succeeded their father. They had separate coronations, Charlemagne at Noyon and Carloman at Soissons , on 9 October. The brothers maintained separate palaces and spheres of influence, although they were considered joint rulers of a single Frankish kingdom. The Royal Frankish Annals report that Charlemagne ruled Austrasia and Carloman ruled Burgundy , Provence , Aquitaine, and Alamannia , with no mention made of which brother received Neustria. The immediate concern of

12390-480: Was elected in 768, but was briefly deposed by Antipope Constantine II before being restored to Rome. Stephen's papacy experienced continuing factional struggles, so he sought support from the Frankish kings. Both brothers sent troops to Rome, each hoping to exert his own influence. The Lombard king Desiderius also had interests in Roman affairs, and Charlemagne attempted to enlist him as an ally. Desiderius already had alliances with Bavaria and Benevento through

12508-475: Was established by Charlemagne, the first Holy Roman Emperor . But no evidence of this Karelsprivilege has been found prior to the 13th century, leading historian Han Nijdam to describe it as an "ideological embellishment". Frisian scholars also made frequent references to Roman law and philosophy, in their justifications for the Frisian freedom. Between 1297 and 1319, in an attempt to retroactively justify their freedom from feudal rule, some Frisians fabricated

12626-401: Was given to Pepin, and Provence, Septimania, and parts of Burgundy were given to Louis. Charlemagne did not address the inheritance of the imperial title. The Divisio also provided that if any of the brothers predeceased Charlemagne, their sons would inherit their share; peace was urged among his descendants. Lauwers The Lauwers ( Dutch pronunciation: [ˈlʌu.ərs] )

12744-527: Was implemented without any kind of central government , with historian Han Nijdam comparing its functioning to the Icelandic Commonwealth . In 1323, the "Ubstalsboom Laws" were promulgated, declaring that "if any prince, secular or ecclesiastical, [...] shall have assailed us, Frisians, or any of us, wanting to subject us to the yoke of servitude, then together, through a joint call-up and by force of arms, we shall protect our liberty." In 1361,

12862-666: Was maintained in East Frisia , between the Weser and Lauwers rivers. Meanwhile, parts of West Frisia periodically fell under the feudal occupation of the County of Holland . During the Friso-Hollandic Wars , the concept of Frisian freedom was used to mobilise armed resistance to feudalisation attempts by the counts of Holland. In contrast to developments in feudal counties , the Frisian nobility never developed feudal titles, knighthoods were never established, and

12980-535: Was not unusual even for a literate ruler at the time. Historian Johannes Fried considers it likely that Charlemagne would have been able to read, but the medievalist Paul Dutton writes that "the evidence for his ability to read is circumstantial and inferential at best" and concludes that it is likely that he never properly mastered the skill. Einhard makes no direct mention of Charlemagne reading, and recorded that he only attempted to learn to write later in life. There are only occasional references to Charlemagne in

13098-407: Was officially brought under Saxon law . Although the Frisian freedom was abolished, the Saxons ultimately struggled to introduce feudalism in west Frisia, as the local haedlingen rejected moves to bring them into the nobility. In an attempt to capture Frisia from the Saxons, in 1514, Charles II, Duke of Guelders invaded Frisia, claiming his intention to restore the Frisian freedom. The concept of

13216-400: Was organised in a network of rural communes , people largely governed themselves through public assemblies , and elected judges established a codified legal system without any kind of central government . Frisians formed treaties with other powers to protect their freedom, which was recognised by a number of German kings during the Late Middle Ages . Frisian freedom was brought to an end in

13334-533: Was probably functionally bilingual in Germanic and Romance dialects at an early age. Charlemagne also spoke Latin and, according to Einhard, could understand and (perhaps) speak some Greek. Charlemagne's father Pepin had been educated at the abbey of Saint-Denis , although the extent of Charlemagne's formal education is unknown. He almost certainly was trained in military matters as a youth in Pepin's court, which

13452-459: Was published. Although its account of events was heavily mythologised, the book became very influential on the development of Frisian historiography over the subsequent centuries. The idea of the Frisian freedom continued to endure into the late 18th century; American Revolutionary John Adams commented that Frisians were "famous for the spirit of liberty", while French Revolutionary Honoré Gabriel Riqueti compared Frisian to "a robust oak, with

13570-462: Was rejected, and Charlemagne's army (commanded by himself and his uncle, Bernard ) crossed the Alps to besiege the Lombard capital of Pavia in late 773. Charlemagne's second son (also named Charles ) was born in 772, and Charlemagne brought the child and his wife to the camp at Pavia. Hildegard was pregnant, and gave birth to a daughter named Adelhaid. The baby was sent back to Francia, but died on

13688-522: Was ruled by Duke Tassilo , Charlemagne's first cousin, who had been installed by Pepin the Short in 748. Tassilo's sons were also grandsons of Desiderius, and a potential threat to Charlemagne's rule in Lombardy. The neighbouring rulers had a growing rivalry throughout their reigns, but had sworn oaths of peace to each other in 781. In 784, Rotpert (Charlemagne's viceroy in Italy) accused Tassilo of conspiring with Widukind in Saxony and unsuccessfully attacked

13806-520: Was sent to a monastery, and many of his co-conspirators were executed. The early 790s saw a marked focus on ecclesiastical affairs by Charlemagne. He summoned a council in Regensburg in 792 to address the theological controversy over the adoptionism doctrine in the Spanish church and formulate a response to the Second Council of Nicea. The council condemned adoptionism as heresy and led to

13924-575: Was the first recognised emperor to rule from the west after the fall of the Western Roman Empire approximately three centuries earlier. Charlemagne's reign was marked by political and social changes that had lasting influence on Europe throughout the Middle Ages . A member of the Frankish Carolingian dynasty , Charlemagne was the eldest son of Pepin the Short and Bertrada of Laon . With his brother, Carloman I , he became king of

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