The Humiliati (Italian Umiliati ) were an Italian religious order of men formed probably in the 12th century. It was suppressed by a papal bull in 1571 though an associated order of women continued into the 20th century.
124-466: The origin of the order of Humiliati is obscure. According to some chroniclers, certain noblemen of Lombardy , taken prisoner by the Emperor Henry V (1081–1125) following a rebellion in the area, were taken as captives to Germany and after suffering the miseries of exile for some time, they assumed a penitential garb of grey and gave themselves up to works of charity and mortification, whereupon
248-740: A "church within the Church", likely not going further, although they were accused of seeing the Catholic church as the Babylonian harlot. The Waldensians would, later in their history, adopt a number of doctrines from the Reformed churches due to the French Reformer Guillaume Farel , who introduced Reformation theology to Waldensian leaders. They officially adopted Reformed theology at a conference at Cianforan 1532. As
372-719: A church tradition that began as an ascetic movement within Western Christianity before the Reformation. Originally known as the Poor of Lyon in the late twelfth century, the movement spread to the Cottian Alps in what is today France and Italy . The founding of the Waldensians is attributed to Peter Waldo , a wealthy merchant who gave away his property around 1173, preaching apostolic poverty as
496-690: A former Cathar who converted to Catholicism, published together in 1254 as Summa de Catharis et Pauperibus de Lugduno ( On the Cathars and the Poor of Lyon ). Waldensians held and preached a number of doctrines as they read from the Bible. These included: They also rejected a number of concepts that were widely held in Christian Europe of the era. For example, the Waldensians held that temporal offices and dignities were not meant for preachers of
620-699: A group of Lombards came to Rome with the intention of obtaining the Pope's approval of the rule of life which they had spontaneously chosen; while continuing to live in their houses in the midst of their families, they wished to lead a more pious existence, abandon oaths and litigation, be content with modest dress, and live in a spirit of piety. The Pope approved their resolve to live in humility and purity, but forbade them to hold gatherings or preach in public. The chronicler added that they disobeyed and thus were excommunicated . The Chronicon Urspergense ( Monumenta Germaniae Historica, Scriptores , xxiii, 376–377) mentions
744-521: A merchant or banker from northern Italy, for example Lombard Street, London . The name "Lombardy" came to denote the whole of northern Italy until the 15th century and sometimes later. From the 14th century onward, the instability created by the internal and external struggles ended in the creation of noble seigniories , the most significant of whom were the Viscontis (later Sforzas ) in Milan and of
868-546: A more symbolic view of the bread and wine. Reinerius Saccho gave the following charges against the Waldensians: The Waldensians were associated by councils and papal decrees with the Cathars ; however they differed radically from them: the Waldensians never accepted Gnostic views, they did not reject the sacraments in total and did not believe in mysticism . The Waldensians saw themselves as
992-450: A result of the conference, the Waldensians officially modified some of their previous positions such as their rejection of secular courts. According to legend, Peter Waldo renounced his wealth as an encumbrance to preaching, which led other members of the Catholic clergy to follow his example. Because of this shunning of wealth, the movement was early known as The Poor of Lyon and The Poor of Lombardy. Although they rose to prominence in
1116-523: A significant boom due to improved trading, sartorial manufacturing of silk and wool, and agricultural conditions; arms manufacturing for the purpose of defensive army development, by the German imperial divisions of Guelphs ( Welfen ) defending the Pope and Ghibellins ( Wibellingen ) defending the Emperor, became a significant factor. As in other areas of Italy, this led to a growing self-acknowledgement of
1240-462: Is an administrative region of Italy that covers 23,844 km (9,206 sq mi); it is located in northern Italy and has a population of about 10 million people, constituting more than one-sixth of Italy's population. Lombardy is located between the Alps mountain range and tributaries of the river Po , and includes Milan , its capital, the largest metropolitan area in the country, and among
1364-696: Is bordered by Canton Ticino and Canton Grisons of Switzerland to the north, and by the Italian regions of Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol and Veneto to the east, Emilia-Romagna to the south and Piedmont to the west. Lombardy's northern border is between the Valtellina and the valleys of the Rhine and the Inn . To the east, Lake Garda and the Mincio separate Lombardy from the other Italian regions, as does
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#17327662045051488-625: Is foundational to Italy in the Middle Ages . The term was also used until around 965 in the form Λογγοβαρδία ( Longobardia ) as the name for the territory roughly covering modern Apulia, which the Byzantines had recovered from the Lombard rump state Duchy of Benevento . Lombardy has a surface area of 23,861 km (9,213 sq mi), and is the fourth-largest region of Italy after Sicily , Piedmont and Sardinia . It
1612-570: Is mainly humid subtropical ( Köppen Cfa), especially in the plains, though with significant variations to the Köppen model, especially in the normally long, damp, and cold winters. There is high seasonal temperature variation; in Milan, the average temperature is 2.5 °C (36.5 °F) in January and 24 °C (75 °F) in July. The plains are often subject to fog during the coldest months. In
1736-565: Is of more recent origin; formed by the deposit of detrital material on the continental shelf, coming from the erosion caused by surface waters, which accompanied the lifting of the Alpine chain, which rose to the west and north of the plain, and of the Apennine chain to the south, which filled the marine gulf existing in the Pliocene created by the uplift of the two mountain chains. Lombardy
1860-546: Is one of the most-air-polluted areas of Europe. Because of high levels of industrialisation and the lack of wind due to the region being enclosed between mountain ranges, air pollution remains a severe problem in Lombardy and northern Italy. In March 2019, the European Space Agency (ESA) published images taken from its satellites that show a large stain composed of nitrogen dioxide and fine particles above
1984-847: Is the Alpine zone, which includes the Lepontine and Rhaetian Alps (4,020 m (13,190 ft)), which derive their name, respectively, from the Raeti , a population of Etruscan origin who took refuge in the Central Alps during the Celtic invasion of the Italian peninsula, and from the Ligurian population of the Lepontii settled in this area and then subjugated by the Roman emperor Augustus ,
2108-556: Is the economic capital of Italy and is a global financial centre . Of the fifty-eight UNESCO World Heritage Sites in Italy, eleven are in Lombardy, tying it with Castile and León in northwest-central Spain . Virgil , Pliny the Elder , Ambrose , Gerolamo Cardano , Caravaggio , Claudio Monteverdi , Antonio Stradivari , Cesare Beccaria , Alessandro Volta , and Alessandro Manzoni ; and popes John XXIII and Paul VI originated in
2232-789: Is the second most populous region of the European Union (EU), and the second region of the European Union by nominal GDP. Lombardy is the first region of Italy in terms of economic importance, contributing to approximately a fifth of the national gross domestic product (GDP). Lombardy is a member of the Four Motors for Europe , an international economical organization whose other members are Baden-Württemberg in Germany, Catalonia in Spain, and Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes in France. Milan
2356-911: The Risorgimento , with the Five Days of Milan in March 1848, the Ten Days of Brescia in 1849, the Belfiore martyrs in Mantua in the years between 1851 and 1853. The annexation of Lombardy to the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia occurred following the Second Italian War of Independence in 1859, a war during which Lombardy was the main theatre of battle (battles of Montebello , Palestro , Magenta , Solferino and San Fermo ). In 1861, with
2480-572: The Adriatic Sea . Celtic development was halted by the Roman expansion in the Po Valley from the 3d century BC. After centuries of struggle, at the end of the 2nd century B.C., the entirety of modern-day Lombardy became a Roman province called Gallia Cisalpina —" Gaul on the inner side (with respect to Rome) of the Alps ". The Roman culture and language overwhelmed the former civilisation in
2604-482: The Air Quality Life Index (AQLI), Po Valley air pollution reduces life expectancy by about six months. Air pollution in the Po Valley is connected to livestock and factories. The use of NPK fertilizers , made of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium, along with manure emissions from intensive breeding and high levels of nitrogen dioxide released by diesel and petrol engines are all causes of pollution in
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#17327662045052728-552: The Alta —an upper, permeable ground zone in the north—and the Bassa , a lower zone dotted by the line of fontanili , spring waters rising from impermeable ground. Inconsistent with the three distinctions above is the small sub-region of Oltrepò Pavese , which is formed by the Apennine foothills beyond the Po , and Lomellina , area particularly renowned for its rice paddies . The Po marks
2852-477: The Barnabites and Jesuits , or applied to charity. The wives of the first Humiliati, who belonged to some of the principal families of Milan, also formed a community under Clara Blassoni, and were joined by so many others that it became necessary to open a second convent, the members of which devoted themselves to the care of the lepers in a neighbouring hospital, whence they were also known as Hospitallers of
2976-788: The Bernina Pass (2,323 m (7,621 ft)), with the latter two which are located in Swiss territory. The most important national passes are the Stelvio Pass (2,759 m (9,052 ft)) and the Tonale Pass (1,883 m (6,178 ft)), which connect Lombardy with Trentino-Alto Adige . These Alpine passes are also of great importance from a historical point of view, given that they have always allowed easy communication between Lombardy and its bordering territories. It then resulted in constant commercial traffic, which contributed to
3100-829: The Bishop of Mauriana , was involved in reaching a peaceful agreement between Catholics and Waldensians. When the news of the Reformation reached the Waldensian Valleys, the Tavola Valdese decided to seek fellowship with the nascent Protestantism. At a meeting held in 1526 in Laus, a town in the Chisone valley, it was decided to send envoys to examine the new movement. In 1532, they met with German and Swiss Protestants and ultimately adapted their beliefs to those of
3224-632: The Chronicon universale of Laon thus describes them: At that time there were certain citizens of Lombard towns who lived at home with their families, chose a distinctive form of religious life, refrained from lies, oaths and lawsuits, were satisfied with plain clothing, and argued for the Catholic faith. They approached the pope and besought him to confirm their way of life. This the pope granted them, provided that they did all things humbly and decently, but he expressly forbade them to hold private meetings or to presume to preach in public. However, spurning
3348-654: The Fossa Interna , also known as the Inner Ring. The urban section of the Naviglio Martesana was covered over at the beginning of the 1930s, together with the entire Inner Ring, thus sounding the death knell for the north-eastern canals. The Lombard Alpine valleys are wider than those found, again in the Alps , in Piedmont and Aosta Valley . Most of them are crossed by streams that descend towards
3472-738: The Gonzagas in Mantua. This wealth, however, attracted the now-more-organised armies of national powers such as France and Austria, which waged a lengthy battle for Lombardy in the late 15th to early 16th centuries. After the Battle of Pavia , the Duchy of Milan became a possession of the Habsburgs of Spain; the new rulers did little to improve the economy of Lombardy, instead imposing a growing series of taxes to support their lengthy series of European wars. The eastern part of modern-day Lombardy, including
3596-472: The Kingdom of Italy , both of which were puppet states of France's First Empire , with Milan as capital and Napoleon as head of state. During this period, Lombardy regained Valtellina from Switzerland. The restoration of Austrian rule in 1815 as the Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia was characterised by a struggle with the new ideals introduced by the Napoleonic era. Lombardy was then an important centre of
3720-790: The Oltrepò Pavese , formerly the southern part of the Province of Novara , to the Province of Pavia . The Alpine front of World War I crossed the eastern Lombardy Alpine side, and in the post-war period Milan was the centre of the Italian Fasces of Combat . Milan then became the Gold Medal of Military Valor for the Italian resistance movement during the Italian Civil War after its liberation from fascism during
3844-930: The Orobic Alps (3,050 m (10,010 ft)) which derive their name from the Orobii , population of Ligurian or perhaps Celtic origin, the Ortler Alps and the Adamello massif. It is followed by the Alpine foothills zone Prealps , which are followed by hills that smooth the transition from the mountain to the Po Valley , the main peaks of which are the Grigna Group (2,410 m (7,910 ft)), Resegone 1,875 m (6,152 ft), and Presolana (2,521 m (8,271 ft)). The plains of Lombardy, which are formed by alluvial deposits, can be divided into
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3968-404: The Piazza Fontana bombing in Milan in 1969 and the Piazza della Loggia bombing in Brescia in 1974. In the 1980s, Milan became a symbol of the country's economic growth, and a symbol of the economic-financial rampantism of the so-called "Milano da bere" , literally "Milan to be drunk", while the Milanese socialist group of Bettino Craxi was in the national government. The city of Milan, in
4092-426: The Piedmont region of Northern Italy ), South America, and North America. Organizations, such as the American Waldensian Society, maintain the history of the movement and declare their mission as "proclaiming the Christian Gospel, serving the marginalized, promoting social justice , fostering inter-religious work, and advocating respect for religious diversity and freedom of conscience." Most modern knowledge of
4216-435: The Po Valley , forming rivers which then flow into the Po on the hydrographic left. Thanks to the width of their valleys, the Lombard Alpine passes, although they are at a high altitude, are easily accessible. The most important international passes found in the Lombard Alps and which connect the region with Switzerland are the Splügen Pass (2,118 m (6,949 ft)), the Maloja Pass (1,815 m (5,955 ft)) and
4340-402: The Prealpine zone, up to 1,500 to 2,000 mm (59.1 to 78.7 in) annually, but is also abundant in the plains and alpine zones, with an average of 600 to 850 mm (23.6 to 33.5 in) annually. Average annual rainfall is 827 mm (32.6 in). Lake Garda, thanks to its size and position, mitigates the climate of its coasts, creating a " Mediterranean " microclimate which makes
4464-399: The Rescriptum of Bergamo Conference (1218). Earlier documents that provide information about early Waldensian history include the Will of Stefano d'Anse (1187); the Manifestatio haeresis Albigensium et Lugdunensium (c. 1206–1208); and the Anonymous chronicle of Lyon (c. 1220). There are also the two reports written for the Inquisition by Reinerius Saccho (died 1259),
4588-404: The Valcamonica depicting animals, people, and symbols were made over 8,000 years before the Iron Age , based on about 300,000 records. The many artefacts found in a necropolis near Lake Maggiore and the Ticino demonstrate the presence of the Golasecca Bronze Age culture that prospered in western Lombardy between the ninth and the 4th centuries BC. In the following centuries, Lombardy
4712-463: The World War II , while the partisan resistance spread across the valleys and provinces. Following the historical borders, in 1948 the administrative region of Lombardy was prefigured as part of the newly formed Italian Republic . In the years of the Italian economic miracle , Milan was one of the poles of the "industrial triangle" of northern Italy formed by the cities of Turin - Milan - Genoa . The Years of Lead had wide relevance in Lombardy, with
4836-457: The proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy , Lombardy became part of the modern Italian state, except for the central-eastern part of the province of Mantua which was annexed in 1866 after the Third Italian War of Independence . Regarding the battle of Solferino, it was during this conflict that Henry Dunant took the initiative to create the Red Cross . After the annexation of Mantua, Lombardy achieved its present-day territorial shape by adding
4960-400: The real presence of Christ in the Eucharist and affirmed the necessity of priests for the offering of the Mass . However they denied the right of sinful priests to give the Eucharist. Early forms of the Waldensian Mass sought to recover the early Christian liturgy and contained a sevenfold repetition of the Lord's Prayer , with the Eucharistic elements being consecrated through the sign of
5084-430: The "Arrêt de Mérindol", and assembled an army against the Waldensians of Provence . The leaders in the 1545 massacres were Jean Maynier d'Oppède , First President of the parliament of Provence , and the military commander Antoine Escalin des Aimars , who was returning from the Italian Wars with 2,000 veterans, the Bandes de Piémont . Deaths in the Massacre of Mérindol ranged from hundreds to thousands, depending on
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5208-468: The "ablution which is given to infants profits nothing". Thus there seems to have been an understanding among the Waldensians that infants could be saved without baptism. They rejected confession to priests, the practice of venerating the saints, the use of oaths, secular courts and prayers for the dead. They however accepted the Trinity , and the earliest Waldensians staunchly defended the Eucharist. However, at least some of them later began to develop
5332-534: The "discipline" or self-inflicted whipping. Some retained the ancient Breviary of the order, while other houses adopted the Roman Breviary. The habit consisted of a robe and scapular of white over a tunic of ashen grey, the veils are usually white, though in some houses black. The lay sisters, who retained the name of Barettine, wore grey. In the early 20th century, there were still five independent houses of Humiliati nuns in Italy. Lombardy Lombardy ( Italian : Lombardia ; Lombard : Lombardia )
5456-428: The 10 commandments which put forth their own explanation on the 4th commandment which defended sabbath keeping. Many among the Waldensians claimed that people such as Claudius of Turin and Berengar of Tours were first representatives of the sect, but in modern times claims of the Waldenses to high antiquity are no longer accepted. One school of thought attempts to associate Vigilantius with proto-Waldensians in
5580-421: The 1598 Edict of Nantes , which had guaranteed freedom of religion to his Protestant subjects in France. French troops sent into the French Waldensian areas of the Chisone and Susa Valleys in the Dauphiné forced 8,000 Vaudois to convert to Catholicism and another 3,000 to leave for Germany. In the Piedmont, the cousin of Louis, the newly ascended Duke of Savoy, Victor Amadeus II , followed his uncle in removing
5704-416: The Alpine foothills with oceanic climate ( Köppen Cfb), numerous lakes have a mitigating influence, allowing typically Mediterranean crops (olive, citrus fruit ) to grow. In the hills and mountains, the climate is humid continental ( Köppen Dfb). In the valleys, it is relatively mild while it can be severely cold with copious snowfalls above 1,500 m (4,900 ft). Precipitation is more intense in
5828-589: The Alps are a succession of low hills of morainic origin that were formed during the Last Glacial Period and small, barely fertile plateaux with typical heaths and conifer woods. A minor mountainous area the Oltrepò Pavese lies in the Apennines range south of the Po. The navigli are a system of interconnected canals in and around Milan dating back as far as the Middle Ages. The system consists of five canals: Naviglio Grande , Naviglio Pavese , Naviglio Martesana , Naviglio di Paderno , Naviglio di Bereguardo . The first three were connected through Milan via
5952-413: The Catholic Church as the harlot of the Apocalypse . They rejected what they perceived as the idolatry of the Catholic Church and considered the papacy as the Antichrist of Rome. La nobla leyczon ( The Noble Lesson ), written in the Occitan language, gives a sample of the medieval Waldensian belief. Once it was believed that this poem dated between 1190 and 1240, but there is evidence that it
6076-439: The Church, and reorganized them in conformity with their economic and religious customs, also approving of the name "Humiliati". This brought most of them back to the Church, but a number persevered in their former life under the direction of the Poor of Lyons ( Waldensians ). Economic and religious difficulties, however, aggravated long-felt dissensions between the two groups, and in 1205 these non-reconciled Humiliati separated from
6200-474: The European Alps. The Catholic Church viewed the Waldensians as unorthodox, and in 1184 at the Synod of Verona , under the auspices of Pope Lucius III , they were excommunicated. Pope Innocent III went even further during the Fourth Lateran Council in 1215, officially denouncing the Waldensians as heretics . In 1211 more than 80 Waldensians were burned as heretics at Strasbourg ; this action launched several centuries of persecution that nearly destroyed
6324-417: The Gospel; that relics were no different from any other bones and should not be regarded as special or holy; that pilgrimage served only to spend one's money; that meat might be eaten any day if one's appetite served one; that holy water was no more efficacious than rain water; and that prayer was just as effectual if offered in a church or a barn. They were accused, moreover, of speaking blasphemously of
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#17327662045056448-484: The Humiliati as one of the two Waldensian sects and a decretal promulgated in 1184 by Pope Lucius III at the Council of Verona against all heretics condemns both the "Poor Men of Lyons" and "those who attribute to themselves falsely the name of Humiliati". Though orthodox, the Order of the Humiliati was always tainted by a certain suspicion. In this state they remained until 1201, when, upon presentation of their constitution, Pope Innocent III reconciled them with
6572-412: The Humiliati had contact with St Bernard . On his advice, in 1134, many of them, with the consent of their wives, withdrew into a monastery founded in Milan. Despite Bernard's best attempts, at first, the Humiliati had no fixed rule. Their name "Humiliati" is said to have arisen from their very simple clothes, which were all of one colour against the fashions of the day. Around 1180, the anonymous author of
6696-403: The Lombard people and the Gallo-Roman peoples improved. The Lombard language and culture was integrated with the Latin culture, leaving evidence in many names, the legal code and laws. The Lombards became intermixed with the Roman population owing to their relatively smaller number. The end of Lombard rule came in 774, when the Frankish king Charlemagne conquered Pavia , deposed Desiderius
6820-454: The Lombard side of the river Ticino to protect one of the last major examples of fluvial forest in northern Italy. There have also been efforts to protect the endangered Italian agile frog . Parco naturale lombardo della Valle del Ticino is the first Italian regional park to be established as well as the first European river park. In 2022 the two Parks were included by UNESCO in the World Network of Biosphere Reserves . Other parks in
6944-405: The Lyonese Waldensians and formed a distinct group named the "Poor Lombards" ("Pauperes Lombardi"). Pope Innocent III granted a rule to the lay branch as a "third order" that resembled the Regula de poenitentia of the Franciscan movement . The Humiliati rule forbade vain oaths and the taking of God 's name in vain, allowed voluntary poverty and marriage, regulated pious exercises, and approved
7068-433: The Observance. The number of their monasteries increased rapidly, but the suppression of the male branch of the order, which had administered their temporal affairs, proved a heavy blow, involving in many cases the closing of monasteries, though the congregation itself was not affected by the Bull of suppression. The nuns recited the canonical Hours, fasted rigorously and engaged in other severe penitential practices, such as
7192-545: The Po Valley area. Lombardy is the geographic and economic centre of this area, with more than 10 million residents and the highest GRP per inhabitant of the country. Most of its major cities are located in the Po river basin, which crosses the region. The stain analysed by ESA is the main reason Po Valley air pollution levels are so high. Milan also has high levels of ozone and nitrogen oxides , which are mainly produced by cars diesel and petrol engines. According to Chicago Energy Policy Institute , which has recently developed
7316-473: The Po Valley suffer the most serious impact of poor air quality in Europe, primarily the metropolitan area of Milan, which is 13th in terms of fine particulate impact, with an annual premature death rate of 3,967 – approximately 9% of the total. From archaeological findings of ceramics, arrows, axes, and carved stones, the area of current-day Lombardy has been settled at least since the second millennium BC. Well-preserved rock drawings left by ancient Camuni in
7440-443: The Po river in the south with the exception of the province of Mantua and Oltrepò Pavese . The western boundary is formed by the Lake Maggiore and the Ticino river, except Lomellina . Lombardy has three natural zones; mountains, hills and plains—the last being divided into Alta (high plains) and Bassa (low plains). The surface area of Lombardy is divided almost equally between the plains (which represent approximately 47% of
7564-487: The Prealpine area include some species of saxifrage , Lombardy garlic , groundsel and bellflowers . The highlands are characterised by the typical vegetation of the Italian Alps . At and below about 1,100 m (3,600 ft), oaks or broadleaf trees grow; on the mountain slopes between 2,000 and 2,100 m (6,600 and 6,900 ft), beech trees grow at the lowest limits with conifer woods higher up. Shrubs such as rhododendron , dwarf pine and juniper are native to
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#17327662045057688-437: The Reformed Church. The Swiss and French Reformed churches sent William Farel and Anthony Saunier to attend the meeting of Chanforan, which convened on 12 October 1532. Farel invited them to join the Reformation and to emerge from secrecy. A Confession of Faith, with Reformed doctrines, was formulated and the Waldensians decided to worship openly in French. The French Bible, translated by Pierre Robert Olivétan with
7812-410: The Roman Curia welcomed them. They had to explain their faith before a panel of three clergymen, including issues that were then debated within the Church, such as the universal priesthood, the gospel in the vulgar tongue, and the issue of voluntary poverty. The results of the meeting were inconclusive; in that same year, the Third Lateran Council condemned Waldo's ideas, but not the movement itself, while
7936-437: The Sabbath according to the custom of the Jews." Likewise in the twelfth century, Inquisitor Moneta of Cremona railed against the Waldenses for seventh day sabbath keeping after the manner of Jews. Johann Gottfried Hering in 1756 in his Compendieuses Church and Heretic Lexicon defined Sabbatati (a sect of the Waldenses) as those who kept the sabbath with the Jews. In the early Waldenses prose tracts there existed an exposition on
8060-410: The Vaudois to choose the former; however, the bulk of the populace instead chose the latter, abandoning their homes and lands in the lower valleys and removing to the upper valleys. It was written that these targets of persecution, including old men, women, little children and the sick "waded through the icy waters, climbed the frozen peaks, and at length reached the homes of their impoverished brethren of
8184-404: The Waldensians as early forerunners of the Reformation, in a manner similar to the way the followers of John Wycliffe and Jan Hus , also persecuted by authorities, were viewed. Although the Waldensian church was granted some rights and freedoms under French King Henry IV, with the Edict of Nantes in 1598, persecution rose again in the seventeenth century, with an extermination of
8308-422: The Waldensians attempted by the Duke of Savoy in 1655. This led to the exodus and dispersion of the Waldensians to other parts of Europe and even to the Western Hemisphere. In January 1655, the Duke of Savoy commanded the Waldensians to attend Mass or remove to the upper valleys of their homeland, giving them twenty days in which to sell their lands. Being in the midst of winter, the order was intended to persuade
8432-415: The Waldensians of teaching innumerable errors. Waldo and his followers developed a system whereby they would go from town to town and meet secretly with small groups of Waldensians. There they would confess sins and hold service. A traveling Waldensian preacher was known as a barba . The group would shelter the barba and help make arrangements to move on to the next town in secret. Waldo possibly died in
8556-504: The Waldensians of the Middle Ages could be seen as proto-Protestants , but they mostly did not raise the doctrinal objections characteristic of sixteenth-century Protestant leaders. They came to align themselves with Protestantism: with the Resolutions of Chanforan [ fr ] on 12 September 1532, they formally became a part of the Calvinist tradition. They are members of the Community of Protestant Churches in Europe and its affiliates worldwide. They were nearly annihilated in
8680-429: The Waldensians the chance to return to the Church, and many did, taking the name " Poor Catholics ". However, many did not, and were subjected to intense persecution and were confronted with organised and general discrimination in the following centuries. In the sixteenth century, the Waldensians were absorbed into the Protestant movement, under the influence of early Swiss reformer Heinrich Bullinger . In some aspects
8804-431: The area of modern-day Lombardy. The name Lombardy comes from Lombard , which is derived from Late Latin Longobardus, Langobardus ("a Lombard"), which derived from the Proto-Germanic elements * langaz + * bardaz ; equivalent to long beard . According to some scholars, the second element derives from Proto-Germanic *bardǭ , *barduz ("axe"), related to German Barte . The name of
8928-401: The arms of their mothers, clasped by their tiny feet, and their heads dashed against the rocks; or were held between two soldiers and their quivering limbs torn up by main force. Their mangled bodies were then thrown on the highways or fields, to be devoured by beasts. The sick and the aged were burned alive in their dwellings. Some had their hands and arms and legs lopped off, and fire applied to
9052-631: The cities Bergamo and Brescia , was controlled by the Republic of Venice , which had begun to extend its influence in the area from the 14th century onwards. Between the mid-15th century and the battle of Marignano in 1515, the northern part of east Lombardy from Airolo to Chiasso (modern Ticino ), and the Valtellina valley came under possession of the Old Swiss Confederacy . Pestilences like that of 1628–1630, which Alessandro Manzoni described in his I Promessi Sposi , and
9176-528: The cities, whose increasing wealth made them able to defy the traditional feudal supreme power that was represented by the German emperors and their local legates. This process peaked in the 12th and 13th centuries, when Lombard Leagues formed by allied cities of Lombardy, usually led by Milan, defeated the Hohenstaufen Emperor Frederick I , at Legnano but not his grandson Frederick II at Battle of Cortenuova . Although having
9300-479: The civic life of every community in which it was established. It left some fine church buildings still in use. However, in time the accumulation of material possessions and the limitations placed on the number of members admitted (at one time there were only circa 170 in the 94 monasteries) led to laxity and serious abuses. Charles Borromeo , the Archbishop of Milan, was commissioned by Pope Pius V to remedy
9424-403: The cross . The Waldensians observed the forty-day fast of Lent and practiced Friday abstinence. Both Waldensian and Catholic sources, however, imply that the Waldensians rejected infant baptism, at least to some extent. This is seen from The Noble Lesson , which refers to Christ specifically calling to baptize those who believed, and Reinerius Saccho mentioning how the Waldensians believed that
9548-586: The cultivation of olive trees and the production of olive oil possible; the so-called "Lombard oil" is also produced in other Lombard lake areas. The geological structure of Lombardy derives from the orogeny of the Alps due to the collision between the African and Eurasian plates which generated the Alpine chain from the Upper Cretaceous to the Miocene . The Po Valley , on the other hand,
9672-433: The development of the region. The plains have been intensively cultivated for centuries, and little of the original environment remains. The most common trees are elm , alder , sycamore , poplar , willow and hornbeam . In the area of the foothills lakes, however, olive , cypresses and larches grow, as do varieties of subtropical flora such as magnolia , azalea and acacias . Numerous species of endemic flora in
9796-619: The early 1990s, was the origin of the series of scandals known as Tangentopoli which emerged from the judicial investigations of the Milanese prosecutor's office known as Mani pulite , which then spread to the rest of the country. In early 2020, Lombardy was severely affected by the COVID-19 pandemic , in which Italy was one of the worst-affected countries in Europe. Several towns were quarantined from 22 February after community transmission
9920-530: The early thirteenth century, possibly in Germany; he was never captured, and his fate remains uncertain. Early Waldensians belonged to one of three groups: They were also called Insabbatati , Sabati , Inzabbatati , or Sabotiers —Some historians such as the Jesuit Jacob Gretser claimed this designation arose from the unusual type of sabot they used as footwear. However, he admitted that his reasoning on this etymology did not have
10044-461: The emperor, after receiving their pledges of future loyalty, permitted their return to Lombardy. At this time they were often called "Barettini", from their beret -shaped headdress. Their acquaintance with the German woollen manufacturers enabled them to introduce improved methods into Italy, thus giving a great impetus to the industry, supplying the poor with employment and distributing their gains among those in want. Returning to their own country,
10168-678: The estimates, and several villages were devastated. The treaty of 5 June 1561 granted amnesty to the Protestants of the Valleys, including liberty of conscience and freedom to worship . Prisoners were released and fugitives permitted to return home, but despite this treaty, the Vaudois, with the other French Protestants, still suffered during the French Wars of Religion in 1562–1598. As early as 1631, Protestant scholars began to regard
10292-739: The fall of Pavia on the river Ticino , in CE 774 by the Frankish Charlemagne on the Pope's behalf. As such, "Lombardy" and "Italy" were almost interchangeable; by the mid-8th century, the Lombards ruled everywhere except the Papal possessions around Rome —roughly modern Lazio and northern Umbria — Venice and some Byzantine possessions in the south—southern Apulia and Calabria ; some coastal settlements including Amalfi , Gaeta , Naples and Sorrento ; Sicily and Sardinia ; their culture
10416-618: The famous Edict of Milan that gave freedom of confession to all religions within the Roman Empire. During and after the fall of the Western Empire, Lombardy heavily suffered from destruction brought about by a series of invasions by tribal peoples. After 540, Pavia became the permanent capital of the Ostrogothic Kingdom , the fixed site of the court and the royal treasury. The last and most effective invasion
10540-467: The following centuries. In the 10th century, Lombardy, although formally under the rule of the Holy Roman Empire, was included in the kingdom of Italy , of which Pavia remained the capital until 1024. Starting gradually in the late-11th century, Lombardy became divided into many small, autonomous city-states, the medieval communes . Also in the 11th century, the region's economy underwent
10664-624: The following years, and Lombardy became one of the most-developed and richest areas of Italy with the construction of roads and the development of agriculture and trade. Important figures were born here, such as Pliny the Elder (in Como ) and Virgil (in Mantua). In late antiquity the strategic role of Lombardy was emphasised by the move of the capital of the Western Empire to Mediolanum (Milan). Here, in 313 AD, Roman Emperor Constantine issued
10788-584: The general decline of Italy's economy in the 17th and 18th centuries halted further development of Lombardy. In 1706 the Austrian Empire came to power, and introduced some economic and social measures that allowed a degree of recovery to occur. Austrian rule was interrupted in the late-18th century by the French; under Napoleon , Lombardy became the centre of the Cisalpine Republic and of
10912-645: The gospel from father to son in the same purity and simplicity as it was preached by St Paul. The Waldensian movement was characterized from the beginning by lay preaching, voluntary poverty, and strict adherence to the Bible. Between 1175 and 1185, Waldo either commissioned a cleric from Lyon to translate the New Testament into the vernacular—the Arpitan (Franco-Provençal) language —or was himself involved in this translation work. In 1179, Waldo and one of his disciples went to Rome, where Pope Alexander III and
11036-495: The heads of their sons suspended round their necks. Parents were compelled to look on while their children were first outraged [raped], then massacred, before being themselves permitted to die. This massacre became known as the Piedmont Easter. An estimate of some 1,700 Waldensians were slaughtered; the massacre was so brutal it aroused indignation throughout Europe. Protestant rulers in northern Europe offered sanctuary to
11160-756: The help of Calvin and published at Neuchâtel in 1535, was based in part on a New Testament in the Waldensian vernacular. The churches in Waldensia collected 1500 gold crowns to cover the cost of its publication. Outside the Piedmont, the Waldenses joined the local Protestant churches in Bohemia, France, and Germany. After they came out of seclusion and reports were made of sedition on their part, French King Francis I on 1 January 1545 issued
11284-579: The largest in the EU. Its territory is divided into 1,502 comuni (region with the largest number of comuni in the entire national territory ), distributed in twelve administrative subdivisions (eleven provinces plus the Metropolitan City of Milan ). The region ranks first in Italy in terms of population, population density and number of local authorities, while it is fourth in terms of surface area, after Sicily , Piedmont and Sardinia . It
11408-437: The last Lombard king, and annexed the Kingdom of Italy —mostly northern and central present-day Italy—to his newly established Holy Roman Empire . Charlemagne was crowned by the Pope on 25 December 800. The former Lombard dukes and nobles were replaced by other German vassals, prince-bishops and marquises. The entire northern part of the Italian peninsula continued to be called "Lombardy" and its population "Lombards" throughout
11532-570: The leaders of the movement were not excommunicated for the moment. The Waldensians proceeded to disobey the Third Lateran Council and continued to preach according to their own understanding of the Scriptures. In 1184, Waldo and his followers were excommunicated and forced from Lyon. The Catholic Church declared them heretics , stating that the group's principal error was contempt for ecclesiastical power. Rome also accused
11656-441: The local populace complied with. But the quartering order was a ruse to allow the troops easy access to the populace. On 24 April 1655, at 4 a.m., the signal was given for a general massacre. The Duke's forces did not simply slaughter the inhabitants. They are reported to have unleashed an unprovoked campaign of looting, rape, torture, and murder. According to one report by a Peter Liegé: Little children were torn from
11780-632: The medieval history of the Waldensians originates almost exclusively from the records and writings of the Roman Catholic Church, the same body that was condemning them as heretics . Because of "the documentary scarcity and unconnectedness from which we must draw the description of Waldensian beliefs", much of what is known about the early Waldensians comes from reports like the Profession of faith of Valdo of Lyon (1180); Liber antiheresis by Durando d'Osca (c. 1187–1200); and
11904-516: The military purpose as preponderant, the Lombard League also had its own stable government, considered one of the first examples of confederation in Europe. Subsequently, among the local city-states, a process of consolidation took place, and by the end of the 14th century, two signoria emerged as rival hegemons in Lombardy; Milan and Mantua . In the 15th century, the Duchy of Milan
12028-407: The movement. Waldensians briefly ruled Buda, the capital of Hungary from 1304 to 1307. The Waldensians in turn excommunicated Pope Benedict XI . In 1487 Pope Innocent VIII issued a bull Id Nostri Cordis for the extermination of the Vaudois. Alberto de' Capitanei , archdeacon of Cremona , responded to the bull by organizing a crusade to fulfill its order and launched a military offensive in
12152-537: The north of Italy. Lombardy also produces vast amounts of animal waste, a big contributor to pollution. Lombardy produces more than 40% of Italy's milk and over half of the Italian pig production is located in the Po Valley. According to research published in The Lancet Planetary Health , in January 2021, Brescia and Bergamo had the highest death rate from fine particulate matter (PM 2.5 ) in Europe. The data show many cities in Lombardy and
12276-859: The other branches, and on the model of mendicant orders such as the Dominicans or the Franciscans , was styled the "first order". Their original ashen habit was replaced by a white one. Some years later, on the advice of St. John of Meda (died in 1159), they embraced the Rule of St. Benedict as adapted by him to their needs. Details relating to this reform are ill-authenticated, the Acta of John of Meda ( Acta sanctorum , Sept., vii. 320) being almost entirely unsupported by contemporary evidence. The "Chronicon anonymi Laudunensis Canonici" ( Monumenta Germaniae Historica, Scriptores , xxvi, 449), states that in 1178
12400-415: The papal command, they became disobedient, for which they suffered excommunication. They called themselves Humiliati because they did not use coloured cloth for clothing, but restricted themselves to plain dress. The fraternity spread rapidly and gave rise to two new branches, a "second order" composed of women, and a "third order" composed of priests. The order of priests, once formed, claimed precedence over
12524-535: The protection of Protestants in the Piedmont . In the renewed persecution, and in an echo of the Piedmont Easter Massacre of only three decades earlier, the Duke issued an edict on 31 January 1686 that decreed the destruction of all the Vaudois churches and that all inhabitants of the Valleys should publicly announce their error in religion within fifteen days under penalty of death and banishment. But
12648-423: The provinces of Dauphiné and Piedmont . Charles I, Duke of Savoy , eventually interfered to save his territories from further turmoil and promised the Vaudois peace, but not before the offensive had devastated the area and many of the Vaudois had fled to Provence or south to Italy. The theologian Angelo Carletti di Chivasso , whom Innocent VIII in 1491 appointed Apostolic Nuncio and Commissary conjointly with
12772-602: The region are the Campo dei Fiori and the Cinque Vette Park , both of which are located in the Province of Varese . The system of protected areas in Lombardy consists of one national park, 24 regional parks, 65 natural reserves and 30 natural monuments . In total, protected areas cover more than 27% of the regional territory. Lombardy has a wide array of climates due to variance in elevation, proximity to inland water basins, and large metropolitan areas. The climate
12896-592: The region derives from the name of the people of the Lombards who arrived in Italy in 568 and made Pavia their capital. During the Early Middle Ages , "Lombardy" referred to the Kingdom of the Lombards ( Latin : Regnum Langobardorum ), which was ruled by the Germanic Lombard raiders who had controlled most of early Christian Italy since their invasion of Byzantine Italy in CE 568 until
13020-540: The remaining Waldensians. Oliver Cromwell , then ruler in England, began petitioning on behalf of the Waldensians, writing letters, raising contributions, calling a general fast in England and threatening to send military forces to the rescue. The massacre prompted John Milton 's poem on the Waldenses, " On the Late Massacre in Piedmont ". Swiss and Dutch Calvinists set up an "underground railroad" to bring many of
13144-923: The seventeenth century . The main denomination within the movement was the Waldensian Evangelical Church , the original church in Italy . In 1975, it merged with the Methodist Evangelical Church to form the Union of Methodist and Waldensian Churches —a majority Waldensian church, with a minority of Methodists. Another large congregation is the Evangelical Waldensian Church of Río de la Plata in Argentina , Paraguay , and Uruguay . Congregations continue to be active in Europe (particularly in
13268-483: The severed parts to staunch the bleeding and prolong their suffering. Some were flayed alive, some were roasted alive, some disemboweled; or tied to trees in their own orchards, and their hearts cut out. Some were horribly mutilated, and of others the brains were boiled and eaten by these cannibals . Some were fastened down into the furrows of their own fields, and ploughed into the soil as men plough manure into it. Others were buried alive. Fathers were marched to death with
13392-559: The situation. The rigor with which he did this roused such opposition among a minority that a conspiracy formed and one of the Humiliati, Girolamo Donati, called "Farina", attempted to murder Charles. This led to the execution of the principal conspirators by the civil authorities and the suppression of the Order for profligacy by a bull of Pius V of 8 February 1571. Their houses and possessions were bestowed on other religious orders, including
13516-623: The solidarity which already existed among the members. Unusual was the authorization to meet on Sundays to hear the words of a brother "of proved faith and prudent piety", on condition that they did not discuss among themselves either the Articles of Faith or the Sacraments. Though some Waldensians were perhaps won back in Lombardy, others were not. The Order grew rapidly, and many of its members were declared Saints and Beati. It also formed trade associations among and played an important part in
13640-1024: The southern border of the region for about 210 km (130 mi); its major tributaries are the Ticino , which rises in the Val Bedretto in Switzerland and joins the Po near Pavia, the Olona , the Lambro , the Adda , the Oglio and the Mincio . The numerous lakes of Lombardy are all of glacial origin and are located in the northern highlands. From west to east, these are: Lake Maggiore , Lake Lugano (both shared with Switzerland), Lake Como , Lake Iseo , Lake Idro , and Lake Garda (the largest lake in Italy). South of
13764-463: The summit zone beyond 2,200 m (7,200 ft). Lombardy includes many protected areas. The most important is Stelvio National Park , established in 1935 —the fourth largest Italian natural park, with typically alpine wildlife such as red deer , roe deer , ibex , chamois , foxes, ermine and golden eagles ; and the Parco naturale lombardo della Valle del Ticino , which was instituted in 1974 on
13888-587: The support of the literature of his day because these sources, he said, contained many errors. Other historians such as Melchior Goldast stated that the name insabbatati was because of Sabbath keeping in the manner of Jews. Jesuit Inquisitor Francis Pegne cited in Nicholas Eymerich famous work the Directorium Inquisitorium stated that "many used to think it [insabbatati] came from Sabbath, and that they [Waldenses] observed
14012-550: The survivors north to Switzerland and even as far as the Dutch Republic, where the councillors of the city of Amsterdam chartered three ships to take some 167 Waldensians to their City Colony in the New World (Delaware) on Christmas Day 1656. Those that stayed behind in France and the Piedmont formed a guerilla resistance movement led by a farmer, Joshua Janavel , which lasted into the 1660s. In 1685 Louis XIV revoked
14136-612: The territory) and the mountainous areas (which represent 41%). The remaining 12% of the region is hilly. The orography of Lombardy is characterised by three distinct belts; a northern mountainous belt constituted by the Alpine relief, a central piedmont area of mostly alluvial pebbly soils, and the Lombard section of the Padan Plain in the south of the region. The main valleys are Val Camonica , Val Trompia , Valle Sabbia , Valtellina , Val Seriana , Val Brembana , Valsassina , and Valassina . The most important mountainous area
14260-464: The time of Sylvester , others, from the time of the Apostles." In the seventeenth century, Waldensian Pastor Henri Arnaud stated that "the Vaudois are, in fact, descended from those refugees from Italy, who, after St Paul had there preached the gospel abandoned their beautiful country, like the woman mentioned in the apocalypse and fled to those wild mountains where they have to this day, handed down
14384-659: The twelfth century, some evidence suggests that the Waldenses may have existed even before the time of Peter Waldo , perhaps as early as 1100. In 1179, at the Third Council of the Lateran , Pope Alexander III lamented that the Waldenses were a "pest of long existence". While the Inquisitor Reinerius Saccho in the thirteenth century also spoke about the dangers of the Waldenses for among other reasons its antiquity "some say that it has lasted from
14508-405: The upper Valleys, where they were warmly received." By mid-April, when it became clear that the Duke's efforts to force the Vaudois to conform to Catholicism had failed, he tried another approach. Under the guise of false reports of Vaudois uprisings, the Duke sent troops into the upper valleys to quell the local populace. He required that the local populace quarter the troops in their homes, which
14632-495: The use of vending machines, but from the beginning of May, following a reported decrease in the number of active cases, restrictions were gradually relaxed. Waldensians Electors of Saxony Holy Roman Emperors Building Literature Theater Liturgies Hymnals Monuments Calendrical commemoration The Waldensians , also known as Waldenses ( / w ɔː l ˈ d ɛ n s iː z , w ɒ l -/ ), Vallenses , Valdesi , or Vaudois , are adherents of
14756-498: The way to perfection . Waldensian teachings came into conflict with the Catholic Church and by 1215 the Waldensians were declared heretical , not because they preached apostolic poverty, which the Franciscans also preached, but because they were not willing to recognize the prerogatives of local bishops over the content of their preaching, nor to recognize standards about who was fit to preach. Pope Innocent III offered
14880-531: Was documented in Lombardy and Veneto the previous day. The entirety of Lombardy was placed under lockdown on 8 March, followed by all of Italy the following day, making Italy the first country to implement a nationwide lockdown in response to the epidemic, which the World Health Organization (WHO) declared a pandemic on 11 March. The lockdown was extended twice, and the region toughened restrictions on 22 March, banning outdoor exercise and
15004-672: Was inhabited by different peoples; the Etruscans founded the city of Mantua and spread the use of writing. It was seat of the Celtic Canegrate culture starting from the 13th century BC, and later of the Celtic Golasecca culture . From the 5th century BC, the area was invaded by more Celtic Gallic tribes coming from north of the Alps. These people settled in several cities including Milan and extended their rule to
15128-468: Was one of the wealthiest states during the Renaissance . Milan and Mantua became centres of the Renaissance , whose culture with people such as Leonardo da Vinci and Andrea Mantegna , and works of art such as da Vinci's The Last Supper were highly regarded. The enterprising class of the communes extended its trade and banking activities well into northern Europe; the metonym "Lombard" designated
15252-658: Was that of the Germanic Lombards or Longobards, whose nation migrated to the region from the Carpathian basin in fear of the conquering Pannonian Avars in 568. The Lombards' long-lasting reign, with its capital in Pavia , gave the current name to the region. There was a close relationship between the Frankish , Bavarian and Lombard nobility for many centuries. After the initial struggles, relationships between
15376-663: Was written in the first part of the fifteenth century. The poem exists in four manuscripts: two are housed at the University of Cambridge, one at Trinity College in Dublin, and another in Geneva. The Waldensians taught certain doctrines also held by the Catholic Church, but came into conflict with the Catholic Church by denying some of its sacraments or the manner in which they were performed; The earliest Waldensians taught
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