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113-581: The Khoshut Khanate was ended in 1717 when the Dzungar prince Tseren Dondup invaded Tibet, killed Lha-bzang Khan, and installed the 7th Dalai Lama . The Oirats were originally from the area of Tuva during the early 13th century. Their leader, Quduqa Bäki , submitted to Genghis Khan in 1208 and his house intermarried with all four branches of the Genghisid line. During the Toluid Civil War ,

226-753: A 30,000 strong enemy army and the death of Choghtu. He then entered Central Tibet, where he received from the 5th Dalai Lama the title of Bstan-'dzin Choskyi Rgyal-po (the Dharma King Who Upholds the Religion). He then claimed the title of Khan , the first non-Genghisid Mongol to do so, and summoned the Oirats to completely conquer Tibet, creating the Khoshut Khanate . Among those involved was Kharkhul's son, Erdeni Batur , who

339-750: A Khalkha army of 10,000 near Lake Baikal. After two bloody battles with the Dzungars near Erdene Zuu Monastery and Tomor, Chakhundorji and his brother Jebtsundamba Khutuktu Zanabazar fled across the Gobi Desert to the Qing dynasty and submitted to the Kangxi Emperor . Late in the summer of 1690, Galdan crossed the Kherlen River with a force of 20,000 and engaged a Qing army at Battle of Ulan Butung 350 kilometers north of Beijing near

452-700: A Tsangpa-Chogthu alliance. Arslan's army proceeded to ravage the Gelugpa territories, reaching Drepung and Lhasa. Then, however, the Arslan suddenly changed his allegiance, declared for the Dalai Lama and attacked the Tsangpa positions. His troops conquered Shigatse and Gyangtse but were then dispersed by another Mongol chief. Karma Tenkyong and the Shamarpa hierarch sent message to Arslan's father and denounced

565-441: A certain sense, a victory for Islam". Ironically, the destruction of the Dzungars by the Qing led to the consolidation of Turkic Muslim power in the region, since Turkic Muslim culture and identity was tolerated or even promoted by the Qing. In 1759, the Qing dynasty proclaimed that the land formerly belonging to the Dzungars was now part of "China" (Dulimbai Gurun) in a Manchu memorial. The Qing ideology of unification portrayed

678-1724: A degree that was unique in Central Asia at the time. In 1762, the Qing army discovered four large Dzungar bronze cannons, eight "soaring" cannons, and 10,000 shells. In 1640, the Oirats created an Oirat Mongol Legal Code which regulated the tribes and gave support to the Gelug Yellow Hat sect. Erdeni Batur assisted Zaya Pandita in creating the Clear Script . Nawrūz (d. August 13, 1297) Arghun Aqa (d. 1278) Al-Adil Kitbugha (d. 7 December 1296) Esen Taishi (d. 1455) Kho Orluk (1633-1644) Shukhur Daichin (1644-1661) Puntsug (Monchak) (1661-1672) Ayuka Khan (1672-1723) Tseren Donduk Khan (1723-1735) Donduk Ombo Khan (1735-1741) Donduk Dashi Khan (1741-1761) Ubashi Khan (1761-1771) Dodbi Khan (1771-1781) As Saray Khan (1781) Kharkhul (d. 1634) Erdeni Batur (1634–1653) Sengge (1653–1671) Galdan Boshugtu Khan (1671–1697) Tsewang Rabtan (1697–1727) Galdan Tseren (1727–1745) Tsewang Dorji Namjal (1745–1750) Lama Dorji (1750–1753) Dawachi (1753-1755) Güshi Khan (1642–1655) Dayan Khan (1655–1668) Tenzin Dalai Khan (1668–1696) Tenzin Wangchuk Khan (1696–1697) Lha-bzang Khan (1697–1717) Amursana (1755–1757) Karma Tenkyong Karma Tenkyong (1606 – Neu, Central Tibet , 1642), in full Karma Tenkyong Wangpo ( Wylie : Kar ma bstan skyong dbang po ; Chinese : 丹迥旺波 ),

791-494: A government where the Dalai Lama was restricted to religious matters while a minister regent, Sonam Rapten , was directly appointed by Güshi to handle civil affairs. Güshi promoted the Gelug tradition as the guiding religion of his empire to cement his own authority. He allied with the Gelug hierarchs to create a system of legitimization based on the titles granted by the Dalai Lama. In 1653, Güshi's title as king of Ü-Tsang and Kham

904-525: A historian whose recent research interests focus on genocide, states that the extermination of the Dzungars was "arguably the eighteenth century genocide par excellence". Widespread anti-Dzungar opinion by former Dzungar subjects contributed to their genocide. The Muslim Kazakhs and former people of the Yarkent Khanate in the Tarim Basin (now called Uyghurs ), were treated poorly under by

1017-642: A pilgrim and was attached to the Dalai Lama faction. After Arslan's death he attacked the Chogthu group in Kokonor in concert with the Dzungar chief Baatur Khungtaiji . The Chogthu were completely defeated in 1637, and in the next year Güshi Khan visited Dalai Lama in Lhasa. Meanwhile, Karma Tenkyong tried to counter Gelugpa influence in the east by allying with Donyo Dorje, the king of Beri in Kham . This ruler supported

1130-532: A pivotal role in its founding by defeating the enemies of the Gelug school and part of the Ganden Phodrang's military defense continued to be handled by the Mongols after its establishment. There are various interpretations of the khan's role in the government. Some sources claim that the khan had little to do with the actual administration of Tibet and maintained only a priest and patron relationship with

1243-482: A revolt led by his followers. Afaq's son Yahiya Khoja was enthroned but his reign was cut short in 1695 when both he and his father were killed while suppressing local rebellions. In 1696, Akbash Khan was placed on the throne, but the begs of Kashgar refused to recognize him, and instead allied with the Kyrgyz to attack Yarkand, taking Akbash prisoner. The begs of Yarkand went to the Dzungars, who sent troops and ousted

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1356-596: A short visit to Tibet in 1635, the next year, Güshi led 10,000 Oirats in an invasion of Qinghai which resulted in the defeat of a 30,000 strong enemy army and the death of Choghtu. He then entered Central Tibet , where he received from the 5th Dalai Lama the title of Bstan-'dzin Choskyi Rgyal-po ("the Dharma King Who Upholds the Religion"). In 1637, the 5th Dalai Lama bestowed upon him the title of Dai Güshi Shajin Bariqchi Nomiyin Khan . Güshi thus became

1469-518: A strong influence in court and over the khan. In 1533, an especially influential Khoja named Makhdum-i Azam arrived in Kashgar, where he settled and had two sons. These two sons hated each other and they passed down their mutual hatred down to their children. The two lineages came to dominate large parts of the khanate, splitting it between two factions: the Aq Taghliq (White Mountain) in Kashgar and

1582-548: Is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Dzungar Khanate The Dzungar Khanate , also written as the Zunghar Khanate or Junggar Khanate , was an Inner Asian khanate of Oirat Mongol origin. At its greatest extent, it covered an area from southern Siberia in the north to present-day Kyrgyzstan in the south, and from the Great Wall of China in the east to present-day Kazakhstan in

1695-536: The 5th Dalai Lama aided him in enlisting the help of Galdan Boshugtu Khan . In 1680, Galdan led 120,000 Dzungars into the Yarkent Khanate. They were aided by the Aq Taghliqs and Hami and Turpan , which had already submitted to the Dzungars. Ismail's son Babak Sultan died in the resistance against in the battle for Kashgar. The general Iwaz Beg died in the defense of Yarkand. The Dzungars defeated

1808-646: The Bön religion and was in particular hostile to the Gelugpa, which suffered persecution. A conspiratory letter from Donyo Dorje to Karma Tenkyong was intercepted by a Gelugpa representative. That served as a pretext for Güshi Khan to invade Kham in concert with Parik tribesmen from Amdo . Donyo Dorje was captured and executed in 1640, and in the next year the entire Kham fell under the pro-Gelugpa forces. The time had now come for Güshi Khan and Dalai Lama's Tibetan supporters to deal with Karma Tenkyong once and for all. Ngawang Losang Gyatso supposedly wished to avoid bloodshed but

1921-750: The Four Oirat ( Choros , Torghut , Dörbet , and Khoid ) sided with Ariq Böke and therefore never accepted Kublaid rule. After the Yuan dynasty 's collapse, the Oirats supported the Ariq Bökid Jorightu Khan Yesüder in seizing the Northern Yuan throne. The Oirats held sway over the Northern Yuan khans until the death of Esen Taishi in 1455, after which they migrated west due to Khalkha Mongol aggression. In 1486,

2034-612: The Gelug Yellow Hat sect in Qinghai (M. Kokonor/T. Tso Ngonpo) was being repressed by the Khalkha Choghtu Khong Tayiji , who aided their rivals the Karmapa and Bön sects. In 1634, the 5th Dalai Lama 's envoys invited Güshi to come to their aid. The Oirats had already been supporters of the Gelug tradition since 1616 and Güshi used their religious affinity to gather an army for the expedition to Tibet. After

2147-586: The Jesuits under Giuseppe Castiglione , and Chinese court-painters under their direction. ‡ Note: Although Amursana had de facto control of some areas of Dzungaria during 1755–1756, he could never officially become Khan due to the inferior rank of his clan, the Khoid . The Oirats converted to Tibetan Buddhism in 1615. Oirat society was similar to other nomadic societies. It was heavily dependent on animal husbandry but also practiced limited agriculture. After

2260-474: The Kalmyk Khanate but still stayed in contact with the Oirats in the east. Every time a great assembly was called, they sent representatives to attend. In 1632, the Gelug Yellow Hat sect in Qinghai was being repressed by the Khalkha Choghtu Khong Tayiji , so they invited Güshi Khan to come and deal with him. In 1636, Güshi led 10,000 Oirats in an invasion of Qinghai which resulted in the defeat of

2373-570: The Karma Kagyu and Jonang sects. Contemporary clerical observers, such as Yolmo Tenzin Norbu, reacted angrily on his transgressions of the elaborate social hierarchy of Tibet, as he tried to forge a pretentious genealogy for his upstart family, going back to a disciple of Padmasambhava : "He expects all to perform prostrations to him and raise up stacks of tea offerings. He even acts like that to our lama! He rejoices in his great qualities such as

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2486-534: The Kyrgyz , Tajiks , and Uzbeks when they invaded deep into Central Asia to Yasi (Turkestan) and Tashkent in 1643. In 1653, Sengge succeeded his father Batur, but he faced dissent from his half brothers. With the support of Ochirtu Khan of the Khoshut, this strife ended with Sengge's victory in 1661. In 1667 he captured Erinchin Lobsang Tayiji , the third and last Altan Khan. However, he himself

2599-630: The Tobol River , attacking and killing his tribal followers in 1630. Toro-Baikhu was the third of five sons born to Akhai Khatun and Khanai Noyan Khonggor. He had already become a distinguished fighter at the age of 12 and together with his brothers gained fame as part of "Akhai's herd of tigers" and "the five talented, brave heroic tigers" due to his military prowess. After Baibaghas' death, Toro-Baikhu married his brother's widow and adopted her son Ochirtu. Once he defeated all successor claimants, Toro-Baikhu styled himself "Dai Güshi" Taiji . In 1632,

2712-619: The Tumed . In 1620, the leaders of the Choros and Torghut Oirats, Kharkhul and Mergen Temene, attacked Ubasi Khong Tayiji , the first Altan Khan of the Khalkha . They were defeated and Kharkhul lost his wife and children to the enemy. An all out war between Ubasi and the Oirats lasted until 1623 when Ubasi was killed. In 1625, a conflict erupted between the Khoshut chief Chöükür and his uterine brother Baibaghas over inheritance issues. Baibaghas

2825-399: The "outer" non-Han Chinese like the Mongols, Oirats, and Tibetans together with the "inner" Han Chinese as "one family" united in the Qing state. The Qing described the phrase "Zhong Wai Yi Jia" (中外一家) or "Nei Wai Yi Jia" (內外一家, "interior and exterior as one family"), to convey this idea of "unification" to different peoples. The Qianlong Emperor took great care to document his successes in

2938-1353: The 5th Dalai Lama's "day-to-day control of... his government" after the deaths of Sonam Rapten and Güshi Khan in the 1650s. The key role of Güshi Khan in the rise of the Ganden Phodrang was celebrated by annual state ceremonies as late as the 20th century. During the Monlam Prayer Festival , people wore Mongol-style military clothing in the style of Güshi Khan's troops. Nawrūz (d. August 13, 1297) Arghun Aqa (d. 1278) Al-Adil Kitbugha (d. 7 December 1296) Esen Taishi (d. 1455) Kho Orluk (1633-1644) Shukhur Daichin (1644-1661) Puntsug (Monchak) (1661-1672) Ayuka Khan (1672-1723) Tseren Donduk Khan (1723-1735) Donduk Ombo Khan (1735-1741) Donduk Dashi Khan (1741-1761) Ubashi Khan (1761-1771) Dodbi Khan (1771-1781) As Saray Khan (1781) Kharkhul (d. 1634) Erdeni Batur (1634–1653) Sengge (1653–1671) Galdan Boshugtu Khan (1671–1697) Tsewang Rabtan (1697–1727) Galdan Tseren (1727–1745) Tsewang Dorji Namjal (1745–1750) Lama Dorji (1750–1753) Dawachi (1753-1755) Güshi Khan (1642–1655) Dayan Khan (1655–1668) Tenzin Dalai Khan (1668–1696) Tenzin Wangchuk Khan (1696–1697) Lha-bzang Khan (1697–1717) Amursana (1755–1757) This Asian history–related article

3051-480: The 5th Dalai Lama. In 1707, this monk was installed by the 5th Panchen Lama as Ngawang Yeshe Gyatso . For most followers of the Gelug school, this was an unauthorized action, and it also annoyed the Khoshut chiefs in Kokonor. On 10 April 1710, the Kangxi Emperor recognized the new Dalai Lama by granting him a title and seal. In Lithang in eastern Tibet, local lamas identified a child as the reincarnation of

3164-606: The 600,000 or more Dzungars were destroyed by disease and attack which Michael Clarke described as "the complete destruction of not only the Dzungar state but of the Dzungars as a people". It's argued by the historian Peter Perdue that the destruction of the Dzungars was the result of an explicit policy of extermination launched by the Qianlong Emperor which lasted for two years. His commanders were reluctant to carry out his orders, which he repeated several times using

3277-401: The 6th Dalai Lama and his attendants were attacked by a group of people at night. One of the 6th Dalai Lama's favorite attendants was killed and he demanded the regent to find the murderers and punish them but the regent pretended to be unable to identify the murderers. Upon personal identification, the 6th Dalai Lama identified five people, all of whom had close relations to the regent. Lha-bzang

3390-720: The 6th Dalai Lama. In 1712, the youngest son of Güshi Khan, Trashi Batur Taiji, and third son of Boshugtu Jinong, Cagan Danjin, declared their support for the boy. Lha-bzang's efforts to invalidate the Lithang reincarnation failed. The Khoshut chiefs asked the Kangxi Emperor to officially recognize the boy but the emperor left the matter undecided. Kangxi ordered the boy and his father to be interned in Kumbum Monastery in Kokonor in 1715. During his reign, Lha-bzang abolished compulsory purchase and exchange of goods in Tibet to lessen

3503-426: The Ariq Bökid Jorightu Khan Yesüder in seizing the Northern Yuan throne. The Oirats held sway over the Northern Yuan khans until the death of Esen Taishi in 1455, after which they migrated west due to Khalkha Mongol aggression. In 1486, the Oirats became embroiled in a succession dispute which gave Dayan Khan the opportunity to attack them. In the latter half of the 16th century, the Oirats lost more territory to

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3616-712: The Black Kyrgyz and ravaged the Fergana Valley . His general Rabtan took Taraz city. From 1685 Galdan's forces aggressively pushed westward, forcing the Kazakhs ever further west. The Dzungars established dominion over the Baraba Tatars and extracted yasaq (tribute) from them. Converting to Orthodox Christianity and becoming Russian subjects was a tactic by the Baraba to find an excuse not to pay yasaq to

3729-583: The Bodhisattvas. But in your hearts you are like man-eating Rakshas . Therefore you were unable to escape from your self incurred retribution with your lives when your crimes were at the lowest [moral level] and your wickedness reached a zenith" The Qing army met almost no resistance and destroyed the Dzungar Khanate within the span of 100 days. The Chinese army, supplemented on the way by Muslim and renegade Dzungar troops, surprised Dawachi at

3842-586: The Buddhist Dzungars, who used them as slave labor, and participated in the Qing invasion and attacked the Dzungars. Uyghur leaders like Khoja Emin or Khojis were granted titles within the Qing nobility, and acted as an intermediary with Muslims from the Tarim Basin. They told the Muslims that the Qing only wanted to kill Oirats and that they would leave the Muslims alone. They also convinced

3955-758: The Choros and Khoid of the Left wing retreated north into the Tarim basin, since then the powerful empire of the Choros became known as the Left Wing, i.e. Zuungar. The region was separately described in contemporary European sources as the Kingdom of the Eleuths , from an infelicitous transcription of the name " Oirats " by French missionaries . This was sometimes vaguely extended to cover wide areas of Central Asia , including Afghanistan . The Oirats were originally from

4068-482: The Dalai Lama. According to Glenn Mullin, Güshi Khan was the appointee of three Mongol chieftains to represent their interests in Tibet and after having finished his business he returned to rule in Kokonor. René Grousset says that the Khoshut realm encompassed Kokonor and the Qaidam Basin while Tibet was a protectorate. Mullin points out that at the enthronement ceremony of the 5th Dalai Lama in 1642, Güshi sat on

4181-555: The Dzungars conquered the Tarim Basin , which is now southern Xinjiang , and defeated the Khalkha Mongols to the east. In 1696, Galdan was defeated by the Qing dynasty and lost Outer Mongolia . In 1717, the Dzungars conquered Tibet , but were driven out in 1720 by the Qing. From 1755 to 1758, Qing China took advantage of a Dzungar civil war to conquer Dzungaria and killed 70-80% of the Dzungar population . The destruction of

4294-500: The Dzungars from Tibet in 1720. They brought Kälzang Gyatso with them from Kumbum to Lhasa and installed him as the 7th Dalai Lama in 1721. The people of Turpan and Pichan took advantage of the situation to rebel under a local chief, Amin Khoja , and defected to the Qing dynasty. Tsewang Rabtan died suddenly in 1727 and was succeeded by his son Galdan Tseren . Galdan Tseren drove out his half-brother Lobszangshunu. He continued

4407-544: The Dzungars led to the Qing conquest of Mongolia , Tibet , and the creation of Xinjiang as a political administrative unit. "Dzungar" is a compound of the Mongolian word jegün (züün), meaning "left" or "east" and γar meaning "hand" or "wing". The region of Dzungaria derives its name from this confederation. Although the Dzungars were located west of the Khalkas , the derivation of their name has been attributed to

4520-896: The Dzungars. The Oirats had established peace with the Khalkha Mongols since Ligdan Khan died in 1634 and the Khalkhas were preoccupied with the rise of the Qing dynasty . However, when the Jasaghtu Khan Shira lost part of his subjects to the Tüsheet Khan Chikhundorj, Galdan moved his orda near the Altai Mountains to prepare an attack. Chikhundorj attacked the right wing of the Khalkhas and killed Shira in 1687. In 1688, Galdan dispatched troops under his younger brother Dorji-jav against Chikhundorj but they were eventually defeated. Dorji-jav

4633-508: The Karmapa, asking for the emperor's mediation. However, the Manchu ruler did not wish to take the sides in the ongoing conflict. In the first month of the water-horse year 1642, Shigatse and the nearby Karmapa monastery Tashi Zilnon were taken. On the 25th day of the second month, the fortress itself surrendered and Karma Tenkyong was captured with his family and retainers. He was imprisoned in

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4746-537: The Kazakhs pushed them into seeking aid from Russia. Tsewang Rabtan 's brother Tseren Dondup invaded the Khoshut Khanate in 1717, deposed Yeshe Gyatso , killed Lha-bzang Khan , and looted Lhasa . The Kangxi Emperor retaliated in 1718, but his military expedition was annihilated by the Dzungars in the Battle of the Salween River , not far from Lhasa. A second and larger expedition sent by Kangxi expelled

4859-515: The Khoshut Khanate. In the winter of 1640-1641, Güshi crushed the king of Beri, Donyo Dorje , and then the ruler of Tsangpa, Karma Tenkyong , in 1642. With the taking of Shigatse in 1642, Güshi had brought all of Tibet under the control of the Gelug school of Tibetan Buddhism and he was celebrated as the reincarnation of Padmasambhava , an 8th-century Indian Buddhist who built the first Buddhist monastery in Tibet. Among those involved in

4972-460: The Khoshut that he intended to remove Sangye Gyatso as regent. Sangye Gyatso was replaced by his son. The 6th Dalai Lama proposed that Tenzin Wangchuk succeed his father, but Tenzin Wangchuk was sickly, and Lha-bzang became khan in 1703. Before his enthronement, Lha-bzang had only visited Lhasa once in 1701. The regent tried to reduce the khan to a puppet and to control the 6th Dalai Lama. In 1703,

5085-534: The Khoshut, Galdan defeated Chechen, and drove Zotov out of Dzungaria. In 1671 The Dalai Lama bestowed the title of Khan on Galdan. Sengge's two sons Sonom Rabdan and Tsewang Rabtan revolted against Galdan but they were defeated. Although, already married Anu-Dara , granddaughter of Ochirtu, he came into conflict with his grandfather in law. Fearing Galdan's popularity, Ochirtu supported his uncle and rival Choqur Ubashi who refused to recognize Galdan's title. The victory over Ochirtu in 1677 resulted Galdan's domination of

5198-422: The Kokonor area in 1633 but died of smallpox in the following year, and the supreme Mongol khanate lapsed after his demise. In 1635, a new foreign invader approached Tibet. This was Arslan, son of the Shamarpa-minded khan Chogthu of the Northern Khalkha Mongols, who headed a looting expedition. The rivalling factions of Tibet attempted to draw him to their side. The Shamarpa, enjoined by Karma Tenkyong, secured

5311-436: The Kyrgyz in 1705. The Dzungars installed a non-Chagatayid ruler Mirza Alim Shah Beg, thereby ending the rule of Chagatai khans forever. Abdullah Tarkhan Beg of Hami also rebelled in 1696 and defected to the Qing dynasty . In 1698, Qing troops were stationed in Hami. In 1698 Galdan's successor Tsewang Rabtan reached Tengiz lake and Turkestan, and the Dzungars controlled Zhei-Su and Tashkent until 1745. The Dzungars' war on

5424-441: The Moghul forces without much difficulty and took Ismail and his family prisoner. Galdan installed Abd ar-Rashid Khan II , son of Babak, as puppet khan. In 1681, Galdan invaded the north of Tengeri Mountain and attacked the Kazakh Khanate but failed to take Sayram . In 1683 Galdan's armies under Tsewang Rabtan took Tashkent and Sayram . They reached the Syr Darya and crushed two Kazakh armies. After that Galdan subjugated

5537-487: The Muslims to aid the Qing in killing Oirates. After the destruction of the Dzungar Oirat people, the Qing dynasty sponsored the settlement of millions of Han, Hui, Xibe, Daur, Solon, Turkic Oasis people (Uyghurs) and Manchus in Dzungaria since the land had been emptied. Stanley W. Toops notes that modern Xinjiang's demographic situation still reflects the settlement initiative of the Qing dynasty. One third of Xinjiang's total population consisted of Han, Hui, and Kazakhs in

5650-413: The Oirats became embroiled in a succession dispute which gave Dayan Khan the opportunity to attack them. In the latter half of the 16th century, the Oirats lost more territory to the Tumed . In 1620, the leaders of the Choros and Torghut Oirats, Kharkhul and Mergen Temene, attacked Ubasi Khong Tayiji , the first Altan Khan of the Khalkha . They were defeated and Kharkhul lost his wife and children to

5763-526: The Oirats. Ochirtu Khan , a nephew of Güshi Khan, aided Sengge , the son and successor of Batur in 1653 against his half brothers, resulting in Sengge's victory in 1661. Sengge was assassinated in 1670 by his half brothers Chechen Tayiji and Zotov. Ochirtu aided Sengge's younger brother, Galdan Boshugtu Khan , in defeating Chechen and Zotov. Galdan married Ochirtu's granddaughter, Anu-Dara , but came into conflict with Ochirtu who feared his popularity. Ochirtu supported Galdan's rival uncle Choqur Ubashi. Ochirtu

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5876-411: The Oirats. In the next year the Dalai Lama gave the highest title of Boshoghtu (or Boshughtu) Khan to him. From the late 16th century onward, the Yarkent Khanate fell under the influence of the Khojas . The Khojas were Naqshbandi Sufis who claimed descent from the prophet Muhammad or from the Rashidun caliphs . By the reign of Sultan Said Khan in the early 16th century, the Khojas already had

5989-432: The Qara Taghliq (Black Mountain) in Yarkand. Yulbars patronized the Aq Taghliqs and suppressed the Qara Taghliqs, which caused much resentment, and resulted in his assassination in 1670. He was succeeded by his son who ruled from only a brief period before Ismail Khan was enthroned. Ismail reversed the power struggle between the two Muslim factions and drove out the Aq Taghliq leader, Afaq Khoja . Afaq fled to Tibet , where

6102-444: The Qing dynasty. Amin Khoja led the people of Turpan in a retreat into Gansu where they settled in Guazhou . In 1739, Galdan Tseren agreed to the boundary between Khalkha and Dzungar territory. Galdan Tseren died in 1745, triggering widespread rebellion in the Tarim Basin, and starting a succession dispute among his sons. In 1749 Galden Tseren's son Lama Dorji seized the throne from his younger brother, Tsewang Dorji Namjal . He

6215-414: The Qing general Zhaohui. The scene was immortalized in the painting " Zhaohui receives the surrender of Dawachi at Ili " by the Jesuit court painter Ignatius Sichelbart . Dawachi was taken to Beijing, but was pardoned by the Emperor. Together with his captor Khojis , he was made a Prince, and "awarded banner privileges". After defeating the Dzungar Khanate, the Qing planned to install khans for each of

6328-421: The Qing, Amursana fled north to seek refuge with the Russians and died of smallpox in Russian lands in September 1757. In the spring of 1762 his frozen body was brought to Kyakhta for the Manchu to see. The Russians then buried it, refusing the Manchu request that it be handed over for posthumous punishment. Later encounters took place with the remaining Dzungar forces, in the Battle of Khorgos , in which

6441-464: The Sinmodokha palace. They demanded hostages from Ngawang Namgyal, who however gave a defiant reply. The Tibetan soldiers who had captured the palace were supposedly killed by a gunpowder explosion, and the invasion at length achieved nothing (see also Battle of Five Lamas ). In 1638, a chief of the Chahar tribe of the Mongols performed a raid from Tibet into Ladakh but were repulsed by king Sengge Namgyal . Due to this there arose some tension between

6554-407: The Tsangpa and Ladakh, although it did not come to open warfare. The Tsang elite sent envoys to pay their respects to Sengge Namgyal. While he marched back with his army, the Ladakhi king subjugated a number of monastic fiefs and herdsmen communities in western Tibet. The disappearance of Arslan gave room for the chief of the Khoshut Mongols, Güshi Khan , to act. He had previously visited Tibet as

6667-427: The administration until the coup of 1705-6 when Lha-bzang Khan became de facto ruler of Tibet. Other sources claim that the 5th Dalai Lama received authority from Güshi Khan to reign over Tibet but the khan had a hand in selecting the de facto administrator of civil affairs, the desi (governor) Sonam Rapten, while the 5th Dalai Lama was relegated to religious matters. FitzHerbert and Travers describe an increase in

6780-402: The area of Tuva during the early 13th century. Their leader, Quduqa Bäki , submitted to Genghis Khan in 1208 and his house intermarried with all four branches of the Genghisid line. During the Toluid Civil War , the Four Oirat ( Choros , Torghut , Dörbet , and Khoid ) sided with Ariq Böke and therefore never accepted Kublaid rule. After the Yuan dynasty 's collapse, the Oirats supported

6893-431: The burden on people. Except for the 5th Panchen Lama, he was unable to win over the Gelugpa elite. In 1717, the Dzungar prince Tseren Dondup invaded the Khoshut Khanate, deposed Yeshe Gyatso and installed the boy from Lithang as the 7th Dalai Lama , killed Lha-bzang Khan, and looted Lhasa. The Dzungars did not bring the boy to Lhasa and terrorized the populace, losing them the support of the Gelugpa. A Qing invasion in 1718

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7006-414: The camp and where able to conduct about 8,000 prisoners to the Chinese camp (an event depicted in the Qing painting " Storming of the Camp at Gädän-Ola "). Only 2,000 soldiers escaped with Dawachi at their head. Dawachi fled into the mountains north of Aksu but was captured by the Uyghur leader Khojis , beg of Uchturpan , at the request of the Chinese, and delivered to the Qing. Dawachi surrendered to

7119-435: The campaign was Kharkhul's son, Erdeni Batur , who was granted the title of Khong Tayiji . He married the khan's daughter Amin Dara, and was sent back to establish the Dzungar Khanate on the upper Emil River south of the Tarbagatai Mountains . On 13 April 1642, the 5th Dalai Lama proclaimed Güshi the khan of Tibet. In Beijing , he was called the "khan of the Tibetans." To ensure his authority over Tibet, Güshi instituted

7232-466: The conduct of his son. Chogthu sent emissaries who murdered Arslan and a few of his followers. Meanwhile, there were a few disputes with areas to the west and south. Karma Tenkyong inherited from his father a latent conflict with Ngawang Namgyal , a Drukpa cleric who had founded a polity in Bhutan in 1616. In 1634, he sent six columns that attacked Bhutan across various points of the border from Padro to Bumthang. The Tsangpa forces were able to capture

7345-448: The conquest of the Yarkent Khanate in 1680, they used people from the Tarim Basin ( taranchi ) as slave labour to cultivate land in Dzungaria. The Dzungar economy and industry was fairly complex for a nomadic society. They had iron, copper, and silver mines producing raw ore, which the Dzungars made into weapons and shields, including even firearms, bullets, and other utensils. The Dzungars were able to indigenously manufacture firearms to

7458-413: The enemy. An all out war between Ubasi and the Oirats lasted until 1623 when Ubasi was killed. In 1625, a conflict erupted between the Oirat Khoshut Galwas chief Chöükür and his uterine brother Baibaghas over inheritance issues. Baibaghas was killed in the fight. However, his younger brothers Toro-Baikhu, later Güshi Khan , and Köndölön Ubashi took up the fight and pursued Chöükür from the Ishim River to

7571-405: The fact that they represented the left wing of the Oirats . In the early 17th century, the head of the Oirat confederation was the leader of the Khoshut, Gushi Khan. When Gushi Khan decided to invade Tibet to replace the local Tsangpa khan in favor of rule by the Gelug , the Oirat army was organized into left and right wing. The right wing consisting of Khoshuts and Torguts remained in Tibet while

7684-414: The first non-Genghisid Mongol to claim the title of khan. Güshi was also declared a reincarnation of Vajrapani , which in the eyes of Güshi's followers, established a priest and patron relationship that put him on the same level as the Dalai Lama and the Panchen Lama . He summoned the Oirats to conquer Tibet completely, initiating a mass migration of 100,000 Oirat households to Kokonor. This created

7797-426: The fortress Neu near Lhasa. With this feat Güshi Khan united most of Tibet under the spiritual authority of his patron Ngawang Lobsang Gyatso. Later in the same year, a Karmapa uprising took place in several districts. The incensed Güshi Khan gave orders to execute Karma Tenkyong together with his ministers Dronyer Bongong and Gangzukpa. The ex-ruler was administered the capital punishment ko-thumgyab-pa , which in Tibet

7910-459: The four Oirat tribes, but Amursana , who had been an ally of the Qing against Dawachi, wanted to rule over all the Oirats. Instead the Qianlong Emperor made him only khan of the Khoid . In the summer, Amursana along with Mongol leader Chingünjav led a revolt against the Qing. Amursana was defeated in the Battle of Oroi-Jalatu (1756), in which Chinese general Zhao Hui attacked the Dzungars at night in present Wusu , Xinjiang. Unable to defeat

8023-523: The grand lama who is called Dalai Lama stayed in Poutala, that our travellers called variously Botala, Lassa and Barantola, he was still not the temporal sovereign of the land; it was Tsan pa who then ruled and lost the crown in the way that I will recount.' The new Dalai Lama, born in 1617, was eventually received in the Repung monastery in 1622. Pilgrims, notables and soldiers arrived in increasing numbers from Mongolia to Central Tibet and worried Karma Tenkyong. The Tsangpa ruler gathered around him members of

8136-537: The king of Ü-Tsang ('Ucangue') or Tibet. The account of the Jesuit Father Gerbillon from the late 17th century says of him: 'It was not more than 60 years ago that Tibet, that is variously called Toubet, Thibet and Tangout, was governed by a king native to that land, called Tsanpa han [Tsangpa Khan], whom the Chinese call Tsan pou in their histories. This prince was once very powerful [...]; although

8249-478: The lama who was kept in detention. The Tsangpa ruler sent troops to guard the borders and erected a stockade around the capital Shigatse . However, Güshi Khan had obtained the reputation of being an invincible warlord and met with relatively weak resistance. Thirteen districts were rapidly overrun, and the Mongol forces laid siege to Shigatse. The skilful Tsangpa archers kept the attackers at bay for several months. In

8362-527: The meantime, Sonam Chospel secured the various Tsangpa districts in Ü through persuasion or force. Eventually, he openly showed his support for Güshi Khan's enterprise and joined the siege with a large body of soldiers. While the conflict was going on, a large Tibetan delegation was dispatched to the Manchu Emperor in Mukden , Hong Taiji . The delegates brought letters from Dalai Lama, the Tsangpa and

8475-511: The north while around two-thirds were Uyghurs in southern Xinjiang's Tarim Basin. Some cities in northern Xinjiang such as Ürümqi and Yining were essentially made by the Qing settlement policy. The elimination of the Buddhist Dzungars led to the rise of Islam and its Muslim Begs as the predominant moral political authority in Xinjiang. Many Muslim Taranchis also moved to northern Xinjiang. According to Henry Schwarz, "the Qing victory was, in

8588-537: The old nobility and old religious communities who looked on the expansion of the Gelugpa with suspicion. In 1631, he was able to push back the Gelugpa positions so that Ngawang Lobsang Gyatso was forced to seek refuge in Nêdong , the royal seat of the Phagmodrupa dynasty . Karma Tenkyong furthermore allied with the senior ruler of the Mongols, Ligdan Khan , a convert to the Shamarpa sect. Ligdan Khan actually captured

8701-634: The partisans of Amursana were defeated in 1758 by Prince Cäbdan-jab. Again in 1758, at the Battle of Khurungui , General Zhao Hui ambushed and defeated the Dzungarian forces on Mount Khurungui, near Almaty , Kazakhstan . When Amursana rebelled against the Qing dynasty , the Aq Taghliq (i.e. 'White Mountaineers', also known as Āfāqīs ) Khojas Burhanuddin and Jahan rebelled in Yarkand . Their rule

8814-424: The power of his blessings and magical abilities. Yet, he was unable to humble himself regarding the height of the seat [compared to the seats of the Karmapa and Shamarpa hierarchs], and so forth". Karma Tenkyong was known to his contemporaries for his hasty temper, strength, and audacious rashness, that incidentally were reminiscent of early Indian legends of Vajrapani, the deity he was believed to incarnate. In

8927-449: The regent to death, and deposed the 6th Dalai Lama. According to Peter Schwieger, Lha-bzang sought the support of the Kangxi Emperor of the Qing dynasty , who requested that he send the 6th Dalai Lama to Beijing. However the Dalai Lama fell ill soon after leaving Lhasa and died on the way in Amdo on 14 November 1706. Lha-bzang presented a monk from Chagpori as the true reincarnation of

9040-575: The ruler Sultan Shah, who executed them and handed Jahan's head to the Qing. The Tarim Basin was pacified in 1759. According to the Qing scholar Wei Yuan (1794–1857), the Dzungar population before the Qing conquest was around 600,000 in 200,000 households. Wei Yuan wrote that about 40 percent of the Dzungar households were killed by smallpox , 20 percent fled to Russia or Kazakh tribes, and 30 percent were killed by Manchu bannermen. For several thousands of li , there were no gers except of those who had surrendered. Wen-Djang Chu wrote that 80 percent of

9153-501: The same ilk as the Mongols, aren’t you? Why did you separate from them? (...) People stood there with their mouths open because of the misery. I was anxious that your misery came to a standstill. And I hope that it will not — with my help — last till the next morning (...) If Heaven wants to strengthen somebody, people cannot injure him even if they want his downfall. ...You want to honour the Yellow Doctrine and pray to Buddha and

9266-449: The same level as Sonam Rapten on a seat lower than the Dalai Lama. However Mullin also claims that until the death of Sonam Rapten in 1657, the 5th Dalai Lama was a figurehead while Sonam Rapten was the de facto ruler. According to Luciano Petech , Güshi Khan indisputably granted the 5th Dalai Lama all temporal powers over Tibet in 1642, but the Dalai Lama did not possess the ability to undertake actual administration. The office of desi

9379-429: The siege in return for wide concessions. The Gelugpa received back most of the estates lost to the Tsangpa. The military camps that the latter kept in the region were abolished. For the Gelugpa leaders it was probably desirable to avoid the complete annihilation of Karma Tenkyong's forces, since they were the only effective army of Tibet and could serve as a counterweight to the Mongols. Karma Tenkyong proceeded to repair

9492-459: The site of Borotola in June 1755, about 300 li from Ili . Dawachi had about 10,000 troops, and retreated to Mount Keteng, about 80 li from Ili, while sending messengers for reinforcements, but the messengers were intercepted by the Chinese. The Qing army was able to surprise and capture Dawachi's army at the camp, and a charge was led by the Dzungar renegade Ayusi and 20 of his men, who stormed

9605-551: The temples in Lhasa where the ravages of the Mongols caused the religious service to lapse for two years. He also made repairs of Sakya and Taklung . Furthermore, the new ruler issued a law code. Being the last of his dynasty and an enemy of the Gelugpa hierarchs, the memory of Karma Tenkyong suffered from the damnation of later Gelugpa historians. He, and the previous Tsangpa rulers, were regarded as inherently evil and opposed to Buddhism in spite of their well-attested patronage of

9718-545: The term jiao (extermination) over and over again. The commanders Hadaha and Agui were punished for only occupying Dzungar lands but letting the people escape. The generals Jaohui and Shuhede were punished for not showing sufficient zeal in exterminating rebels. Qianlong explicitly ordered the Khalkha Mongols to "take the young and strong and massacre them". The elderly, children, and women were spared but they could not preserve their former names or titles. Mark Levene,

9831-448: The time of Karma Tenkyong a number of Portuguese Jesuit missionaries visited Tibet. In 1628, the priests Estêvão Cacella and João Cabral arrived to the royal residence Shigatse and were received by the king. The Jesuits describe him as an intelligent and handsome man of 22, pious and generous to the poor. His palace was built on the top of a mountain, with a construction similar to a Portuguese fortress but without artillery. His court

9944-610: The war against the Kazakhs and the Kalkha Mongols. In retaliation against attacks against his Khalkha subjects, the Yongzheng Emperor of the Qing dynasty sent an invasion force of 10,000, which the Dzungars defeated near the Khoton Lake . The next year however, the Dzungars suffered a defeat against the Khalkhas near Erdene Zuu Monastery . In 1731, the Dzungars attacked Turpan, which had previously defected to

10057-582: The war. He ordered the painting of the 100 most meritorious servitors of the Qing ( 紫光阁功臣像 : brave Qing officers, generals, and also a few Torghut and Dörbed allies, as well as vanquished Choros Oirats, or Muslim Uyghur allies such as Khojis or Amin Khoja ), as well as paintings of the battle scenes whenever the Qing were successful. The faces are in Western realistic style, while the bodies were probably drawn by Chinese court artists. According to contemporary Jesuit painter Jean-Denis Attiret : "During

10170-758: The west. The core of the Dzungar Khanate is today part of northern Xinjiang , also called Dzungaria . About 1620 the western Mongols, known as the Oirats , united in the Junggar Basin in Dzungaria . In 1678, Galdan received from the Dalai Lama the title of Boshogtu Khan , making the Dzungars the leading tribe within the Oirats . The Dzungar rulers used the title of Khong Tayiji , which translates into English as "crown prince". Between 1680 and 1688,

10283-551: The western headwaters of the Liao River . Galdan was forced to retreat and escaped total destruction because the Qing army did not have the supplies or ability to pursue him. In 1696, the Kangxi Emperor led 100,000 troops into Mongolia . Galdan fled from the Kherlen only to be caught by another Qing army attacking from the west. He was defeated in the ensuing Battle of Jao Modo near the upper Tuul River . Galdan's wife, Anu ,

10396-408: The whole duration of this war against the Eleuths and other Tartars, their allies, whenever the imperials troops gained some victories, the painters were ordered to paint them. Those of the most important officers who had played the decisive roles in the events were favoured to appear in the paintings according to what really had happened". These paintings were all made by foreign artists, specifically

10509-525: The Ü region in support of the Gelugpa. Karma Tenkyong met them in battle at Gyathanggang but was decisively defeated. He and his soldiers were then besieged at Chakpori in Lhasa and faced with starvation and death by massacre. At that moment the Panchen Lama of Tashilhunpo and the leaders of the Ganden and Taklung monasteries intervened. These three Gelugpa dignitaries persuaded the Mongols to lift

10622-645: Was a king of Tibet who ruled from 1620 to 1642. He belonged to the Tsangpa Dynasty which had been prominent in Tsang (West Central Tibet) since 1565. His reign was marked by the increasingly bitter struggle against the Gelugpa sect and its leader the Dalai Lama . The outcome was the crushing of the Tsangpa regime and the establishment of the Dharma -based Tibetan state that endured until 1950. Karma Tenkyong

10735-577: Was also ended unceremoniously two years later when riots erupted in Yarkand. He was replaced by his brother Muhammad Imin Khan. Muhammad sought help from the Qing dynasty , Khanate of Bukhara , and the Mughal Empire in combating the Dzungars. In 1693, Muhammad conducted a successful attack on the Dzungar Khanate, taking 30,000 captives. Unfortunately Afaq Khoja appeared again and overthrew Muhammad in

10848-506: Was annihilated by the Dzungars in the Battle of the Salween River , not far from Lhasa. A second and larger expedition expelled the Dzungars from Tibet in 1720. They brought the boy with them from Kumbum to Lhasa and installed him as the 7th Dalai Lama in 1721. The Ganden Phodrang , named after the 5th Dalai Lama's residence in Drepung Monastery , was set up as a Gelug led government of Tibet in 1642. The Khoshut Khanate played

10961-548: Was assassinated by his half-brothers Chechen Tayiji and Zotov in a coup in 1670. Sengge's younger brother Galdan Boshugtu Khan had been residing in Tibet at the time. Upon his birth in 1644 he was recognized as the reincarnation of a Tibetan lama who had died the previous year. In 1656 he left for Tibet, where he received education from Lobsang Chökyi Gyaltsen, 4th Panchen Lama and the 5th Dalai Lama. Upon learning of his brother's death, he immediately returned from Tibet and took revenge on Chechen. Allied with Ochirtu Sechen of

11074-531: Was born in 1606 as the son of the Tsangpa ruler Karma Phuntsok Namgyal . He was considered an incarnation of Chakna Dorje ( Vajrapani , the protector and guide of Buddha ). At that time the dynasty had entered a phase of military expansion from its bases in the Tsang region. It was strongly allied with the Buddhist hierarchs of the Karmapa (Black Hat) and Shamarpa (Red Hat) sects. In 1618, when Karma Tenkyong

11187-471: Was captured by the Dzungars due to the treachery of Ayyub Khoja of Aksu . Jahan's son Sadiq gathered 7,000 men in Khotan and attacked Aksu in retaliation. In the spring of 1755, the Qianlong Emperor sent an army of 50,000 against Dawachi. He presented his invasion as benevolent, and aimed at ending the sufferings of the Dzungars, while ascribing their misery to themselves: "Alas, you Dzungars, you are of

11300-423: Was created to carry out the government of the country and the Dalai Lama only decided the appeals of judicial decisions against the desi . A few years later, the 5th Dalai Lama asserted his temporal powers by appointing the desi , who only served short terms until the death of the 5th Dalai Lama. Petech says that besides military matters and foreign threats to Tibet, Güshi Khan and his successors did not interfere in

11413-409: Was defeated in 1677. There are different accounts of Lha-bzang Khan 's rise to power. According to the first account, Lha-bzang Khan obtained power by poisoning his elder brother, Tenzin Wangchuk Khan , and after the regent Desi Sangye Gyatso tried to murder him, the regent himself was murdered on 6 September 1705. However according to a memorial dated 27 June 1703, the 6th Dalai Lama had informed

11526-517: Was formally justified as having been granted through merit and the mandate of heaven. This ensured that his title would be passed on to his successors as protectors and defenders of the Buddhist faith. Upon his death in 1655, Güshi's son Tenzin Dorje, Dayan Khan , succeeded him as khan of Tibet. His sixth son Dalai Baatar was given control of Kokonor while Ochirtu was left in temporal power as Khan of

11639-638: Was granted the title of Khong Tayiji, married the khan's daughter Amin Dara, and sent back to establish the Dzungar Khanate on the upper Emil River south of the Tarbagatai Mountains . Batur returned to Dzungaria with the title Erdeni (given by the Dalai Lama ) and much booty. During his reign he made three expeditions against the Kazakhs . The conflicts by the Dzungars are remembered in a Kazakh ballad Elim-ai . The Dzungars also went to war against

11752-482: Was kept with great luxury and the various rooms were gilded and painted. The personal apartment of the king contained a section where he collected curiosities. The palace had curtains of Chinese damask and other substances, the quality of which could compete with the silks of the Portuguese. While the hostile Gelugpa sources are reluctant to accord the Tsangpa ruler royal titles, European accounts point him out as

11865-585: Was killed and the Qing army captured 20,000 cattle and 40,000 sheep. Galdan fled with a small handful of followers. In 1697 he died in the Altai Mountains near Khovd on 4 April. Back in Dzungaria, his nephew Tsewang Rabtan , who had revolted in 1689, was already in control as of 1691. Galdan installed Abd ar-Rashid Khan II , son of Babak, as puppet khan in the Yarkent Khanate . The new khan forced Afaq Khoja to flee again, but Abd ar-Rashid's reign

11978-599: Was killed in battle. Chikhundorj then murdered Degdeehei Mergen Ahai of the Jasaghtu Khan who was on the way to Galdan. To avenge the death of his brother, Galdan established friendly relations with the Russians who were already at war with Chikhundorj over territories near Lake Baikal . Armed with Russian firearms, Galdan led 30,000 Dzungar troops into Khalkha Mongolia in 1688 and defeated Chikhundorj in three days. The Siberian Cossacks , meanwhile, attacked and defeated

12091-582: Was killed in the fight. However, his younger brothers Güshi Khan and Köndölön Ubashi took up the fight and pursued Chöükür from the Ishim River to the Tobol River , attacking and killing his tribal followers in 1630. The infighting among the Oirats caused the Torghut chief Kho Orluk to migrate westwards until they came into conflict with the Nogai Horde , which they destroyed. The Torghuts founded

12204-438: Was not popular and the people greatly disliked them for appropriating anything they needed from clothing to livestock. In February 1758, The Qing sent Yaerhashan and Zhao Hui with 10,000 troops against the Aq Taghliq regime. Zhao Hui was besieged by enemy forces at Yarkand until January 1759, but otherwise the Qing army did not encounter any difficulties on campaign. The khoja brothers fled to Badakhshan where they were captured by

12317-450: Was ordered to put these people to death, which he did, angering the regent. According to a memorial dated 11 June 1704, the 6th Dalai Lama had a good relationship with the khan and joined him in hunting and practicing archery. The regent complained that he was but a figurehead. The regent tried to poison the khan, which may or may not have happened according to different accounts, but Lha-bzang survived. In 1705-6, Lha-bzang entered Lhasa, put

12430-507: Was overruled by his chief attendant Sonam Chospel . Still, the Gelugpa leadership initially held a formally neutral stance when the Mongol forces turned against Karma Tenkyong. The Panchen Lama, who resided in the Tashilhunpo monastery in Tsang, was invited to travel to Ü so that he would not be harmed by the forthcoming invasion. As it was, Karma Tenkyong was informed that Güshi Khan's army was heading towards Tsang, and proceeded to arrest

12543-599: Was overthrown by his cousin Dawachi and the Khoid noble Amursana , but they too fought over control of the khanate. As a result of their dispute, in 1753, three of Dawachi's relatives ruling the Dörbet and Bayad defected to the Qing and migrated into Khalkha territory. The next year, Amursana also defected. In 1754, Yusuf, the ruler of Kashgar , rebelled and forcefully converted the Dzungars living there to Islam. His older brother, Jahan Khoja of Yarkand , also rebelled but

12656-495: Was succeeded by Karma Tenkyong. Since he was young, the government was handled by the nanglon Dronyer Bongong and the chilon Gangzukpa. The ministers were averse to sending representatives to the newly discovered 5th Dalai Lama , Ngawang Lobsang Gyatso, fearing the increasingly heartily contacts between the Gelugpa and the Upper Mongols at Qinghai Lake . In 1621, a Mongol detachment led by Lhatsun and Hungtaiji invaded

12769-448: Was twelve years old, his father successfully invaded Ü (East Central Tibet) which was a stronghold of the reformist Gelugpa sect. In that way he became the supreme ruler of Central Tibet (Ü-Tsang). The conquest was facilitated since the 4th Dalai Lama had died two years before, and no reincarnated successor had yet been found. Karma Phuntsok Namgyal died in late March 1620 (or, according to other statements, 1621, 1623, 1631 or 1632) and

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