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170-522: The kukri is the national weapon of Nepal , traditionally serving the role of a basic utility knife for the Nepali -speaking Gurkhas , and consequently is a characteristic weapon of the Nepali Army . There are many myths surrounding the kukri since its earliest recorded use in the 7th century—most notably a traditional custom that the blade must draw blood before being sheathed, when its sole purpose

340-572: A Gorkha king, set out to put together what would become present-day Nepal. He embarked on his mission by securing the neutrality of the bordering mountain kingdoms. After several bloody battles and sieges, notably the Battle of Kirtipur , he managed to conquer the Kathmandu Valley in 1769. The Gorkha control reached its height when the Kumaon and Garhwal Kingdoms in the west to Sikkim in

510-544: A Rigvedic deity with fearsome powers, was the god of the roaring storm . He is usually portrayed in accordance with the element he represents as a fierce, destructive deity. In RV 2.33, he is described as the "Father of the Rudras ", a group of storm gods. Flood notes that Rudra is an ambiguous god, peripheral in the Vedic pantheon, possibly indicating non-Vedic origins. Nevertheless, both Rudra and Shiva are akin to Wodan ,

680-402: A Thakuri rule. Thakuri kings ruled over the country up to the middle of the 11th century AD; not much is known of this period that is often called the dark period. In the 11th century, a powerful empire of Khas people emerged in western Nepal whose territory at its highest peak included much of western Nepal as well as parts of western Tibet and Uttarakhand of India. By the 14th century,

850-455: A "partyless" Panchayat system was made to govern Nepal. The political parties were banned and politicians imprisoned or exiled. The Panchayat rule modernised the country, introducing reforms and developing infrastructure, but curtailed liberties and imposed heavy censorship. In 1990, the People's Movement forced King Birendra (ruled 1972–2001) to accept constitutional reforms and to establish

1020-468: A "wedge" effect which causes the blade to cut effectively and deeper. While most famed from use in the military, the kukri is the most commonly used multipurpose tool in the fields and homes in Nepal. Its use has varied from building, clearing, chopping firewood, digging, slaughtering animals for food, cutting meat and vegetables, skinning animals, and opening cans. The kukri is versatile. It can function as

1190-604: A German Indologist and professor of philosophy, describes the self-realized man as who "feels himself only as the one divine essence that lives in all", who feels identity of his and everyone's consciousness with Shiva (highest Atman), who has found this highest Atman within, in the depths of his heart. Rudra's evolution from a minor Vedic deity to a supreme being is first evidenced in the Shvetashvatara Upanishad (400–200 BCE), according to Gavin Flood, presenting

1360-654: A Service No.1 (ceremonial) and a Service No.2 (exercise); in modern times, members of the Brigade of Gurkhas receive training in its use. The weapon gained fame in the Gurkha War and its continued use through both World War I and World War II enhanced its reputation among both Allied troops and enemy forces. Its acclaim was demonstrated in North Africa by one unit's situation report. It reads: "Enemy losses: ten killed, our nil. Ammunition expenditure nil." The kukri

1530-502: A bond of allegiance to the national independence, territorial integrity, national interest, and prosperity of Nepal. The Government of Nepal has three branches: Nepal is a federal republic comprising 7 provinces . Each province is composed of 8 to 14 districts. The districts, in turn, comprise local units known as urban and rural municipalities. There is a total of 753 local units which includes 6 metropolitan municipalities, 11 sub-metropolitan municipalities and 276 municipalities for

1700-450: A committee composed of all elected officials from the local governments in the district, has a very limited role. The Constitution of Nepal is the supreme law of the land, and any other laws contradicting it are automatically invalid to the extent of the contradiction. The specific legal provisions are codified as Civil Code and Criminal Code, accompanied by Civil Procedure Code and Criminal Procedure Code respectively. The Supreme Court

1870-448: A couple of his specialties of this figure does not match with Rudra. Writing in 1997, Srinivasan interprets what John Marshall interpreted as facial as not human but more bovine, possibly a divine buffalo-man. The interpretation of the seal continues to be disputed. McEvilley , for example, states that it is not possible to "account for this posture outside the yogic account". Asko Parpola states that other archaeological finds such as

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2040-412: A decorated wooden scabbard or one which is wrapped in leather. Traditionally, the scabbard also holds two smaller blades: an unsharpened chakmak to burnish the blade, and another accessory blade called a karda . Some older style scabbards include a pouch for carrying flint or dry tinder. The kukri is effective as a chopping weapon, due to its weight, and slashing weapon, because the curved shape creates

2210-450: A flared butt that allows better retention in draw cuts and chopping. Most handles have metal bolsters and butt plates which are generally made of brass or steel. The traditional handle attachment in Nepal is the partial tang , although the more modern versions have the stick tang which has become popular. The full tang is mainly used on some military models but has not become widespread in Nepal itself. The kukri typically comes in either

2380-645: A fusing of the two deities. Agni is said to be a bull, and Shiva possesses a bull as his vehicle, Nandi . The horns of Agni , who is sometimes characterized as a bull, are mentioned. In medieval sculpture, both Agni and the form of Shiva known as Bhairava have flaming hair as a special feature. According to Wendy Doniger , the Saivite fertility myths and some of the phallic characteristics of Shiva are inherited from Indra . Doniger gives several reasons for her hypothesis. Both are associated with mountains, rivers, male fertility, fierceness, fearlessness, warfare,

2550-434: A householder with his wife Parvati and his two children, Ganesha and Kartikeya . In his fierce aspects, he is often depicted slaying demons. Shiva is also known as Adiyogi (the first Yogi ), regarded as the patron god of yoga , meditation and the arts. The iconographical attributes of Shiva are the serpent king Vasuki around his neck, the adorning crescent moon, the holy river Ganga flowing from his matted hair,

2720-467: A land of spirituality and refuge in the intervening centuries, played an important role in transmitting Buddhism to East Asia via Tibet, and helped preserve Hindu and Buddhist manuscripts. By 250 BC, the southern regions had come under the influence of the Maurya Empire . Emperor Ashoka made a pilgrimage to Lumbini and erected a pillar at Buddha's birthplace, the inscriptions on which mark

2890-475: A manner similar to Shiva Nataraja. The similarities in the dance iconography suggests that there may be a link between ancient Indra and Shiva. A few texts such as Atharvashiras Upanishad mention Rudra , and assert all gods are Rudra, everyone and everything is Rudra, and Rudra is the principle found in all things, their highest goal, the innermost essence of all reality that is visible or invisible. The Kaivalya Upanishad similarly, states Paul Deussen –

3060-490: A member of WTO since 23 April 2004. The 16.8-million-worker Nepali labour force is the 37th largest in the world. The primary sector makes up 27.59% of GDP, the secondary sector 14.6%, and the tertiary sector 57.81%. Nepal's foreign exchange remittances of US$ 8.1 billion in 2018, the 19th largest in the world and constituting 28.0% of GDP, were contributed to its economy by millions of workers primarily in India,

3230-607: A multiparty democracy. In 1996, the Maoist Party started a violent bid to replace the royal parliamentary system with a people's republic. This led to the long Nepali Civil War and more than 16,000 deaths. With the death of both the King and the Crown Prince in a massacre in the royal palace , King Birendra's brother Gyanendra inherited the throne in 2001 and subsequently assumed full executive powers aiming to quash

3400-488: A notch ( karda , kauda , Gaudi , Kaura , or Cho ) at the base of the blade. Various reasons are given for this, both practical and ceremonial: that it makes blood and sap drop off the blade rather than running onto the handle and thereby prevents the handle from becoming slippery; that it delineates the end of the blade whilst sharpening; that it is a symbol representing a cow's foot, or Shiva ; or that it can catch another blade or kukri in combat. The notch may also represent

3570-647: A part of ritual. In contrast, the esoteric tradition within Kashmir Shaivism has featured the Krama and Trika sub-traditions. The Krama sub-tradition focussed on esoteric rituals around Shiva-Kali pair. The Trika sub-tradition developed a theology of triads involving Shiva, combined it with an ascetic lifestyle focusing on personal Shiva in the pursuit of monistic self-liberation. The Vaishnava (Vishnu-oriented) literature acknowledges and discusses Shiva. Like Shaiva literature that presents Shiva as supreme,

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3740-482: A place protected by Ne , the country in the heart of the Himalayas came to be known as Nepāl . According to Nepāl Mahātmya , Nemi was charged with protection of the country by Pashupati . According to Buddhist mythology , Manjushri Bodhisattva drained a primordial lake of serpents to create the Nepal valley and proclaimed that Adi-Buddha Ne would take care of the community that would settle it. As

3910-505: A proto-Shiva would "go too far". The Vedic beliefs and practices of the pre-classical era were closely related to the hypothesised Proto-Indo-European religion , and the pre-Islamic Indo-Iranian religion. The similarities between the iconography and theologies of Shiva with Greek and European deities have led to proposals for an Indo-European link for Shiva, or lateral exchanges with ancient central Asian cultures. His contrasting aspects such as being terrifying or blissful depending on

4080-558: A quarter of the total forested area has helped the local economies while reducing human-wildlife conflict . The breeding programmes coupled with community-assisted military patrols, and a crackdown on poaching and smuggling, has seen poaching of critically endangered tigers and elephants as well as vulnerable rhinos, among others, go down to effectively zero, and their numbers have steadily increased. Nepal has ten national parks , three wildlife reserves , one hunting reserve , three Conservation Areas and eleven buffer zones , covering

4250-518: A series of inscriptions; Nepal's history of the period is pieced together almost entirely from them. In 641, Songtsen Gampo of the Tibetan Empire sends Narendradeva back to Licchavi with an army and subjugates Nepal. Parts of Nepal and Licchavi was later under the direct influences of the Tibetan empire. The Licchavi dynasty went into decline in the late 8th century and was followed by

4420-773: A single major deity. Shiva is a pan-Hindu deity, revered widely by Hindus in India , Nepal , Bangladesh , Sri Lanka and Indonesia (especially in Java and Bali ). Saiddhantika Non - Saiddhantika According to the Monier-Williams Sanskrit dictionary, the word " śiva " ( Devanagari : शिव , also transliterated as shiva ) means "auspicious, propitious, gracious, benign, kind, benevolent, friendly". The root words of śiva in folk etymology are śī which means "in whom all things lie, pervasiveness" and va which means "embodiment of grace". The word Shiva

4590-589: A smaller knife by using the narrower part of the blade, closest to the handle. The heavier and wider end of the blade, towards the tip, functions as an axe or a small shovel. The kukri often appears in Nepalese heraldry and is used in many traditional, Hindu -centric rites such as wedding ceremonies. The Biswakarma Kami (caste) are the traditional inheritors of the art of kukri-making. Modern kukri blades are often forged from spring steel , sometimes collected from recycled truck suspension units . The tang of

4760-490: A substratum of a race of pre-Dravidians and Dravidians, who were in Nepal even before the Newars, who formed the majority of the ancient inhabitants of the valley of Kathmandu. By the late Vedic period , Nepal was being mentioned in various Hindu texts, such as the late Vedic Atharvaveda Pariśiṣṭa and in the post-Vedic Atharvashirsha Upanishad . The Gopal Bansa was the oldest dynasty to be mentioned in various texts as

4930-538: A total area of 28,959.67 km (11,181.39 sq mi), or 19.67% of the total land area, while ten wetlands are registered under the Ramsar Convention . Nepal has consistently been ranked as one of the most polluted countries in the world. Nepal is a parliamentary republic with a multi-party system. Nepal has been referred as the 'Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal' since 2015. It has seven national political parties recognised in

5100-501: A total of 293 urban municipalities, and 460 rural municipalities. Each local unit is composed of wards. There are 6,743 wards in total. The local governments enjoy executive and legislative as well as limited judicial powers in their local jurisdiction. The provinces have unicameral parliamentary Westminster system of governance. The local and provincial governments exercise some absolute powers and some powers shared with provincial or federal government. The district coordination committee,

5270-407: A very wide tang with handle slabs fastened on by two or more rivets, commonly called a full tang ( panawal ) configuration. Traditional profiling of the blade edge is performed by a two-man team; one spins a grinding wheel forwards and backwards by means of a rope wound several times around an axle while the sharpener applies the blade. The wheel is made by hand from fine river sand bound by laha ,

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5440-516: A view that Nepal remained the true bastion of unadulterated Hinduism at a time when Indian culture had been influenced by centuries of Mughal, followed by British rule . Gorkha , one of the Baisi states, emerged as an influential and ambitious kingdom with a reputation for justice, after it codified the first Hinduism-based laws in the Nepalese hills. In the mid-18th century, Prithvi Narayan Shah ,

5610-401: A wood or horn handle, the tang may be heated and burned into the handle to ensure a tight fit, since only the section of handle which touches the blade is burned away. In more modern kukri, handles of cast aluminium or brass are press-fitted to the tang; as the hot metal cools it shrinks, locking onto the blade. Some kukri (such as the ones made by contractors for the modern Indian Army), have

5780-529: Is $ 1,004. The distribution of wealth among the Nepalis is consistent with that in many developed and developing countries: the highest 10% of households control 39.1% of the national wealth and the lowest 10% control only 2.6%. European Union (EU) (46.13%), the US (17.4%), and Germany (7.1%) are its main export partners; they mainly buy Nepali ready-made garments (RMG). Nepal's import partners include India (47.5%),

5950-432: Is 59,624 km (23,021 sq mi), 40.36% of the country's total land area, with an additional 4.38% of scrubland , for a total forested area of 44.74%, an increase of 5% since the turn of the millennium. The country had a 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 7.23/10, ranking it 45th globally out of 172 countries. In the southern plains, Terai–Duar savanna and grasslands ecoregion contains some of

6120-440: Is Nepal's largest trading partner, which it depends upon for all of its oil and gas, and a number of essential goods. Nepalis can own property in India, while Indians are free to live and work in Nepal. Relations between India and Nepal, though very close, have faced difficulties stemming from territorial disputes , economics, and the problems inherent in big power-small power relations. Nepal established diplomatic relations with

6290-594: Is a vulgarism of sanskritic Nepala, or Nepala is Sanskritisation of the local ethnic; his view has found some support though it does not answer the question of etymology. It has also been proposed that Nepa is a Tibeto-Burman stem consisting of Ne (cattle) and Pa (keeper), reflecting the fact that early inhabitants of the valley were Gopalas (cowherds) and Mahispalas (buffalo-herds). Suniti Kumar Chatterji believed Nepal originated from Tibeto-Burman roots – Ne, of uncertain meaning (as multiple possibilities exist), and pala or bal , whose meaning

6460-401: Is a habitat for 4.0% of all mammal species , 8.9% of bird species , 1.0% of reptile species , 2.5% of amphibian species , 1.9% of fish species , 3.7% of butterfly species , 0.5% of moth species and 0.4% of spider species . In its 35 forest-types and 118 ecosystems, Nepal harbours 2% of the flowering plant species , 3% of pteridophytes and 6% of bryophytes . Nepal's forest cover

6630-592: Is a patron deity of farming and herding castes . The foremost center of worship of Khandoba in Maharashtra is in Jejuri . Khandoba has been assimilated as a form of Shiva himself, in which case he is worshipped in the form of a lingam. Khandoba's varied associations also include an identification with Surya and Karttikeya . Myths about Shiva that were "roughly contemporary with early Christianity " existed that portrayed Shiva with many differences than how he

6800-557: Is about $ 13.71 billion (FY 2019/20); expenditure of infrastructure development budget, most of it contributed by foreign aid, usually fails to meet the target. The country receives foreign aid from the UK, India, Japan, the US, the EU, China, Switzerland, and Scandinavian countries. The Nepali rupee has been tied to the Indian rupee at an exchange rate of 1.6 for many years. Per capita income

6970-406: Is considered as a fighting weapon. In addition to its use in combat, the kukri is also used for a variety of other purposes. It is used by farmers and laborers for cutting crops and clearing brush, and by hunters for skinning and cleaning game. It is also used as a tool for cooking, woodworking, and even as a ceremonial object in some Nepalese religious traditions. Researchers trace the origins of

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7140-431: Is designed primarily for chopping. The shape varies a great deal from being quite straight to highly curved with angled or smooth spines. There are substantial variations in dimensions and blade thickness depending on intended tasks as well as the region of origin and the smith that produced it. As a general guide the spines vary from 5–10 mm (0.20–0.39 in) at the handle, and can taper to 2 mm (0.079 in) by

7310-853: Is everything and everywhere. Shiva is the primal Self, the pure consciousness and Absolute Reality in the Shaiva traditions. Shiva is also Part of 'Om' (ॐ) as a 'U' (उ). The Shaivism theology is broadly grouped into two: the popular theology influenced by Shiva-Rudra in the Vedas, Epics and the Puranas; and the esoteric theology influenced by the Shiva and Shakti-related Tantra texts. The Vedic-Brahmanic Shiva theology includes both monist ( Advaita ) and devotional traditions ( Dvaita ), such as Tamil Shaiva Siddhanta and Lingayatism . Shiva temples feature items such as linga, Shiva-Parvati iconography, bull Nandi within

7480-452: Is expected to eradicate poverty within 20 years. The agriculture sector is particularly vulnerable as it is highly dependent on the monsoon rains, with just 28% of the arable land being irrigated, As of 2014 . Agriculture employs 76% of the workforce, services 18%, and manufacturing and craft-based industry 6%. Private investment, consumption, tourism and agriculture are the principal contributors to economic growth. The government's budget

7650-585: Is intended for crowd control, counter-insurgency and anti-terrorism actions, and other internal matters where the use of force may be necessary. The Crime Investigation Department of Nepal Police specialises in criminal investigation and forensic analysis. The Commission for the Investigation of Abuse of Authority is an independent investigative agency that investigates and prosecutes cases related to corruption, bribery and abuses of authority. At 2.16 per 100,000 in 2016, Nepal's intentional homicide rate

7820-473: Is intertwined with the culture of Indo-Aryans , and was the seat of the prosperous Newar confederacy known as Nepal Mandala . The Himalayan branch of the ancient Silk Road was dominated by the valley's traders . The cosmopolitan region developed distinct traditional art and architecture . By the 18th century, the Gorkha Kingdom achieved the unification of Nepal . The Shah dynasty established

7990-467: Is kind and tranquil (Shiva). The term Shiva also appears simply as an epithet, that means "kind, auspicious", one of the adjectives used to describe many different Vedic deities. While fierce ruthless natural phenomenon and storm-related Rudra is feared in the hymns of the Rigveda, the beneficial rains he brings are welcomed as Shiva aspect of him. This healing, nurturing, life-enabling aspect emerges in

8160-535: Is known today is an amalgamation of various older deities into a single figure, due to the process of Sanskritization and the emergence of the Hindu synthesis in post-Vedic times. How the persona of Shiva converged as a composite deity is not well documented, a challenge to trace and has attracted much speculation. According to Vijay Nath: Vishnu and Siva [...] began to absorb countless local cults and deities within their folds. The latter were either taken to represent

8330-711: Is lost entirely. By 55,000 years ago, the first modern humans had arrived on the Indian subcontinent from Africa, where they had earlier evolved. The earliest known modern human remains in South Asia date to about 30,000 years ago. The oldest discovered archaeological evidence of human settlements in Nepal dates to around the same time. After 6500 BC, evidence for the domestication of food crops and animals, construction of permanent structures, and storage of agricultural surplus appeared in Mehrgarh and other sites in what

8500-494: Is much lower than average; police data indicates a steady increase in the crime rate in recent years. Nepal was ranked 76 out of 163 countries in the Global Peace Index (GPI) in 2019. Nepal's passport has consistently been ranked among the weakest in the world. Nepal depends on diplomacy for national defence. It maintains a policy of neutrality between its neighbours, has amicable relations with other countries in

8670-476: Is not affected by three Guṇas of Prakṛti (Sattva, Rajas, and Tamas)". Shiva is known by many names such as Viswanatha (lord of the universe), Mahadeva, Mahandeo, Mahasu, Mahesha, Maheshvara, Shankara, Shambhu, Rudra, Hara, Trilochana, Devendra (chief of the gods), Neelakanta, Subhankara, Trilokinatha (lord of the three realms), and Ghrneshwar (lord of compassion). The highest reverence for Shiva in Shaivism

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8840-453: Is not clear from the seal that the figure has three faces, is seated in a yoga posture, or even that the shape is intended to represent a human figure. He characterizes these views as "speculative", but adds that it is nevertheless possible that there are echoes of Shaiva iconographic themes, such as half-moon shapes resembling the horns of a bull . John Keay writes that "he may indeed be an early manifestation of Lord Shiva as Pashu-pati", but

9010-603: Is now Balochistan . These gradually developed into the Indus Valley Civilisation , the first urban culture in South Asia. Prehistoric sites of palaeolithic , mesolithic and neolithic origins have been discovered in the Siwalik hills of Dang district . The earliest inhabitants of modern Nepal and adjoining areas are believed to be people from the Indus Valley Civilisation . It is possible that

9180-756: Is one of the principal deities of Hinduism . He is the Supreme Being in Shaivism , one of the major traditions within Hinduism. Shiva is known as The Destroyer within the Trimurti , the Hindu trinity which also includes Brahma and Vishnu . In the Shaivite tradition, Shiva is the Supreme Lord who creates, protects and transforms the universe. In the goddess-oriented Shakta tradition,

9350-537: Is one of the four major sects of Hinduism , the others being Vaishnavism , Shaktism and the Smarta Tradition . Followers of Shaivism, called "Shaivas", revere Shiva as the Supreme Being. Shaivas believe that Shiva is All and in all, the creator, preserver, destroyer, revealer and concealer of all that is. He is not only the creator in Shaivism, but he is also the creation that results from him, he

9520-652: Is reflected in his epithets Mahādeva ("Great god"; mahā "Great" and deva "god"), Maheśvara ("Great Lord"; mahā "great" and īśvara "lord"), and Parameśvara ("Supreme Lord"). Sahasranama are medieval Indian texts that list a thousand names derived from aspects and epithets of a deity. There are at least eight different versions of the Shiva Sahasranama , devotional hymns ( stotras ) listing many names of Shiva. The version appearing in Book 13 ( Anuśāsanaparvan ) of

9690-535: Is the "creator, reproducer and dissolver". Sharma presents another etymology with the Sanskrit root śarv - , which means "to injure" or "to kill", interpreting the name to connote "one who can kill the forces of darkness". The Sanskrit word śaiva means "relating to the god Shiva", and this term is the Sanskrit name both for one of the principal sects of Hinduism and for a member of that sect. It

9860-457: Is the construction of the blade. To reduce weight while keeping strength, the blade might be hollow forged (or, alternatively, hollow ground), or a fuller is created. Kukris are made with several different types of fuller including tin Chira (triple fuller), Dui Chira (double fuller), Ang Khola (single fuller), or basic non-tapered spines with a large bevelled edge. Kukri blades usually have

10030-589: Is the highest authority in the interpretation of laws and it can direct the parliament to amend or enact new laws as required. The death penalty has been abolished. It recognises marital rape and supports abortion rights. Owing to a rise in sex-selective abortion, however, constraints have been introduced. Nepal is a signatory to the Geneva Convention , Conventions/Treaties on the prohibition of Biological , Chemical and Nuclear weapons , International Labour Organization Fundamental Conventions , Treaty on

10200-580: Is the lowland region containing some hill ranges. The plains were formed and are fed by three major Himalayan rivers: the Koshi , the Narayani , and the Karnali as well as smaller rivers rising below the permanent snowline. This region has a subtropical to tropical climate. The outermost range of the foothills called Sivalik Hills or Churia Range, cresting at 700 to 1,000 metres (2,300 to 3,280 ft), marks

10370-592: Is the primary law enforcement agency. It is an independent organisation under the command of the Inspector General , who is appointed by and reports to the Ministry of Home Affairs . In addition to maintaining law and order, it is responsible for the management of road traffic, which is undertaken by Nepal Traffic Police. Nepal Armed Police Force , a separate paramilitary police organisation, works in cooperation with Nepal police in routine security matters; it

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10540-490: Is the southern limit of this region, with subtropical river valleys and "hills" alternating to the north of this range. Population density is high in valleys but notably less above 2,000 metres (6,600 ft) and very low above 2,500 metres (8,200 ft), where snow occasionally falls in winter. The southern lowland plains or Terai bordering India are part of the northern rim of the Indo-Gangetic Plain . Terai

10710-406: Is thought of now, and these mythical portrayals of Shiva were incorporated into later versions of him. For instance, he and the other gods , from the highest gods to the least powerful gods, were thought of as somewhat human in nature, creating emotions they had limited control over and having the ability to get in touch with their inner natures through asceticism like humans. In that era, Shiva

10880-599: Is used as an adjective in the Rig Veda ( c.  1700–1100 BCE ), as an epithet for several Rigvedic deities , including Rudra . The term Shiva also connotes "liberation, final emancipation" and "the auspicious one"; this adjectival usage is addressed to many deities in Vedic literature. The term evolved from the Vedic Rudra-Shiva to the noun Shiva in the Epics and the Puranas, as an auspicious deity who

11050-683: Is used as an adjective to characterize certain beliefs and practices, such as Shaivism. Some authors associate the name with the Tamil word śivappu meaning "red", noting that Shiva is linked to the Sun ( śivan , "the Red one", in Tamil) and that Rudra is also called Babhru (brown, or red) in the Rigveda. The Vishnu sahasranama interprets Shiva to have multiple meanings: "The Pure One", and "the One who

11220-636: Is widely used in traditional herbal medicine , and the luxuriant Ficus religiosa , or peepal , which is displayed on the ancient seals of Mohenjo-daro , and under which Gautam Buddha is recorded in the Pali canon to have sought enlightenment. Most of the subtropical evergreen broad-leaved forest of the lower Himalayan region is descended from the Tethyan Tertiary flora. As the Indian Plate collided with Eurasia forming and raising

11390-676: The Mahabharata provides one such list. Shiva also has Dasha-Sahasranamas (10,000 names) that are found in the Mahanyasa . The Shri Rudram Chamakam , also known as the Śatarudriya , is a devotional hymn to Shiva hailing him by many names. The Shiva-related tradition is a major part of Hinduism, found all over the Indian subcontinent , such as India, Nepal , Sri Lanka , and Southeast Asia , such as Bali, Indonesia . Shiva has pre-Vedic tribal roots, having "his origins in primitive tribes, signs and symbols." The figure of Shiva as he

11560-547: The Nirukta , an important early text on etymology, which says, "Agni is also called Rudra." The interconnections between the two deities are complex, and according to Stella Kramrisch: The fire myth of Rudra-Śiva plays on the whole gamut of fire, valuing all its potentialities and phases, from conflagration to illumination. In the Śatarudrīya , some epithets of Rudra, such as Sasipañjara ("Of golden red hue as of flame") and Tivaṣīmati ("Flaming bright"), suggest

11730-747: The Assam Rifles , the Kumaon Regiment , the Garhwal Rifles and the various Gorkha regiments . Outside of its native region of South Asia, the kukri also is in service with the Brigade of Gurkhas in the British Army and Gurkha Contingent of the Singapore Police Force . The kukri is the staple weapon of all Gurkha military regiments and units throughout the world, so much so that some English -speakers refer to

11900-503: The Bactria–Margiana Culture . According to Anthony, Many of the qualities of Indo-Iranian god of might/victory, Verethraghna , were transferred to the adopted god Indra, who became the central deity of the developing Old Indic culture. Indra was the subject of 250 hymns, a quarter of the Rig Veda . He was associated more than any other deity with Soma , a stimulant drug (perhaps derived from Ephedra ) probably borrowed from

12070-674: The Dravidian people whose history predates the onset of the Bronze Age in the Indian subcontinent (around 6300 BC) inhabited the area before the arrival of other ethnic groups like the Tibeto-Burmans and Indo-Aryans from across the border. By 4000 BC, the Tibeto-Burmese people had reached Nepal either directly across the Himalayas from Tibet or via Myanmar and north-east India or both. Stella Kramrisch (1964) mentions

12240-521: The Kingdom of Nepal and later formed an alliance with the British Empire , under its Rana dynasty of premiers . The country was never colonised but served as a buffer state between Imperial China and British India . Parliamentary democracy was introduced in 1951 but was twice suspended by Nepalese monarchs, in 1960 and 2005. The Nepalese Civil War in the 1990s and early 2000s resulted in

12410-464: The Linga Purana , present the various aspects of Shiva, mythologies, cosmology and pilgrimage ( Tirtha ) associated with him. The Shiva-related Tantra literature, composed between the 8th and 11th centuries, are regarded in devotional dualistic Shaivism as Sruti . Dualistic Shaiva Agamas which consider Self within each living being and Shiva as two separate realities (dualism, dvaita ), are

12580-495: The Siliguri Corridor , and from Bhutan by the Indian state of Sikkim . Nepal has a diverse geography , including fertile plains , subalpine forested hills, and eight of the world's ten tallest mountains , including Mount Everest , the highest point on Earth. Kathmandu is the nation's capital and the largest city . Nepal is a multi-ethnic, multi-lingual, multi-religious and multi-cultural state, with Nepali as

12750-733: The South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC), of which it is a founding member. Nepal is also a member of the Non-Aligned Movement and the Bay of Bengal Initiative . Before the unification of Nepal , the Kathmandu Valley was known as Nepal . The precise origin of the term Nepāl is uncertain. Nepal appears in ancient Indian literary texts dated as far back as the fourth century AD. An absolute chronology can not be established, as even

12920-492: The eastern Himalayan biodiversity hotspot, with notable biocultural diversity . The dramatic differences in elevation found in Nepal (60 m from sea level in the Terai plains, to 8,848 m Mount Everest ) result in a variety of biomes . The Eastern half of Nepal is richer in biodiversity as it receives more rain, compared to western parts, where arctic desert -type conditions are more common at higher elevations. Nepal

13090-725: The endangered Bengal tiger , the red panda , the Asiatic elephant , the Himalayan musk deer , the wild water buffalo and the South Asian river dolphin , as well as the critically endangered gharial , the Bengal florican , and the white-rumped vulture , which has become nearly extinct by having ingested the carrion of diclofenac -treated cattle. The pervasive and ecologically devastating human encroachment of recent decades has critically endangered Nepali wildlife . In response,

13260-470: The new constitution was promulgated on 20 September 2015, making Nepal a federal democratic republic divided into seven provinces . Nepal is of roughly trapezoidal shape, about 800 kilometres (500 mi) long and 200 kilometres (120 mi) wide, with an area of 147,516 km (56,956 sq mi). It lies between latitudes 26° and 31°N , and longitudes 80° and 89°E . Nepal's defining geological processes began 75 million years ago when

13430-492: The third eye on his forehead (the eye that turns everything in front of it into ashes when opened), the trishula or trident as his weapon, and the damaru . He is usually worshiped in the aniconic form of lingam . Shiva has pre-Vedic roots, and the figure of Shiva evolved as an amalgamation of various older non-Vedic and Vedic deities, including the Rigvedic storm god Rudra who may also have non-Vedic origins, into

13600-656: The 1970s, which led to the eventual coalescence of hitherto scattered communist factions under the United Left Front . After the joint civil resistance launched by the United Left Front and Nepali Congress overthrew the Panchayat in 1990, the Front became CPN (UML) , adopted multi-party democracy, and in the brief period, it was in government, introduced welfare programmes that remain popular. After

13770-522: The 1st millennium CE and through the 13th century, particularly in Kashmir and Tamil Shaiva traditions. Shaivism gained immense popularity in Tamilakam as early as the 7th century CE, with poets such as Appar and Sambandar composing rich poetry that is replete with present features associated with the deity, such as his tandava dance, the mulavam (dumru), the aspect of holding fire, and restraining

13940-415: The 3,000 m to 3,500 m range, dominated by oak (particularly in the west), Eastern Himalayan fir , Himalayan pine and Himalayan hemlock ; rhododendron is common as well. Above 3,500 m in the west and 4,000 m in the east, coniferous trees give way to rhododendron-dominated alpine shrubs and meadows . Among the notable trees, are the astringent Azadirachta indica , or neem , which

14110-459: The Arctic zone above 4,400 metres (14,400 ft). Nepal experiences five seasons: summer, monsoon , autumn, winter and spring. The Himalayas block cold winds from Central Asia in the winter and form the northern limits of the monsoon wind patterns. Nepal contains a disproportionately large diversity of plants and animals, relative to its size. Nepal, in its entirety, forms the western portion of

14280-562: The BMAC religion. His rise to prominence was a peculiar trait of the Old Indic speakers. The texts and artwork of Jainism show Indra as a dancer, although not identical generally resembling the dancing Shiva artwork found in Hinduism, particularly in their respective mudras. For example, in the Jain caves at Ellora , extensive carvings show dancing Indra next to the images of Tirthankaras in

14450-589: The British underestimated the Nepali and were soundly defeated until committing more military resources than they had anticipated needing. Thus began the reputation of Gurkhas as fierce and ruthless soldiers. The war ended in the Sugauli Treaty , under which Nepal ceded recently captured lands. Factionalism inside the royal family led to a period of instability. In 1846, a plot was discovered revealing that

14620-507: The Ganges, and home to King Janaka and his daughter, Sita . Around 600 BC, small kingdoms and confederations of clans arose in the southern regions of Nepal. From one of these, the Shakya polity, arose a prince who later renounced his status to lead an ascetic life, founded Buddhism , and came to be known as Gautama Buddha (traditionally dated 563–483 BC). Nepal came to be established as

14790-578: The Germanic God of rage ("wütte") and the wild hunt . According to Sadasivan, during the development of the Hindu synthesis attributes of the Buddha were transferred by Brahmins to Shiva, who was also linked with Rudra . The Rigveda has 3 out of 1,028 hymns dedicated to Rudra, and he finds occasional mention in other hymns of the same text. Hymn 10.92 of the Rigveda states that deity Rudra has two natures, one wild and cruel (Rudra), another that

14960-767: The Great 's forces to India in the 4th century BC. Burton (1884) writes that the British Museum housed a large kukri-like falchion inscribed with writing in Pali . Among the oldest existing kukri are those belonging to Drabya Shah (c. 1559), housed in the National Museum of Nepal in Kathmandu . The kukri came to be known to the Western world when the East India Company came into conflict with

15130-581: The Himalayas is a very important source of sediment, which flows to the Indian Ocean. Saptakoshi, in particular, carries a huge amount of silt out of Nepal but sees extreme drop in Gradient in Bihar , causing severe floods and course changes, and is, therefore, known as the sorrow of Bihar. Severe flooding and landslides cause deaths and disease, destroy farmlands and cripple the transport infrastructure of

15300-619: The Himalayas, the arid and semi-arid Mediterranean flora was pushed up and adapted to the more alpine climate over the next 40–50 million years. The Himalayan biodiversity hotspot was the site of mass exchange and intermingling of the Indian and Eurasian species in the neogene . One mammal species ( Himalayan field mouse ), two each of bird and reptile species, nine amphibia, eight fish and 29 butterfly species are endemic to Nepal. Nepal contains 107 IUCN -designated threatened species , 88 of them animal species, 18 plant species and one species of "fungi or protist" group. These include

15470-480: The Indian continental crust eventually to under-thrust Eurasia and to uplift the Himalayas . The rising barriers blocked the paths of rivers creating large lakes, which only broke through as late as 100,000 years ago, creating fertile valleys in the middle hills like the Kathmandu Valley. In the western region, rivers which were too strong to be hampered, cut some of the world's deepest gorges. Immediately south of

15640-588: The Indian plate, then part of the southern supercontinent Gondwana , began a north-eastward drift caused by seafloor spreading to its south-west, and later, south and south-east. Simultaneously, the vast Tethyn oceanic crust , to its northeast, began to subduct under the Eurasian Plate . These dual processes, driven by convection in the Earth's mantle , both created the Indian Ocean and caused

15810-790: The Maoist Party joined mainstream politics, in the aftermath of the peaceful revolution of 2006 , it also adopted multi-party democracy as its official line. The transition period between 2006 and 2015 saw sustained protests from the newly formed ethnocentric nationalist movements, principal among them the Madhes Movement . Nepal is governed according to the Constitution of Nepal . It defines Nepal as having multi-ethnic, multi-lingual, multi-religious, multi-cultural characteristics with common aspirations of people living in diverse geographical regions, and being committed to and united by

15980-458: The Maoist insurgency himself. The Maoist Party joined mainstream politics following the success of the peaceful democratic revolution of 2006 ; Nepal became a secular state , and on 28 May 2008, it was declared a federal republic, ending its time-honoured status as the world's only Hindu kingdom . After a decade of instability and internal strife which saw two constituent assembly elections,

16150-493: The Middle East and East Asia, almost all of them unskilled labourers. Major agricultural products include cereals (barley, maize, millet, paddy and wheat), oilseed, potato, pulses, sugarcane, jute, tobacco, milk and water buffalo meat. Major industries include tourism, carpets, textiles, cigarettes, cement, brick, as well as small rice, jute, sugar and oilseed mills. Nepal's international trade greatly expanded in 1951 with

16320-453: The Nandi bull, the Indian zebu , in particular, as the vehicle of Rudra and of Shiva, thereby unmistakably linking them as same. Rudra and Agni have a close relationship. The identification between Agni and Rudra in the Vedic literature was an important factor in the process of Rudra's gradual transformation into Rudra-Shiva. The identification of Agni with Rudra is explicitly noted in

16490-523: The Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons and the Paris climate accord . Some legal provisions, guided by socio-economic, cultural and religious sensibilities, remain discriminatory. There is gender-based discrimination against foreign nationals married to Nepali citizens. Paternal lineage of a person is valued and required in legal documents. Many laws remain unenforced in practice. Nepal Police

16660-715: The People's Republic of China on 1 August 1955, and signed the Treaty of Peace and Friendship in 1960; relations since have been based on the Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence . Nepal maintains neutrality in conflicts between China and India. It remains firmly committed to the One China Policy and is known to curb anti-China activities from the Tibetan refugees in Nepal. Citizens of both countries can cross

16830-479: The Rana autocracy. Following the success of Indian Independence Movement which Nepalese activists had taken part in, with India's support and cooperation of King Tribhuvan, Nepali Congress was successful in toppling the Rana regime, establishing a parliamentary democracy. After a decade of power wrangling between the king and the government, King Mahendra (ruled 1955–1972) scrapped the democratic experiment in 1960, and

17000-528: The Sanskritisation and Hinduisation of the indigenous non-Hindu tribal populations in all principalities throughout Nepal. By the middle of the 15th century, Kathmandu had become a powerful empire which, according to Kirkpatrick , extended from Digarchi or Sigatse in Tibet to Tirhut and Gaya in India. In the late 15th century, Malla princes divided their kingdom in four – Kathmandu, Patan and Bhaktapur in

17170-591: The Supreme Goddess ( Devi ) is regarded as the energy and creative power ( Shakti ) and the equal complementary partner of Shiva. Shiva is one of the five equivalent deities in Panchayatana puja of the Smarta tradition of Hinduism. Shiva has many aspects, benevolent as well as fearsome. In benevolent aspects, he is depicted as an omniscient Yogi who lives an ascetic life on Kailasa as well as

17340-497: The United Arab Emirates (11.2%), China (10.7%), Saudi Arabia (4.9%), and Singapore (4%). Besides having landlocked, rugged geography, few tangible natural resources and poor infrastructure, the ineffective post-1950 government and the long-running civil war are also factors in stunting the country's economic growth and development. Debt bondage even involving debtors' children has been a persistent social problem in

17510-625: The United Kingdom and Nepal formally signed an agreement of friendship that superseded the Sugauli Treaty of 1816. The Hindu practice of Sati , in which a widow sacrificed herself in the funeral pyre of her husband, was banned in 1919, and slavery was officially abolished in 1924. Rana rule was marked by tyranny, debauchery , economic exploitation and religious persecution. In the late 1940s, newly emerging pro-democracy movements and political parties in Nepal were critical of

17680-567: The United Kingdom, Denmark, Japan and Norway, among others. The President is the supreme commander of the Nepali Army ; its routine management is handled by the Ministry of Defence . The military expenditure for 2018 was $ 398.5 million, around 1.4% of GDP. An almost exclusively ground infantry force, Nepal Army numbers at less than one hundred thousand; recruitment is voluntary. It has few aircraft, mainly helicopters, primarily used for transport, patrol, and search and rescue. Directorate of Military Intelligence under Nepal Army serves as

17850-681: The Vaishnava literature presents Vishnu as supreme. However, both traditions are pluralistic and revere both Shiva and Vishnu (along with Devi), their texts do not show exclusivism, and Vaishnava texts such as the Bhagavata Purana while praising Krishna as the Ultimate Reality, also present Shiva and Shakti as a personalized form an equivalent to the same Ultimate Reality. The texts of Shaivism tradition similarly praise Vishnu. The Skanda Purana, for example, states: Vishnu

18020-464: The Vedas as Rudra-Shiva, and in post-Vedic literature ultimately as Shiva who combines the destructive and constructive powers, the terrific and the gentle, as the ultimate recycler and rejuvenator of all existence. The Vedic texts do not mention bull or any animal as the transport vehicle ( vahana ) of Rudra or other deities. However, post-Vedic texts such as the Mahabharata and the Puranas state

18190-455: The army, but it is dominated by men from elite Pahari warrior castes. Nepal is one of the least developed countries , which ranks 165th in the world in nominal GDP per capita and 162nd in GDP per capita at PPP . Nepal's gross domestic product (GDP) for 2019 was $ 34.186 billion. Nepal has consistently been ranked as one of the poorest countries in the world. Nepal has been

18360-506: The beginning of the Shaiva tradition focused on the worship of Shiva as evidenced in other literature of this period. Other scholars such as Robert Hume and Doris Srinivasan state that the Shvetashvatara Upanishad presents pluralism, pantheism , or henotheism , rather than being a text just on Shiva theism. Self-realization and Shaiva Upanishads He who sees himself in all beings, And all beings in him, attains

18530-486: The blade back to the domestic sickle and the prehistoric bent stick used for hunting and later in hand-to-hand combat. Similar implements have existed in several forms throughout the Indian subcontinent and were used both as weapons and as tools, such as for sacrificial rituals. It might have derived from the ancient Indian saber called nistrimsa (निस्त्रिंश), itself possibly based on the Greek kopis brought by Alexander

18700-468: The blade usually extends all the way through to the end of the handle; the small portion of the tang that projects through the end of the handle are hammered flat to secure the blade. Kukri blades have a hard, tempered edge and a softer spine. This enables them to maintain a sharp edge, yet tolerate impacts. Kukri handles, usually made from hardwood or buffalo horn, are often fastened with a kind of tree sap called laha (also known as "Himalayan epoxy"). With

18870-589: The border and travel as far as 30 km without a visa. China is viewed favourably in Nepal owing to the absence of any border disputes or serious interference in internal politics, coupled with its assistance in infrastructure development and aid during emergencies; favourability has increased since China helped Nepal during the 2015 economic blockade imposed by India. Subsequently, China granted Nepal access to its ports for third-country trade, and Nepal joined China's Belt and Road Initiative . Nepal emphasises greater cooperation in South Asia and actively pushed for

19040-572: The border with China. Seven other of the world's " eight-thousanders " are in Nepal or on its border with Tibet: Lhotse , Makalu , Cho Oyu , Kangchenjunga , Dhaulagiri , Annapurna and Manaslu . Pahad is the mountain region that does not generally contain snow. The mountains vary from 800 to 4,000 metres (2,600 to 13,100 ft) in altitude, with progression from subtropical climates below 1,200 metres (3,900 ft) to alpine climates above 3,600 metres (11,800 ft). The Lower Himalayan Range , reaching 1,500 to 3,000 metres (4,900 to 9,800 ft),

19210-488: The brief periods of democratic exercise in the 1950s and the 1990s, Nepali Congress held majority of seats in parliament; CPN (UML) was its competitor in the 1990s. After the Maoists entered the political process in 2006, they emerged as the third largest party. In the aftermath of the 2017 elections , the first one according to the new constitution, NCP, formed by the merger of CPN (UML) and CPN (Maoist Centre) had become

19380-516: The cherished of Ne , the valley would be called Nepāl . According to Gopalarājvamshāvali , the genealogy of ancient Gopala dynasty compiled c.  1380s , Nepal is named after Nepa the cowherd, the founder of the Nepali scion of the Abhiras . In this account, the cow that issued milk to the spot, at which Nepa discovered the Jyotirlinga of Pashupatināth upon investigation,

19550-548: The classification of Eastern and Western, both styles of kukri appear to be used in all areas of Nepal. There are kukri modelled on the one used by the Gorkhali General Amar Singh Thapa . The real one is archived at National Museum of Nepal and is more curvy in nature than other traditions. The kukri is in standard service with various regiments and units within the Indian Army , such as

19720-402: The country, during the monsoon season each year. Nepal has five climatic zones, broadly corresponding to the altitudes. The tropical and subtropical zones lie below 1,200 metres (3,900 ft), the temperate zone 1,200 to 2,400 metres (3,900 to 7,900 ft), the cold zone 2,400 to 3,600 metres (7,900 to 11,800 ft), the subarctic zone 3,600 to 4,400 metres (11,800 to 14,400 ft), and

19890-464: The earliest rulers of the central Himalayan kingdom known by the name 'Nepal'. The Gopalas were followed by Kiratas who ruled for over 16 centuries by some accounts. According to the Mahabharata , the then Kirata king went to take part in the Battle of Kurukshetra . In the south-eastern region, Janakpurdham was the capital of the prosperous kingdom of Videha or Mithila, that extended down to

20060-441: The earliest seeds of theistic devotion to Rudra-Shiva. Here Rudra-Shiva is identified as the creator of the cosmos and liberator of Selfs from the birth-rebirth cycle. The Svetasvatara Upanishad set the tone for early Shaivite thought, especially in chapter 3 verse 2 where Shiva is equated with Brahman: "Rudra is truly one; for the knowers of Brahman do not admit the existence of a second". The period of 200 BC to 100 AD also marks

20230-400: The early Elamite seals dated to 3000–2750 BCE show similar figures and these have been interpreted as "seated bull" and not a yogi, and the bovine interpretation is likely more accurate. Gregory L. Possehl in 2002, associated it with the water buffalo, and concluded that while it would be appropriate to recognize the figure as a deity, and its posture as one of ritual discipline, regarding it as

20400-687: The east came under Nepalese control. A dispute with Tibet over the control of mountain passes and inner Tingri valleys of Tibet prompted the Qing Emperor of China to start the Sino-Nepali War compelling the Nepali to retreat to their own borders in the north. The rivalry between the Kingdom of Nepal and the East India Company over the control of states bordering Nepal eventually led to the Anglo-Nepali War (1815–16). At first,

20570-563: The emerging Himalayas, plate movement created a vast trough that rapidly filled with river-borne sediment and now constitutes the Indo-Gangetic Plain . Nepal lies almost completely within this collision zone, occupying the central sector of the Himalayan arc, nearly one-third of the 2,400 km (1,500 mi)-long Himalayas, with a small strip of southernmost Nepal stretching into the Indo-Gangetic plain and two districts in

20740-492: The empire had splintered into loosely associated Baise rajyas , literally 22 states as they were counted. The rich culture and language of the Khas people spread throughout Nepal and as far as Indo-China in the intervening centuries; their language , later renamed the Nepali language, became the lingua franca of Nepal as well as much of North-east India. In south-eastern Nepal, Simraungarh annexed Mithila around 1100 AD, and

20910-632: The establishment of SAARC , the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation, the permanent secretariat of which, is hosted in Kathmandu. Nepal was one of the first countries to recognise an independent Bangladesh, and the two countries seek to enhance greater cooperation, on trade and water management; seaports in Bangladesh, being closer, are seen as viable alternatives to India's monopoly on Nepal's third-country trade. Nepal

21080-472: The establishment of a secular republic in 2008, ending the world's last Hindu monarchy. The Constitution of Nepal , adopted in 2015, affirms the country as a secular federal parliamentary republic divided into seven provinces . Nepal was admitted to the United Nations in 1955, and friendship treaties were signed with India in 1950 and China in 1960. Nepal hosts the permanent secretariat of

21250-428: The establishment of democracy; liberalisation began in 1985 and picked up pace after 1990. By the fiscal year 2016/17, Nepal's foreign trade amounted Rs 1.06 trillion, a twenty-three folds increase from Rs 45.6 billion in 1990/91. More than 60% of Nepal's trade is with India. Major exports include readymade garment, carpet, pulses, handicrafts, leather, medicinal herbs, and paper products, which account for 90% of

21420-419: The federal parliament: Communist Party of Nepal (Unified Marxist–Leninist) , Nepali Congress , Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist Centre) , Rastriya Swatantra Party , Rastriya Prajatantra Party , People's Socialist Party and Janamat Party . Of the two major parties which both officially espouse democratic socialism, CPN(UML) is considered leftist while Nepali Congress is considered centrist. During most of

21590-537: The figures in a group dance can be interpreted in many different ways. Of several Indus valley seals that show animals, one seal that has attracted attention shows a large central figure, either horned or wearing a horned headdress and possibly ithyphallic , seated in a posture reminiscent of the Lotus position , surrounded by animals. This figure was named by early excavators of Mohenjo-daro as Pashupati (Lord of Animals, Sanskrit paśupati ), an epithet of

21760-475: The foundational texts for Shaiva Siddhanta . Other Shaiva Agamas teach that these are one reality (monism, advaita ), and that Shiva is the Self, the perfection and truth within each living being. In Shiva related sub-traditions, there are ten dualistic Agama texts, eighteen qualified monism-cum-dualism Agama texts and sixty-four monism Agama texts. Shiva-related literature developed extensively across India in

21930-576: The growing Gorkha Kingdom , culminating in the Gurkha War of 1814–1816. It gained literary attention in the 1897 novel Dracula by Irish author Bram Stoker . Despite the popular image of Dracula having a stake driven through his heart at the conclusion of a climactic battle between Dracula's bodyguards and the heroes, Mina's narrative describes his throat being sliced through by Jonathan Harker's kukri and his heart pierced by Quincey Morris's Bowie knife . All Gurkha troops are issued with two kukris,

22100-504: The highest Brahman , not by any other means. — Kaivalya Upanishad 10 Shaiva devotees and ascetics are mentioned in Patanjali 's Mahābhāṣya (2nd-century BCE) and in the Mahabharata . The earliest iconic artworks of Shiva may be from Gandhara and northwest parts of ancient India. There is some uncertainty as the artwork that has survived is damaged and they show some overlap with meditative Buddha-related artwork, but

22270-423: The later Hindu deities Shiva and Rudra. Sir John Marshall and others suggested that this figure is a prototype of Shiva, with three faces, seated in a " yoga posture" with the knees out and feet joined. Semi-circular shapes on the head were interpreted as two horns. Scholars such as Gavin Flood , John Keay and Doris Meth Srinivasan have expressed doubts about this suggestion. Gavin Flood states that it

22440-487: The limits of the Gangetic Plain. Broad, low valleys called Inner Terai Valleys ( Bhitri Tarai Upatyaka ) lie north of these foothills in several places. The Indian plate continues to move north relative to Asia at about 50 mm (2.0 in) per year. This makes Nepal an earthquake-prone zone, and periodic earthquakes that have devastating consequences present a significant hurdle to development. Erosion of

22610-461: The major contributors to the UN peacekeeping missions, having contributed more than 119,000 personnel to 42 missions since 1958. Nepali people have a reputation for honesty, loyalty and bravery, which has led to them serving as legendary Gurkha warriors in the Indian and British armies for the last 200 years, with service in both world wars, India-Pakistan wars as well as Afghanistan and Iraq, though Nepal

22780-489: The mid 14th century, Nepal remains largely untouched by the Muslim invasion of India that began in the 11th century. The Mughal period saw an influx of high-caste Hindus from India into Nepal. They soon intermingled with the Khas people and by the 16th century, there were about 50 Rajput-ruled principalities in Nepal, including the 22 (Baisi) states and, to their east in west-central Nepal, 24 Chaubisi states . There emerged

22950-470: The middle of the 14th century. The Mallas ruled the valley first under the suzerainty of Tirhut but established independent reign by late 14th century as Tirhut went into decline. In the late 14th century, Jayasthiti Malla introduced widespread socio-economic reforms, principal of which was the caste system. By dividing the indigenous non-Aryan Buddhist population into castes modelled after the four Varna system of Hinduism, he provided an influential model for

23120-437: The military intelligence agency; National Investigation Department tasked with national and international intelligence gathering, is independent. Nepal Army is primarily used for routine security of critical assets, an anti-poaching patrol of national parks, counterinsurgency, and search and rescue during natural disasters; it also undertakes major construction projects. There are no discriminatory policies on recruitment into

23290-483: The multiple facets of the same god or else were supposed to denote different forms and appellations by which the god came to be known and worshipped. [...] Siva became identified with countless local cults by the sheer suffixing of Isa or Isvara to the name of the local deity, e.g., Bhutesvara, Hatakesvara, Chandesvara." An example of assimilation took place in Maharashtra , where a regional deity named Khandoba

23460-457: The next general elections in 2027. In the 1930s, a vibrant underground political movement arose in the capital, birthing Nepal Praja Parishad in 1936, which was dissolved seven years later, following the execution of the four great martyrs . Around the same time, Nepalis involved in the Indian independence movement started organizing into political parties, leading to the birth of Nepali Congress and Communist Party of Nepal . As communism

23630-549: The northwest stretching up to the Tibetan plateau. Nepal is divided into three principal physiographic belts known as Himal – Pahad – Terai . Himal is the mountain region containing snow and situated in the Great Himalayan Range; it makes up the northern part of Nepal. It contains the highest elevations in the world including 8,848.86 metres (29,032 ft) height Mount Everest ( Sagarmāthā in Nepali) on

23800-457: The official language. The name "Nepal" is first recorded in texts from the Vedic period of the Indian subcontinent , the era in ancient Nepal when Hinduism was founded, the predominant religion of the country. In the middle of the first millennium BC, Gautama Buddha , the founder of Buddhism , was born in Lumbini in southern Nepal. Parts of northern Nepal were intertwined with the culture of Tibet . The centrally located Kathmandu Valley

23970-484: The oldest texts may contain anonymous contributions dating as late as the early modern period . Academic attempts to provide a plausible theory are hindered by the lack of a complete picture of history and insufficient understanding of linguistics or relevant Indo-European and Tibeto-Burman languages. According to Hindu mythology , Nepal derives its name from an ancient Hindu sage called Ne , referred to variously as Ne Muni or Nemi . According to Pashupati Purāna , as

24140-491: The point while the blade lengths can vary from 26–38 cm (10–15 in) for general use. A kukri designed for general purpose use is commonly 40–45 cm (16–18 in) in overall length and weighs approximately 450–900 g (16–32 oz). Larger examples are impractical for everyday use and are rarely found except in collections or as ceremonial weapons. Smaller ones are of more limited utility, but very easy to carry. Another factor that affects its weight and balance

24310-404: The population below the international poverty line (US$ 1.90 per person per day) from 15% in 2010 to just 9.3% in 2018, although vulnerability remains extremely high, with almost 32% of the population living on between US$ 1.90 and US$ 3.20 per person per day. Nepal has made improvement in sectors like nutrition, child mortality, electricity, improved flooring and assets. Under the current trend, Nepal

24480-506: The premises, and relief artwork showing aspects of Shiva. The Tantric Shiva ( "शिव ") tradition ignored the mythologies and Puranas related to Shiva, and depending on the sub-school developed a variety of practices. For example, historical records suggest the tantric Kapalikas (literally, the 'skull-men') co-existed with and shared many Vajrayana Buddhist rituals, engaged in esoteric practices that revered Shiva and Shakti wearing skulls, begged with empty skulls, and sometimes used meat as

24650-458: The presence of Shiva's trident and phallic symbolism in this art suggests it was likely Shiva. Numismatics research suggests that numerous coins of the ancient Kushan Empire (30–375 CE) that have survived, were images of a god who is probably Shiva. The Shiva in Kushan coins is referred to as Oesho of unclear etymology and origins, but the simultaneous presence of Indra and Shiva in the Kushan era artwork suggest that they were revered deities by

24820-624: The proud flow of the Ganga upon his braid. The monist Shiva literature posit absolute oneness, that is Shiva is within every man and woman, Shiva is within every living being, Shiva is present everywhere in the world including all non-living being, and there is no spiritual difference between life, matter, man and Shiva. The various dualistic and monist Shiva-related ideas were welcomed in medieval southeast Asia, inspiring numerous Shiva-related temples, artwork and texts in Indonesia, Myanmar, Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam, Thailand and Malaysia, with syncretic integration of local pre-existing theologies. Shaivism

24990-401: The region, and has a policy of non-alignment at the global stage. Nepal is a member of SAARC , UN , WTO , BIMSTEC and ACD , among others. It has bilateral diplomatic relations with 167 countries and the EU, has embassies in 30 countries and six consulates, while 25 countries maintain embassies in Nepal, and more than 80 others maintain non-residential diplomatic missions. Nepal is one of

25160-416: The reigning queen had planned to overthrow Jung Bahadur Kunwar, a fast-rising military leader. This led to the Kot massacre ; armed clashes between military personnel and administrators loyal to the queen led to the execution of several hundred princes and chieftains around the country. Bir Narsingh Kunwar emerged victoriously and founded the Rana dynasty , and came to be known as Jung Bahadur Rana . The king

25330-545: The ruling party at the federal level and in six out of seven provinces. After the 2022 general election , the House of Representatives of 2nd Federal parliament was formed as hung parliament and a coalition government led by Pushpa Kamal Dahal was formed in December 2022. On 15 July 2024, K. P. Sharma Oli was sworn in as Nepali Prime minister for fourth time. New coalition was formed between Nepali Congress, led by Sher Bahadur Deuba, and UML, led by Oli. The party leaders will take turns as prime ministers for 18 months each until

25500-484: The same adhesive used to affix the handle to the blade. Routine sharpening is traditionally accomplished by passing a chakmak over the edge in a manner similar to that used by chefs to steel their knives. Kukri scabbards are usually made of wood or metal with an animal skin or metal or wood covering. The leather work is often done by a Sarki . Kukris can be broadly classified into two types: Eastern and Western. The Eastern blades are originated and named according to

25670-438: The situation, are similar to those of the Greek god Dionysus , as are their iconic associations with bull, snakes, anger, bravery, dancing and carefree life. The ancient Greek texts of the time of Alexander the Great call Shiva "Indian Dionysus", or alternatively call Dionysus "god of the Orient" . Similarly, the use of phallic symbol as an icon for Shiva is also found for Irish, Nordic, Greek (Dionysus ) and Roman deities, as

25840-418: The start of the Kushan Empire. The Shaiva Upanishads are a group of 14 minor Upanishads of Hinduism variously dated from the last centuries of the 1st millennium BCE through the 17th century. These extol Shiva as the metaphysical unchanging reality Brahman and the Atman (Self), and include sections about rites and symbolisms related to Shiva. The Shaiva Puranas , particularly the Shiva Purana and

26010-429: The starting point for properly recorded history of Nepal. Ashoka also visited the Kathmandu valley and built monuments commemorating Gautama Buddha's visit there. By the 4th century AD, much of Nepal was under the influence of the Gupta Empire . In the Kathmandu valley, the Kiratas were pushed eastward by the Licchavis , and the Licchavi dynasty came into power c. 400 AD. The Lichchhavis built monuments and left

26180-434: The system of national parks and protected areas , first established in 1973 with the enactment of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act 1973 , was substantially expanded. Vulture restaurants coupled with a ban on veterinary usage of diclofenac has seen a rise in the number of white-rumped vultures. The community forestry programme which has seen a third of the country's population directly participate in managing

26350-405: The teats of a cow, a reminder that the kukri should not be used to kill a cow, an animal revered and worshipped by Hindus. The notch may also be used as a catch, to hold tight against a belt, or to bite onto twine to be suspended. The handles are most often made of hardwood or water buffalo horn , but also ivory , bone , and metal handles have also been produced. The handle quite often has

26520-428: The total. Major imports include various finished and semi-finished goods, raw materials, machinery and equipment, chemical fertilisers, electrical and electronic devices, petroleum products, gold, and readymade garments. Inflation was at 4.5% in 2019. Foreign exchange reserves were at US$ 9.5 billion in July 2019, equivalent to 7.8 months of imports. Nepal has made significant progress in poverty reduction bringing

26690-415: The towns and villages of Eastern Nepal . Kukris made in locations like Chainpur , Bhojpur , and Dhankuta in Eastern Nepal are excellent and ornate knives. Western blades are generally broader. Occasionally the Western style is called Budhuna , (referring to a fish with a large head), or baspate (bamboo leaf) which refers to blades just outside the proportions of the normal Sirupate blade. Despite

26860-402: The transgression of established mores, the Aum sound, the Supreme Self. In the Rig Veda the term śiva is used to refer to Indra. (2.20.3, 6.45.17, and 8.93.3. ) Indra, like Shiva, is likened to a bull. In the Rig Veda, Rudra is the father of the Maruts , but he is never associated with their warlike exploits as is Indra. Indra himself may have been adopted by the Vedic Aryans from

27030-483: The unified Tirhut stood as a powerful kingdom for more than 200 years, even ruling over Kathmandu for a time. After another 300 years of Muslim rule, Tirhut came under the control of the Sens of Makawanpur . In the eastern hills, a confederation of Kirat principalities ruled the area between Kathmandu and Bengal. In the Kathmandu valley, the Mallas , who make several appearances in Nepalese history since ancient times, had established themselves in Kathmandu and Patan by

27200-432: The valley and Banepa to the east. The competition for prestige among these brotherly kingdoms saw the flourishing of art and architecture in central Nepal, and the building of famous Kathmandu , Patan and Bhaktapur Durbar Squares ; their division and mistrust led to their fall in the late 18th century, and ultimately, the unification of Nepal into a modern state. Apart from one destructive sacking of Kathmandu valley in

27370-439: The weapon as a "Gurkha blade" or "Gurkha knife". Nepal Nepal , officially the Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal , is a landlocked country in South Asia . It is mainly situated in the Himalayas , but also includes parts of the Indo-Gangetic Plain . It borders the Tibet Autonomous Region of China to the north , and India to the south, east, and west , while it is narrowly separated from Bangladesh by

27540-508: The western hills and the Terai , with an estimated 234,600 people or 0.82% of the population considered as enslaved, by The Global Slavery Index in 2016. Shiva Shiva ( / ˈ ʃ ɪ v ə / ; Sanskrit : शिव , lit.   'The Auspicious One', IAST : Śiva [ɕɪʋɐ] ), also known as Mahadeva ( / m ə ˈ h ɑː ˈ d eɪ v ə / ; Sanskrit : महादेव: , lit.   'The Great God', IAST : Mahādevaḥ , [mɐɦaːd̪eːʋɐh ) or Hara ,

27710-507: The world's tallest grasses as well as Sal forests, tropical evergreen forests and tropical riverine deciduous forests. In the lower hills (700 m – 2,000 m), subtropical and temperate deciduous mixed forests containing mostly S al (in the lower altitudes), Chilaune and Katus , as well as subtropical pine forest dominated by chir pine are common. The middle hills (2,000 m – 3,000 m) are dominated by oak and rhododendron . Subalpine coniferous forests cover

27880-453: Was also named Ne . The Ne Muni etymology was rightly dismissed by the early European visitors. Norwegian indologist Christian Lassen proposed that Nepāla was a compound of Nipa (foot of a mountain) and -ala (short suffix for alaya meaning abode), and so Nepāla meant "abode at the foot of the mountain". Indologist Sylvain Levi found Lassen's theory untenable but had no theories of his own, only suggesting that either Newara

28050-456: Was made a titular figure, and the post of Prime Minister was made powerful and hereditary. The Ranas were staunchly pro-British and assisted them during the Indian Rebellion of 1857 (and later in both World Wars). In 1860 some parts of the western Terai region were gifted to Nepal by the British as a friendly gesture because of her military help to sustain British control in India during the rebellion (known as Naya Muluk , new country). In 1923,

28220-468: Was not directly involved in any of those conflicts, and winning the highest military awards, including the Victoria Cross and the Param Vir Chakra . Nepal pursues a policy of "balanced relations" with the two giant immediate neighbours, India and China; the 1950 Treaty of Peace and Friendship with India provides for a much closer relationship. Nepal and India share an open border with free movement of people, religious, cultural and marital ties. India

28390-424: Was the first South Asian country to establish diplomatic relations with Israel, and the countries enjoy a strong relationship; it recognises the rights of the Palestinians, having voted in favour of its recognition at the UN and against the recognition of Jerusalem as Israel's capital. Countries that Nepal maintains a close relationship with, include the most generous donors and development partners—the United States,

28560-424: Was the idea of this aniconic column linking heaven and earth among early Indo-Aryans, states Roger Woodward. Others contest such proposals, and suggest Shiva to have emerged from indigenous pre-Aryan tribal origins. Shiva as we know him today shares many features with the Vedic god Rudra , and both Shiva and Rudra are viewed as the same personality in Hindu scriptures . The two names are used synonymously. Rudra,

28730-403: Was trying to find its footing, Nepali Congress was successful in overthrowing the Rana regime in 1951 and enjoyed the overwhelming support of the electorate. In the partyless Panchayat system initiated in 1962 by King Mahendra , monarchy loyalists took turns leading the government; political leaders remained underground, exiled or in prison. A communist insurgency was crushed in its cradle in

28900-524: Was widely viewed as both the god of lust and of asceticism. In one story, he was seduced by a prostitute sent by the other gods, who were jealous of Shiva's ascetic lifestyle he had lived for 1000 years. Prehistoric rock paintings dating to the Mesolithic from Bhimbetka rock shelters have been interpreted by some authors as depictions of Shiva. However, Howard Morphy states that these prehistoric rock paintings of India, when seen in their context, are likely those of hunting party with animals, and that

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