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163-897: The more than three century-long religious persecution of the Catholic Church in Ireland came in waves, caused by an overreaction by the State to certain incidents and interspersed with intervals of comparative respite. Even so, during the worst of times, the Irish people , according to Marcus Tanner, clung to the Mass , " crossed themselves when they passed Protestant ministers on the road, had to be dragged into Protestant churches and put cotton wool in their ears rather than listen to Protestant sermons." According to historian and folklorist Seumas MacManus , "Throughout these dreadful centuries, too,

326-706: A British subject in Canada, but not the United Kingdom or South Africa. The country was included in the list of Commonwealth nations in Canadian law, despite South Africa having left the Commonwealth in 1961 and not rejoining it until 1994. By the 1980s, most colonies of the British Empire had become independent. Parliament updated nationality law to reflect the more modest geographical boundaries of

489-400: A British territory became British Overseas citizens . While all nationals under those categories continue to be Commonwealth citizens, the definition of British subject was limited to its present meaning. It currently only includes the category of people previously called British subjects without citizenship as well as women who married such persons and registered for the status. The term

652-528: A defense of the fragile values of humanism and tolerance . More recent introductions to this period are Persecution and Toleration in Protestant England, 1558–1689 (2000) by John Coffey and Charitable hatred. Tolerance and intolerance in England, 1500–1700 (2006) by Alexandra Walsham. To understand why religious persecution has occurred, historians like Coffey "pay close attention to what

815-497: A direct result of one's faith." From a sociological perspective, the identity formation of strong social groups such as those which are generated by nationalism , ethnicity , or religion, is a causal aspect of practices of persecution. Hans G. Kippenberg  [ de ] says that it is these communities, which can be a majority or a minority, that generate violence. Since the development of identity involves 'what we are not' as much as 'what we are', there are grounds for

978-416: A dominant group denigrate religions other than their own or religion itself where the irreligious are the dominant group) or it may be triggered by the state when it views a particular religious group as a threat to its interests or security. At a societal level, the dehumanization of a particular religious group may readily lead to acts of violence or other forms of persecution . Religious persecution may be

1141-692: A few rare exceptions, such as the Persian empire under Cyrus and Darius , Denis Lacorne says that examples of religious tolerance in ancient societies, "from ancient Greece to the Roman empire, medieval Spain to the Ottoman Empire and the Venetian Republic", are not examples of tolerance in the modern sense of the term. The sociological view regards religious intolerance and persecution as largely social processes that are determined more by

1304-424: A god and at worst they can jail them for offences which are dubbed blasphemy". State atheism has been defined by David Kowalewski as the official "promotion of atheism " by a government, typically by the active suppression of religious freedom and practice. It is a misnomer which is used in reference to a government's anti-clericalism , its opposition to religious institutional power and influence, whether it

1467-510: A hostage to the King's forces. Fr. Travers also had no political or financial dependency, familial links, or nationalist feelings of loyalty towards the Earls of Kildare and his involvement in the uprising was motivated only by a desire to defend the independence of the Catholic Church in Ireland from being lost to control by the State . Following his inevitable conviction, Fr. Travers was burned at

1630-499: A largely religious character. The religious motivation for population cleansing lost much of its salience early in the modern era, but until the 18th century, ethnic enmity in Europe continued to be couched in religious terms. Richard Dawkins has argued that references to ethnic cleansing in the former Yugoslavia and Iraq are euphemisms for what should more accurately be called religious cleansing. According to Adrian Koopman,

1793-574: A near-universal expression of commitment to religious human rights, the frequency-and severity-of religious persecution worldwide is staggering. Although it is impossible to determine with certainty the exact numbers of people persecuted for their faith or religious affiliation, it is unquestioned that "violations of freedom of religion and belief, including acts of severe persecution, occur with fearful frequency." She quotes Irwin Colter, human rights advocate and author as saying "[F]reedom of religion remains

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1956-604: A number of friars." A 1935 article by historian L.P. Murray identifies the martyred erenagh of Monaghan Monastery as Fr. Patrick Brady and adds that he was beheaded alongside 16 fellow Franciscan Friars . Even though she continued the plantation of Ireland with English settlers, the persecution of Catholics ceased after the accession of the Catholic Queen Mary , but after Mary's death in November 1558, her sister Queen Elizabeth I arranged for Parliament to pass

2119-714: A parent born in the UK. Applicants who successfully register in this way become British citizens by descent and cannot pass citizenship to their children born outside of the UK. Individuals who become British citizens would automatically lose British subject status if they are not connected with Ireland. Otherwise, British subjects may also be British citizens simultaneously. British subjects who do not hold and have not lost any other nationality on or after 4 July 2002 are entitled to register as British citizens. In Australia , British subjects who were enrolled to vote before 26 January 1984 retain that right in elections and referendums despite

2282-574: A place where they could defend themselves more efficiently and escape persecution—which they often did by building their dwellings in little nooks and crannies. In the early era of French colonialism in Mali, the French authorities appointed Muslim relatives of El Hadj Umar Tall as chiefs of the Bandiagara —despite the fact that the area has been a Dogon area for centuries. In 1864, Tidiani Tall ,

2445-442: A public disagreement on secondary matters might be serious enough, frequently, it has only led to religious discrimination . On the other hand, the public renunciation of the core elements of a religious doctrine under the same circumstances would have put one in far greater danger. While dissenters from the official Church only faced fines and imprisonment in Protestant England, six people were executed for heresy or blasphemy during

2608-449: A quarter of all countries in the world, the restrictions imposed by governments, or hostilities towards one or more religious groups, are high or very high . Some of the most populous countries in the world belong to this group, such as China, India, Indonesia and Pakistan. Therefore, around three quarters of the world's population live in them." At the symposium on law and religion in 2014, Michelle Mack said: "Despite what appears to be

2771-518: A race rather than a religion. In keeping with what they were taught in Nazi propaganda, the perpetrators of the Holocaust made no distinction between secular Jews , atheistic Jews , orthodox Jews and Jews who had converted to Christianity . The persecution of beliefs that are deemed schismatic is one thing; the persecution of beliefs that are deemed heretical or blasphemous is another. Although

2934-486: A shift from territoriality to religious voluntarism. It was Locke who, in his Letter Concerning Toleration , defined the state in purely secular terms: "The commonwealth seems to me to be a society of men constituted only for the procuring, preserving, and advancing their own civil interests." Concerning the church, he went on: "A church, then, I take to be a voluntary society of men, joining themselves together of their own accord." With this treatise, John Locke laid one of

3097-400: A strong social identity with the state, increases the benefits, therefore it is likely persecution from that social group will increase. Legal restriction from the state relies on social cooperation, so the state in its turn must protect the social group that supports it, increasing the likelihood of persecution from the state as well. Grim and Finke say their studies indicate that the higher

3260-517: A subject by royal prerogative . By this method, a foreigner became a denizen – although they were no longer considered an alien, they could not pass subject status to their children by descent and were barred from Crown service and public office. This mechanism was no longer used after 1873. Until the mid-19th century, it was unclear whether nationality regulations in Great Britain (the United Kingdom from 1801) were applicable elsewhere in

3423-446: A systematic and active state policy which encourages actions such as harassment , intimidation and the imposition of punishments in order to infringe or threaten the targeted minority's right to life , integrity or liberty . The distinction between religious persecution and religious intolerance lies in the fact that in most cases, the latter is motivated by the sentiment of the population, which may be tolerated or encouraged by

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3586-421: Is a complex phenomenon that exists in all places and times." In the ancient societies of Egypt , Greece and Rome , torture was an accepted aspect of the legal system. Gillian Clark says violence was taken for granted in the fourth century as part of both war and punishment; torture from the carnifex, the professional torturer of the Roman legal system, was an accepted part of that system. Except for

3749-421: Is a recurrent theme in human history . Moreover, because a person's religion frequently determines his or her sense of morality , worldview , self-image , attitudes towards others, and overall personal identity to a significant extent, religious differences can be significant cultural, personal, and social factors. Religious persecution may be triggered by religious or antireligious stances (when members of

3912-408: Is also, often, part of a larger conflict involving emerging states as well as established states in the process of redefining their national identity. James L.Gibson adds that the greater the attitudes of loyalty and solidarity to the group identity, and the more the benefits to belonging there are perceived to be, the more likely a social identity will become intolerant of challenges. Combining

4075-503: Is an important or a central marker of ethnic identity, some conflicts can best be described as "ethno-religious conflicts". Nazi antisemitism provides another example of the contentious divide between ethnic persecution and religious persecution, because Nazi propaganda tended to construct its image of Jews by portraying them as people who were members of an inferior race (see Racial antisemitism and Nazi racial theories ), it dehumanized and demonized Jews by classifying them as

4238-635: Is brought to a point by a statement of the Anglican theologian Richard Hooker : "There is not any man of the Church of England, but the same man is also a member of the [English] commonwealth; nor any man a member of the commonwealth, which is not also of the Church of England." Before a vigorous debate about religious persecution took place in England (starting in the 1640s), for centuries in Europe, religion had been tied to territory. In England, there had been several Acts of Uniformity ; in continental Europe,

4401-461: Is no longer synonymous with Commonwealth citizen . British citizens are not British subjects as defined by the 1981 Act. In other Commonwealth countries that still retained it, British subject status under the previous definition was progressively abolished. The status remained in law in South Africa until 1961, Canada until 1977, New Zealand until 1977, and Australia until 1987. Though

4564-639: Is real or alleged, in all aspects of public and political life, including the involvement of religion in the everyday life of the citizen. State atheism was first practiced for a brief period in Revolutionary France and later it was practiced in Revolutionary Mexico and Marxist-Leninist states . The Soviet Union had a long history of state atheism, in which social success largely required individuals to profess atheism, stay away from churches and even vandalize them; this attitude

4727-578: Is taken for granted, but actually, this legal separation of Church and State only started to emerge a few centuries ago. In the Christian debate on persecution and toleration , the notion of civil tolerance allowed Christian theologians to reconcile Jesus' commandment to love one's enemies with other parts of the New Testament that are rather strict regarding dissent within the church. Before that, theologians like Joseph Hall had reasoned from

4890-575: Is the location of one of the seventh largest Baháʼí population in the world, with just over 251,100 as of 2010. Baháʼís in Iran have been subject to unwarranted arrests, false imprisonment, beatings, torture, unjustified executions, confiscation and destruction of property owned by individuals and the Baháʼí community, denial of employment, denial of government benefits, denial of civil rights and liberties, and denial of access to higher education. More recently, in

5053-585: The Oath of Abjuration , and recognise the Protestant Queen Anne as Supreme Head of the Church within all her dominions and declare that Catholic doctrine regarding Transubstantiation to be "base and idolatrous". Priests who refused to take the oath abjuring the Catholic faith were arrested and executed. This activity, along with the compulsory deportation of other priests who did not conform,

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5216-597: The Acts of Supremacy , which declared the Irish Church subservient to the State . In response, Irish bishops, priests, and laity who continued to pray for the pope during Mass were tortured and killed. The Treasons Act 1534 defined even unspoken mental allegiance to the Holy See as high treason . Many were imprisoned on this basis. Alleged traitors who were brought to trial, like all other British subjects tried for

5379-705: The Caesaropapism of his religious policy. When the Suppression of the Monasteries was extended to Ireland as well, the Annals of the Four Masters reports for the year 1540, "The English in every place throughout Ireland where they established their power, persecuted and banished the nine religious orders , and particularly they destroyed the monastery of Monaghan , and beheaded the guardian and

5542-656: The Canaanites during the time of the Old Testament prophet Joshua . According to historian D.P. Conyngham, "It is impossible to estimate the number of Catholics slain the ten years from 1642 to 1652. Three Bishops and more than 300 priests were put to death for their faith. Thousands of men, women, and children were sold as slaves for the West Indies ; Sir W. Petty mentions that 6,000 boys and women were thus sold. A letter written in 1656, quoted by Lingard, puts

5705-539: The Cathedral ( Hungarian : Mennyekbe Fölvett Boldogságos Szűz Mária székesegyház ) of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Győr . On St Patrick's Day 1697, the "Irish Madonna" ( Hungarian : Ír Madonna ), as she had come to be called, was seen many witnesses to weep tears of blood. The wall and even the canvas behind the image were closely examined and found to be dry. Signed statements remain and bear

5868-547: The Christian and Muslim worlds during the Middle Ages . Today, atheism is punishable by death in 12 countries ( Afghanistan , Iran , Malaysia , the Maldives , Mauritania , Nigeria , Pakistan , Qatar , Saudi Arabia , Somalia , Sudan and Yemen ), all of them Muslim-majority, while "the overwhelming majority" of the 193 United Nations member countries "at best discriminate against citizens who have no belief in

6031-553: The Dogon people , an ancient tribe in Mali had faced religious and ethnic persecution—through jihads by dominant Muslim communities. These jihadic expeditions were undertaken in order to force the Dogon to abandon their traditional religious beliefs and convert to Islam. Such jihads caused the Dogon to abandon their original villages and move up to the cliffs of Bandiagara in search of

6194-726: The First World War , the Dominions developed distinct national identities. Britain formally recognised this at the 1926 Imperial Conference , jointly issuing the Balfour Declaration with all the Dominion heads of government, which stated that the United Kingdom and Dominions were autonomous and equal to each other within the British Commonwealth of Nations . Legislative independence of the Dominions

6357-608: The Irish Folklore Commission , Peig Minihane-O'Driscoll of Ardgroom , in the Beara Peninsula of County Cork , revealed that the local Mass rock , known in Munster Irish as Clochán a' tSagairt was located at a cairn to the south. Peig Minihane-O'Driscoll also revealed that her husband had been born before Catholic Emancipation and that her in-laws had twice carried their baby son up into

6520-598: The Irish clans , and the Gaelic nobility of Ireland . This, in addition to the King's religious policy, ultimately triggered Old English aristocrat Silken Thomas , 10th and last Earl of Kildare , to launch a 1534-1535 military uprising against the rule of the House of Tudor in Ireland. On c.30 July 1535, Venerable Fr. John Travers , a graduate of Oxford University and the Chancellor of St Patrick's Cathedral, Dublin ,

6683-695: The Kingdom of Hungary . During the Cromwellian conquest of Ireland , a painting of Mary, Comforter of the Afflicted had been removed by Bishop Walter Lynch from Clonfert Cathedral to protect the image from desecration by the New Model Army . Bishop Lynch had kept the image hidden while held in the prison camp at Inishbofin , and, before his death in Hungarian exile, had willed the image to

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6846-615: The Kuomintang Pacification of Qinghai , the Muslim General Ma Bufang and his army wiped out many Tibetan Buddhists in the northeast and eastern Qinghai, and destroyed Tibetan Buddhist temples. British subject The term " British subject " has several different meanings depending on the time period. Before 1949, it referred to almost all subjects of the British Empire (including

7009-687: The Mass rocks in mountains and caves; and the parish churches and few monastic chapels which had escaped the rapacity of King Henry VIII were also destroyed. It ultimately resulted in Pope Pius V 's 1570 papal bull Regnans in Excelsis , which, "released [Elizabeth I's] subjects from their allegiance to her". In Ireland the First Desmond Rebellion , led by James FitzMaurice FitzGerald and which sought to replace Queen Elizabeth I with Don John of Austria as High King of Ireland ,

7172-534: The Penal code ", as a lack of, "personal dignity, mental independence, and self-restraint". He also accused the legacy of religious persecution of having deprived the Irish people, "of that sturdy individualism which respects oneself and respects others and which is as widely removed from insolence as it is from servility ." Even so, Rev. Burke continued, "While the code in so far as it was meant to pauperise and degrade

7335-643: The Popish Plot , an alleged plan to assassinate King Charles II and massacre the Protestants of the British Isles . In reality, the plot was a fictitious concoction by Titus Oates and Whig politician Lord Shaftesbury . Before the falsity of their claims were exposed, however, at least 22 innocent clergy and laity, including Archbishop Oliver Plunkett , had been unjustly convicted of high treason and executed at Tyburn . The descriptive use of

7498-564: The United Kingdom , Dominions , and colonies , but excluding protectorates and protected states ). Between 1949 and 1983, the term was synonymous with Commonwealth citizen . Currently, it refers to people possessing a class of British nationality largely granted under limited circumstances to those connected with Ireland or British India born before 1949. Individuals with this nationality are British nationals and Commonwealth citizens, but not British citizens . The status under

7661-559: The United Nations Commission on Human Rights on freedom of religion or belief, in a 20 March 2006 press release [2] . In the press release the Special Rapporteur states that she "is highly concerned by information she has received concerning the treatment of members of the Baháʼí community in Iran." She further states that "The Special Rapporteur is concerned that this latest development indicates that

7824-573: The lamanes . The persecution of the Serer people continued from the medieval era to the 19th century, resulting in the Battle of Fandane-Thiouthioune . Since the 20th century, the persecution of the Serers has been less visible, nevertheless, they are still the objects of scorn and prejudice. Used before the 18th century as an insult, atheism was punishable by death in ancient Greece as well as in

7987-544: The priest hunter , the most infamous of whom remains John O'Mullowny , nicknamed ( Irish : Seán na Sagart ), of the Partry Mountains in County Mayo . The reward rates for capture varied from £50–100 for a bishop, to £10–20 for the capture of an unregistered priest: substantial amounts of money at the time. Irish nationalist John Mitchel , a Presbyterian from County Londonderry , later wrote, "I know

8150-497: The 195 countries in the world. Between 2007 and 2017, the PEW organization found that "Christians experienced harassment by governments or social groups in the largest number of countries"—144 countries—but that it is almost equal to the number of countries (142) in which Muslims experience harassment. PEW has published a caution concerning the interpretation of these numbers: "The Center's recent report ... does not attempt to estimate

8313-693: The 20th century cannot be fully-explained by the citation of religious differences. Still, cases of genocide such as the Greek genocide , the Armenian genocide , and the Assyrian genocide are sometimes seen as cases of religious persecution and as a result, the lines between ethnic violence and religious violence are sometimes blurry. Since the Early modern period , an increasing number of religious cleansings were entwined with ethnic elements. Since religion

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8476-802: The 5th and 10th century led to the Four Buddhist Persecutions in China of which the Great Anti-Buddhist Persecution of 845 was probably the most severe. However Buddhism managed to survive but was greatly weakened. During the Northern Expedition , in 1926 in Guangxi , Kuomintang Muslim General Bai Chongxi led his troops in destroying Buddhist temples and smashing idols, turning the temples into schools and Kuomintang party headquarters. During

8639-418: The Act of Supremacy of 1559, which re-established the control by the State over the Church within her dominions and criminalized religious dissent as high treason . While reviving Thomas Cranmer 's prayerbook, the Queen ordered the Elizabethan religious settlement to favour High Church Anglicanism , which preserved many traditionally Catholic ceremonies. Meanwhile, the Acts of Supremacy and Uniformity (1559),

8802-437: The British government has never conceded to suggestions that its policies and legislation concerning nationality were discriminatory or racist, Parliament has since revised nationality law to correct remaining cases of statelessness caused by deprivation of the right to settle in the UK after 1962. The Nationality, Immigration and Asylum Act 2002 granted British subjects who do not hold and have not lost an alternative nationality

8965-458: The Christian Middle Ages] were social and collective phenomena sanctioned by society and hardly questioned by anyone. Religious intolerance and persecution, therefore, were not seen as vices, but as necessary and salutary for the preservation of religious truth and orthodoxy and all that was seen to depend upon them." This view of persecution is not limited to the Middle Ages. As Christian R. Raschle and Jitse H. F. Dijkstra, say: "Religious violence

9128-426: The Command Headquarters of the Armed Forced in Iran states that the Supreme Leader of Iran, Ayatollah Khamenei has instructed the Command Headquarters to identify people who adhere to the Baháʼí Faith and to monitor their activities and gather any and all information about the members of the Baháʼí Faith. The letter was brought to the attention of the international community by Asma Jahangir, the Special Rapporteur of

9291-463: The Commonwealth that wished to become republics rather than preserve the monarch as head of state. The change in naming also indicated a shift in the base theory to this aspect of British nationality; allegiance to the Crown was no longer a requirement to possess British subject status and the common status would be maintained by voluntary agreement among the various members of the Commonwealth. British subject/Commonwealth citizen status co-existed with

9454-403: The Congress. The report contains data which the United States collects from U.S. embassies around the world in collaboration with the Office of International Religious Freedom and other relevant U.S. government and non-governmental institutions. The data is available to the public. The 2018 study details, country by country, the violations of religious freedom taking place in approximately 75% of

9617-440: The Crown's treatment of Catholics was more lenient than usual, owing to the sympathy of the king. For this reason, Catholic worship generally moved from the Mass rocks to thatched "Mass houses" ( Irish : Cábán an Aifrinn , lit. ‘Mass Cabin’). Writing in 1668, Janvin de Rochefort commented, "Even in Dublin more than twenty houses where Mass is secretly said, and in about a thousand places, subterranean vaults and retired spots in

9780-417: The Crown, and could not voluntarily renounce British subject status until 1870, when it was first permitted. Prior to 1708, foreigners could only be naturalised through Acts of Parliament . Although procedures were created after this point for aliens to become subjects, personalised naturalising legislation continued to be enacted until 1975. Additionally, the monarch could personally make any individual

9943-403: The Empire. Individual colonies had each developed their own procedures and requirements for naturalisation, granting subject status at the discretion of those local governments. In 1847, Parliament formalised a clear distinction between subjects who were naturalised in the UK and those who became British subjects in other territories. Individuals naturalised in the UK were deemed to have received

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10106-448: The English." Beatified Martyrs include: Servants of God include: According to D.P. Conyngham, "It was fondly hoped by the Catholics of Ireland that the accession of James would bring peace and repose to the Church in that distracted and oppressed country. A general feeling of relief and joy pervaded all classes. Many of those who had been forced into exile returned to their native country: churches were rebuilt - monasteries repaired -

10269-409: The Latin phrase " cuius regio, eius religio " had been coined in the 16th century and applied as a fundament for the Peace of Augsburg (1555). It was pushed to the extreme by absolutist regimes , particularly by the French kings Louis XIV and his successors. It was under their rule that Catholicism became the sole compulsory allowed religion in France and that the huguenots had to massively leave

10432-403: The Prayer Book of 1559, and the Thirty-Nine Articles (1563) mixed the doctrines of Protestantism and Caesaropapism . From the early years of her reign, pressure was put on all her subjects to conform to the " Established Church " of the realm or be considered guilty of high treason. Prosecutions for Recusancy and refusals to take the Oath of Supremacy , the issuing of torture warrants , and

10595-433: The Puritan-controlled Rump Parliament in London, seeking to retaliate for acts of sectarian violence like the Portadown massacre during the recent 1641 uprising , resolved, "that no quarter shall be given to any Irishman , or to any papist born in Ireland ." Upon landing with the New Model Army at Dublin, Oliver Cromwell issued orders that no mercy was to be shown to the Irish, whom he said were to be treated like

10758-410: The Titus Oates plot, a priest with the Hiberno-Norse surname of Father Mac Aidghalle was murdered while saying the Tridentine Mass at Cloch na hAltorach ; a Mass rock that still stands atop Slieve Gullion . The perpetrators were a band of redcoats under the command of a priest hunter named Turner. Local Rapparee leader Count Redmond O'Hanlon is said in local oral tradition to have avenged

10921-416: The UK or any former British territory. Women married to British subjects were also able to register for the status before 1983. Virtually all other individuals with this status hold it by virtue of their own, or their father's, birth in former British India . British subjects automatically lose the status if they acquire any other nationality, including other British nationality classes, unless they possess

11084-445: The UK. However, strong economic conditions in Britain after the Second World War attracted an unprecedented wave of colonial migration. In response to growing anti-immigration sentiment, Parliament imposed immigration controls on subjects originating from outside the British Islands with the Commonwealth Immigrants Act 1962 . The Immigration Act 1971 relaxed controls on patrials, subjects whose parents or grandparents were born in

11247-442: The UK. If they hold no other citizenship, British subjects without right of abode in the UK are effectively stateless , as they are not guaranteed the right to enter the country in which they are nationals. Before the concept of nationality was codified in legislation, inhabitants of English communities owed allegiance to their feudal lords , who were themselves vassals of the monarch . This system of loyalty, indirectly owed to

11410-447: The United Kingdom are exempted from obtaining a visa or entry certificate when visiting the UK for less than six months. When travelling in other countries, they may seek British consular protection. British subjects are not considered foreign nationals when residing in the UK and are entitled to certain rights as Commonwealth citizens . These include exemption from registration with local police, voting eligibility in UK elections, and

11573-433: The United Kingdom for more than five years and possessing either right of abode or ILR for more than one year. Registration in this way confers citizenship otherwise than by descent , meaning that children born outside of the UK to those successfully registered will be British citizens by descent . British subjects with right of abode may also register for citizenship without residence requirements by virtue of their birth to

11736-467: The United Kingdom, and gave effective preferential treatment to Commonwealth citizens from white-majority countries. Outside of the United Kingdom, British subjects already did not have an automatic right to settle. Australia, Canada, New Zealand, and South Africa had immigration restrictions in place for British subjects from outside their jurisdictions targeted at non-white migrants since the late 19th century. After 1949, non-local British subjects under

11899-458: The United Kingdom, though non-white immigration into the United Kingdom was systemically discouraged. This entitlement was part of a wider initiative to preserve close relationships with certain Dominions and colonies (Australia, Canada, New Zealand, South Africa, and Southern Rhodesia ) and to moderate nationalist attitudes within the Commonwealth. It was thought that only a limited number of non-white colonial migrants would ever seek to settle in

12062-551: The United Kingdom. The British Nationality Act 1981 recategorised CUKCs into different nationality groups based on patriality and birthplace. CUKCs with the right of abode in the United Kingdom or those closely connected with the UK, Channel Islands , or Isle of Man became British citizens while those connected with a remaining colony became British Dependent Territories citizens (later renamed British Overseas Territories citizens ). Those who could not be reclassified into either of these statuses and who were no longer associated with

12225-547: The United States , defines religious persecution as "violence or discrimination against members of a religious minority because of their religious affiliation," referring to "actions that are intended to deprive individuals of their political rights and force minorities to assimilate, leave, or live as second-class citizens . In the aspect of a state's policy, it may be defined as violations of freedom of thought , conscience and belief which are spread in accordance with

12388-542: The ability to enlist in the British Armed Forces . British subjects are also eligible to serve in all Civil Service posts, be granted British honours , receive peerages , and sit in the House of Lords . If given indefinite leave to remain (ILR), they are eligible to stand for election to the House of Commons and local government. British subjects only have right of abode in the UK if they were born to at least one British subject parent who themself

12551-546: The assistance of his son Leb, their Almoravid allies and other African ethnic groups which had embraced Islam , the Muslim coalition army launched jihads against the Serer people of Tekrur because they refused to abandon the Serer religion in favour of Islam. The number of Serers who were killed is unknown, but the defeat of the Serers at Tekrur triggered their exodus from Tekrur to the south, where they were granted asylum by

12714-553: The attacks. The Dogon militia group denied its involvement in the massacre and it also rejected calls to disband itself. The persecution of the Serer people of Senegal , Gambia and Mauritania is multifaceted, and as a result, it includes religious and ethnic elements. The religious and ethnic persecution of the Serer people dates back to the 11th century, when King War Jabi usurped the throne of Tekrur (a part of present-day Senegal) in 1030, and in 1035, he introduced Sharia law and forced his subjects to submit to Islam . With

12877-662: The best efforts of those who fought in the Jacobite risings , to decades of the British Empire being governed as a Whig single party state . As the Whig-controlled Parliament of Ireland passed the Penal Laws , which progressively criminalized Roman Catholicism and stripped away from its adherents all rights under the law, a miracle connected to the ongoing religious persecution in Ireland took place, according to Diocesan and municipal records, at Győr in

13040-586: The blood-hounds." For example, in the Slieve Beagh mountains of County Monaghan , a large Celtic cross now tops a Mass rock known as Leacht a 'tSagairt ("The Priest's Flagstone"). The cross is said in the local oral tradition to mark where a priest hunter shot a Fr. McKenna while he was saying Mass there on Christmas Day , c. 1754. The priest hunter was assassinated soon afterwards in nearby Emyvale by local rapparee leader and folk hero Shane Bernagh . While being interviewed by Tadhg Ó Murchú of

13203-499: The citizenships of each Commonwealth country. A person born in Australia would be both an Australian citizen and a British subject. British subjects under the previous meaning who held that status on 1 January 1949 because of a connection with the United Kingdom or a remaining colony became Citizens of the United Kingdom and Colonies (CUKC) . CUKC status was the principal form of British nationality during this period of time. There

13366-593: The context within which the social community exists than anything else. When governments ensure equal freedom for all, there is less persecution. Statistics from Pew Research Center show that Christianity and Islam are persecuted in more countries around the world than other religions, and that Jews and Muslims are "most likely to live in countries where their groups experience harassment". As of 2018, Christians face harassment in 145 countries, Muslims face harassment in 139 countries, and Jews face harassment in 88 countries. Respectively: Christians account for 31% of

13529-415: The country. Persecution meant that the state was committed to secure religious uniformity by coercive measures, as eminently obvious in a statement of Roger L'Estrange : "That which you call persecution, I translate Uniformity". However, in the 17th century, writers like Pierre Bayle , John Locke , Richard Overton and Roger William broke the link between territory and faith, which eventually resulted in

13692-852: The creation of the Dogon militia Dan Na Ambassagou in 2016—whose aim is to defend the Dogon against systematic attacks. That action resulted in the Ogossagou massacre of Fulanis in March 2019, and the Fula retaliated by committing the Sobane Da massacre in June of that year. In the wake of the Ogossagou massacre, the President of Mali , Ibrahim Boubacar Keïta and his government ordered the dissolution of Dan Na Ambassagou—whom they hold partly responsible for

13855-456: The current definition does not automatically grant the holder right of abode in the United Kingdom but almost all British subjects do have this entitlement. As of 2024, about 22,700 British subjects hold valid British passports with this status and enjoy consular protection when travelling abroad; fewer than 700 do not have right of abode in the UK. Nationals of this class without right of abode are subject to immigration controls when entering

14018-663: The danger of being caught possessing such evidence at home. Details of their endurance in most cases have been lost. The first general catalog, that of Father John Houling, S.J., was compiled in Portugal between 1588 and 1599. It is styled a very brief abstract of certain persons whom it commemorates as sufferers for the Faith under Elizabeth. Detailed accounts were also written and published by Philip O'Sullivan Beare , David Rothe , Luke Wadding , Richard Stanihurst , Anthony Bruodin , John Lynch , John Coppinger, and John Mullin. After

14181-443: The degree of religious diversity that is tolerated within the state. In the absence of civil toleration, someone who finds himself in disagreement with his congregation does not have the option to leave and chose a different faith—simply because there is only one recognized faith in the country (at least officially). In modern western civil law any citizen may join and leave a religious organization at will; In western societies, this

14344-484: The degree of religious freedom, the lower the degree of violent religious persecution. "When religious freedoms are denied through the regulation of religious profession or practice, violent religious persecution and conflict increase." Perez Zagorin writes "According to some philosophers, tolerance is a moral virtue; if this is the case, it would follow that intolerance is a vice. But virtue and vice are qualities solely of individuals, and intolerance and persecution [in

14507-431: The dominant religion and the state motives for restricting religious activity. Grim and Finke say it is specifically this religious regulation that leads to religious persecution. R.I. Moore says that persecution during the Middle Ages "provides a striking illustration of the classic deviance theory , [which is based on identity formation], as it was propounded by the father of sociology, Émile Durkheim ". Persecution

14670-530: The ecclesiastical intolerance of the early Christian church in the New Testament to the civil intolerance of the Christian state. The Bishop of Vladimir Feodor turned some people into slaves, others were locked in prison, cut their heads, burnt eyes, cut tongues or crucified on walls. Some heretics were executed by burning them alive. According to an inscription of Khan Mengual-Temir, Metropolitan Kiril

14833-491: The eighth century, Christianity had attained a clear ascendancy across Europe and neighboring regions, and a period of consolidation began which was marked by the pursuit of heretics , heathens , Jews, Muslims , and various other religious groups. By contrast to the notion of civil tolerance in early modern Europe , the subjects were required to attend the state church ; this attitude can be described as territoriality or religious uniformity , and its underlying assumption

14996-416: The elimination of all religious structures or all individuals who adhere to a particular religion and live within a larger community which is composed of people who are members of the same ethnicity. Throughout antiquity , population cleansing was largely motivated by economic and political factors, but occasionally, ethnic factors also played a role. During the Middle Ages , population cleansing took on

15159-417: The end of it all, for him, may be a row of sugar canes to hoe under the blazing sun of Barbados . Yet he pushes eagerly to meet his fate; for he carries in his hands a sacred deposit, bears in his heart a holy message, and he must tell it or die. See him, at last, springing ashore, and hurrying on to seek his Bishop in some cave, or under some hedge -- but going with caution by reason of the priest catcher and

15322-569: The established polytheistic order than Judaism had been, because of the importance of evangelism in Christianity. Under Nero , the Jewish exemption from the requirement to participate in public cults was lifted and Rome began to actively persecute monotheists . This persecution ended in 313 AD with the Edict of Milan , and Christianity was made the official religion of the empire in 380 AD. By

15485-450: The fear that tolerance of 'what we are not' can contribute to the erosion of identity. Brian J. Grim and Roger Finke say that the perception that plurality is dangerous leads to religious persecution. Both the state and any dominant religion, share the concern that to "leave religion unchecked and without adequate controls will result in the uprising of religions that are dangerous to both state and citizenry," and this concern gives both

15648-521: The fictitious Popish Plot . Mehdi Ghezali and Murat Kurnaz were among the Muslims who were imprisoned in the Guantanamo Bay detention camp , but they were not found to have any connections to terrorism , because they had previously traveled to Afghanistan and Pakistan to pursue their religious interests. The United States submits an annual report on religious freedom and persecution to

15811-592: The flames, however piled on and stirred up, could not consume." In 1536, Venerable Fr. Charles Reynolds ( Irish : Cathal Mac Raghnaill ), the Hiberno-Norse Archdeacon of Kells , was posthumously attained for high treason in the Attainder of the Earl of Kildare Act 1536 for successfully urging Pope Paul III to excommunicate King Henry VIII over his divorce, his uncanonical remarriage, and

15974-529: The government. This dramatically worsened the persecution of Catholics in England. The 1584 Parliament of England , declared in " An Act against Jesuits, seminary priests, and such other like disobedient persons " that the purpose of all Catholic missionaries who had come to Britain was "to stir up and move sedition, rebellion and open hostility". Consequently, even strictly apolitical priests like Saint John Ogilvie , Dermot O'Hurley , and Robert Southwell were subjected to torture and execution, as were members of

16137-683: The hands of both sides during regime change wars. There was a long delay by the Holy See in opening an Apostolic Process into the Sainthood Causes of the Irish Catholic Martyrs for fear of escalating the ongoing religious persecution. Further complicating the investigation is that the records of these martyrs could not be safely investigated or publicized except by the Irish diaspora in Catholic Europe , due to

16300-402: The historians as a place and time in which literally "hundreds of books and tracts were published either for or against religious toleration." The most ambitious chronicle of that time is W.K.Jordan 's magnum opus The Development of Religious Toleration in England, 1558–1660 (four volumes, published 1932–1940). Jordan wrote as the threat of fascism rose in Europe, and this work is seen as

16463-457: The hunted priest -- who in his youth had been smuggled to the Continent of Europe to receive his training -- tended the flame of faith. He lurked like a thief among the hills. On Sundays and Feast Days he celebrated Mass at a rock, on a remote mountainside, while the congregation knelt on the heather of the hillside, under the open heavens. While he said Mass, faithful sentries watched from all

16626-608: The introduction of Australian citizenship requirements since then. Additionally, voting remains compulsory even if their enrollment had lapsed. In a case before Court of Justice of the European Union , it was argued by one of the parties that British subjects who hold no other nationality are de facto stateless because they do not have a right to enter the country that claims them as nationals. The Nationality, Immigration and Asylum Act 2002 allowed these individuals to register as British citizens, after which statelessness

16789-533: The laity like Sts. Margaret Clitherow and Richard Gwyn . This drastically contrasts with the image of the Elizabethan era as a golden age, but compared to the antecedent Marian Persecutions there is an important difference to consider. Queen Mary was motivated by determination to exterminate Protestantism from all her Kingdoms and to restore the independence of the English Church from control by

16952-518: The later months of 2005, an intensive anti-Baháʼí campaign was conducted by Iranian newspapers and radio stations. The state-run and influential Kayhan newspaper, whose managing editor is appointed by Iran's supreme leader, Ayatollah Khamenei The press in Iran, ran nearly three dozen articles defaming the Baháʼí Faith. Furthermore, a confidential letter sent on 29 October 2005 by the Chairman of

17115-430: The lingering colonial mentality among the Irish people , less upon the seven hundred years of colonialism beginning in 1172, than upon the almost three hundred-years of religious persecution . In particular, Burke wrote, "It is hardly an exaggeration to say that most Irishmen are still haunted by a sub-conscious feeling of inferiority social or even intellectual." Burke then enumerated, the "habits of slavery induced by

17278-454: The monarch personally, developed into a general establishment of subjecthood to the Crown . Calvin's Case in 1608 established the principle of jus soli , that all those who were born within Crown dominions were natural-born subjects. After the Acts of Union 1707 , English and Scottish subjects became British subjects. Natural-born subjects were considered to owe perpetual allegiance to

17441-563: The monastery and throwing them mercilessly in icy 'vises'. The words step back, the pen does not move, in eternal darkness the ancient Solovetsky monastery is going. Of the more than 500 people, only a few managed to avoid the terrible court. Although his book was written before the September 11 attacks , John Coffey explicitly compares Islamophobia in the contemporary Western world to the English Whig Party 's paranoia about

17604-531: The most important intellectual foundations of the separation of church and state , which ultimately led to the secular state . One period of religious persecution which has been extensively studied is early modern England, since the rejection of religious persecution, now common in the Western world, originated there. The English 'Call for Toleration' was a turning point in the Christian debate on persecution and toleration , and early modern England stands out to

17767-751: The most persistently violated human right in the annals of the species." Despite the ubiquitous nature of religious persecution, the traditional human rights community typically chooses to emphasize "more tangible encroachments on human dignity," such as violations which are based on race , gender , and class by using national, ethnic, and linguistic groupings rather than religious groupings. Traditional African religions have faced religious persecution from Christians and Muslims. Adherents of these religions have been forcefully converted to Islam and Christianity , demonized and marginalized . The atrocities include killings, waging war, destroying of sacred places, and other atrocities. For almost 1000 years,

17930-485: The mountains, seeking to secretly make contact and request his baptism from one of the two outlawed priest known to be in hiding locally, one near Ballycrovane Wood and another near Castletownbere . Minihane-O'Driscoll concluded, "I don't know... there was some strength in them (the old people), with the grace of God. Oh, may God not blame us for complaining now, dear, there is a good life in it compared to that time." The Irish Martyrs suffered over several reigns and even at

18093-468: The murdered priest and in so doing to have sealed his own fate. Irish victims of the Titus Oates witch hunt included: Despite their exposure and public disgrace in 1681, the anti-Catholic witch hunt masterminded by Titus Oates and Lord Shaftesbury laid the foundation for the second overthrow of the House of Stuart in 1688, the creation of the anti-Catholic Whig political party , and, despite

18256-464: The nearby hilltops, to give timely warning of the approaching priest-hunter and his guard of British soldiers. But sometimes the troops came on them unawares, and the Mass Rock was bespattered with his blood, -- and men, women, and children caught in the crime of worshipping God among the rocks, were frequently slaughtered on the mountainside." Writing in 1914, Rev. William Burke laid the blame for

18419-644: The nephew and successor of the 19th century Senegambian jihadist and Muslim leader—El Hadj Umar Tall, chose to make Bandiagara the capital of the Toucouleur Empire thereby exacerbating the inter-religious and inter-ethnic conflict. In recent years, the Dogon have accused the Fulanis of supporting Islamic terrorist groups like Al-Qaeda and they have also accused the Fulanis of sheltering members of these same terrorist groups in Dogon country, leading to

18582-485: The new definition who were resident in these independent Commonwealth countries continued to retain certain privileges. This included eligibility to vote in elections, for preferred paths to citizenship, and for welfare benefits. British subjects were eligible to vote in New Zealand until 1975 and Australia until 1984 (though subjects on the electoral roll in that year are still eligible). In Canada, voting eligibility

18745-548: The number at 60,000; as late as 1666 there were 12,000 Irish slaves scattered among the West Indian islands. Forty thousand Irish fled to the Continent , and 20,000 took shelter in the Hebrides or other Scottish islands. In 1641, the population of Ireland was 1,466,000, of whom 1,240,000 were Catholics. In 1659 the population was reduced to 500,091, so that very nearly 1,000,000 must have perished or been driven into exile in

18908-679: The number of victims in each country... it does not speak to the intensity of harassment..." No religious group is free from harassment in the contemporary world . Klaus Wetzel, an expert on religious persecution for the German Bundestag , the House of Lords , the US House of Representatives , the European Parliament , and the International Institute for Religious Freedom, explains that "In around

19071-461: The persecutors said they were doing." No religion is free from internal dissent, although the degree of dissent that is tolerated within a particular religious organization can strongly vary. This degree of diversity tolerated within a particular church is described as ecclesiastical tolerance , and is one form of religious toleration . However, when people nowadays speak of religious tolerance, they most often mean civil tolerance , which refers to

19234-631: The primary cause of the Nine Years War , which similarly sought to replace Queen Elizabeth with a High King from the House of Habsburg . The war formally began when Red Hugh O'Donnell expelled English High Sheriff of Donegal Humphrey Willis , but not before Red Hugh listed his reasons for taking up arms against the House of Tudor and alluded in particular to the recent torture and executions of Archbishop Dermot O'Hurley and Bishop Patrick O'Hely . According to Philip O'Sullivan Beare , "Being surrounded there [Willis] surrendered to Roe by whom he

19397-547: The proverbial fickleness of the Stuarts, when pressed by the Puritans, persecuted the Irish, while he encouraged them when he hoped their loyalty and devotion would be the means of establishing his royal prerogative . It is ever thus with Ireland... For eight years Ireland was the theatre of the most desolating war and implacable persecution." Beatified Martyrs of the era include: Servants of God include: On 24 October 1644,

19560-455: The purpose of cutting off all hope that any other religion shall be allowed - save that which is consonant to the laws and statutes of this realm." Beatified Martyrs include: Servants of God include: According to historian D.P. Conyngham, "Ireland was torn by contending factions, and was oppressed by two belligerents during the reign of Charles . The Catholics took up arms in defense of themselves, their religion, and their King. Charles, with

19723-832: The reign of Elizabeth I , and two other people were executed in 1612 during the reign of James I . Similarly, heretical sects like Cathars , Waldensians and Lollards were brutally suppressed in Western Europe, but in the borderlands of Eastern Europe, at the same time, Catholic Christians and 'schismatic' Orthodox Christians lived side by side after the East-West Schism . More than 300 Roman Catholics were put to death for treason by English governments between 1535 and 1681, thus they were officially executed for secular rather than religious offenses . In 1570, Pope Pius V issued his papal bull Regnans in Excelsis , which absolved Catholics from their obligations to

19886-524: The result of societal and/or governmental regulation. Governmental regulation refers to the laws which the government imposes in order to regulate a religion, and societal regulation is discrimination against citizens because they adhere to one or more religions. In many countries, religious persecution has resulted in so much violence that it is considered a human rights problem. David T. Smith, in Religious Persecution and Political Order in

20049-453: The right to register as British citizens. Naturalisation as a British subject is not possible. It is expected that British subjects will obtain citizenship in the country they reside in and that the number of active status holders will eventually dwindle until there are none. It is currently only possible to transfer British subject status by descent if an individual born to a British subject parent would otherwise be stateless . The status

20212-568: The sacred duties of the sanctuary were resumed, and the offices of the Church were performed with undisturbed safety throughout the Kingdom. This state of comparative tranquility was not, however, suffered to continue..." A Royal edict issued on 4 July 1605 announced that Elizabethan era Recusancy laws were to be rigorously enforced and added, "It hath seemed proper to us to proclaim, and we hereby make it known to our subjects in Ireland, that no toleration shall ever be granted by us. This we do for

20375-563: The same offence prior to the Treason Act 1695 , were forbidden the services of a defence counsel and forced to act as their own attorneys. According to D.P. Conyngham, "Though the faithful underwent fearful persecutions toward the latter part of the reign of Henry, few publicly suffered martyrdom. Numbers of the monks and religious were killed at their expulsion from their houses, but the King's adhesion to many articles of Catholicity made it too hazardous for his agents in Ireland to resort to

20538-567: The same period were made by Daniel F. Moran and other historians. The first Apostolic Process under Canon Law began in Dublin in 1904, after which a positio was submitted to the Holy See . Religious persecution Religious persecution is the systematic oppression of an individual or a group of individuals as a response to their religious beliefs or affiliations or their lack thereof . The tendency of societies or groups within societies to alienate or repress different subcultures

20701-684: The signatures of many non-Catholic eyewitnesses, including local Lutheran and Calvinist ministers, the Orthodox Jewish Chief Rabbi of Győr, and Count Siegebert Heister, the Captain General of the town's military garrison. A copy of the image was presented in 2003 to the Roman Catholic Diocese of Clonfert by Bishop Pápai Janos of Győr and now hangs inside St Brendan's Cathedral in Loughrea , County Galway . A 1709 Penal Act demanded that Catholic priests take

20864-608: The situation with regard to religious minorities in Iran is, in fact, deteriorating." [3] . The persecution of Buddhists has been a widespread phenomenon throughout the history of Buddhism , a phenomenon which continues to occur today. As early as the 3rd century AD, Buddhists were persecuted by Kirder, the Zoroastrian high priest of the Sasanian Empire . Anti-Buddhist sentiments in Imperial China between

21027-471: The space of eighteen years. In comparison with the population of both periods, this was even worse than the famine extermination of our own days." After taking the island in 1653, the New Model Army turned Inishbofin, County Galway , into a prison camps for Roman Catholic priests arrested while exercising their religious ministry covertly in other parts of Ireland. Inishmore , in the Aran Islands ,

21190-479: The spots, within my own part of Ireland, where venerable archbishops hid themselves, as it were, in a hole of the rock... Imagine a priest ordained at Seville or Salamanca , a gentleman of a high old name, a man of eloquence and genius, who has sustained disputations in the college halls on a question of literature or theology, and carried off prizes and crowns -- see him on the quays of Brest , bargaining with some skipper to work his passage... And he knows, too, that

21353-627: The stake in the Common then known as, " Oxmantown Green", part of which has since become Smithfield Market on the city's Northside . According to Philip O'Sullivan Beare , "[John Travers] wrote something against the English heresy, in which he maintained the jurisdiction and authority of the Pope. Being arraigned for this before the King's court, and questioned by the judge on the matter, he fearlessly replied - 'With these fingers', said he, holding out

21516-584: The stake or the gibbet. In fact, Henry burned at the same stake Lutherans , for denying the Real Presence , with Catholics, for denying his supremacy." Meanwhile, the King and Thomas Cromwell continued Cardinal Wolsey 's policies of centralizing government power in Dublin Castle and seeking to completely destroy the political and military independence of both the Old English nobility,

21679-572: The state. The denial of people's civil rights on the basis of their religion is most frequently described as religious discrimination , rather than religious persecution. Examples of persecution include the confiscation or destruction of property, incitement of hatred , arrests, imprisonment, beatings, torture , murder, and executions. Religious persecution can be considered the opposite of freedom of religion . Bateman has differentiated different degrees of persecution. "It must be personally costly... It must be unjust and undeserved... it must be

21842-465: The state. During her short reign from 1553 to 1558, about 290 Protestants were burned at the stake. While Mary's sister Queen Elizabeth I allegedly, "acted out of fear for the security of her realm", she sought to coerce both Catholics and Protestants to embrace a national church that was completely subservient to the state . Over the centuries that followed, English governments continued to fear and prosecute both real and imaginary conspiracies like

22005-465: The status by imperial naturalisation , which was valid throughout the Empire. Those naturalised in a colony were said to have gone through local naturalisation and were given subject status valid only within the relevant territory. However, when travelling outside of the Empire, British subjects who were locally naturalised in a colony were still entitled to imperial protection. British subject status

22168-480: The status through a connection with Ireland. It can also be voluntarily relinquished by a declaration made to the Home Secretary , provided that an individual already possesses or intends to acquire another nationality. British subjects may be stripped of the status if it was fraudulently acquired. There is no path to restore British subject status once lost. British subjects who do not have right of abode in

22331-509: The successful fight that was eventually spearheaded by Daniel O'Connell for Catholic Emancipation between 1780 and 1829, interest revived as the Catholic Church in Ireland was rebuilding after three hundred years of being strictly illegal and underground. As a result, a series of re-publications of primary sources relating to the period of the persecutions and meticulous comparisons against archival Government documents in London and Dublin from

22494-490: The term religious persecution is rather difficult. Religious persecution has occurred in different historical, geographical and social contexts since at least antiquity . Until the 18th century, some groups were nearly universally persecuted for their religious views, such as atheists , Jews and Zoroastrians . Early Christianity also came into conflict with the Roman Empire, and it may have been more threatening to

22657-406: The thumb, index, and middle fingers, of his right hand, 'those were written by me, and for this deed in so good and holy a cause I neither am nor will be sorry.' There upon being condemned to death, amongst other punishments inflicted, that glorious hand was cut off by the executioner and thrown into the fire and burnt, except the three sacred fingers by which he had effected those writings, and which

22820-655: The use of priest hunters escalated rapidly. In 1563 the Earl of Essex issued a proclamation, by which all Roman Catholic priests , secular and regular, were forbidden to officiate, or even to reside in Dublin or in The Pale . Fines and penalties were strictly enforced for Recusancy from the Anglican Sunday service; before long. Priests and religious were, as might be expected, the first victims. They were hunted into

22983-749: The widespread use of the term ethnic cleansing in such cases suggests that in many situations, there is confusion between ethnicity and religion. Other acts of violence which are not always committed against adherents of particular religions such as war , torture , and ethnic cleansing , may take on the qualities of religious persecution when one or more of the parties which are involved in them are characterized by their religious homogeneity; an example of this occurs when conflicting populations that belong to different ethnic groups also belong to different religions or denominations. The difference between religious and ethnic identity might sometimes be obscure (see Ethnoreligious ); nevertheless, cases of genocide in

23146-526: The woods". This changed radically, however, due to the Popish Plot , a conspiracy theory concocted by Titus Oates and Lord Shaftesbury , who claimed that a plot existed to assassinate the King and massacre all the Protestants of the British Isles. Between 1678 and 1681, the attention of the public was riveted upon a series of anti-Catholic show trials that resulted in 22 executions at Tyburn . As persecution of Catholics heated up in reaction to

23309-400: The world's population, Muslims account for 24%, and Jews account for 0.2%. According to a 2019 report, government restrictions and social hostilities toward religion have risen in 187 countries. "Religious cleansing" is sometimes used in reference to the removal of a population from a certain territory based on its religion. More recently, “religious cleansing” has been used in reference to

23472-798: Was hanged, drawn and quartered at Tyburn on 1 July 1681, as one of the Forty Martyrs of England and Wales raised considerable public interest in other Irishmen and Irishwomen who had similarly died for their Catholic faith in the 16th and 17th centuries. On 22 September 1992 Pope John Paul II beatified an additional 17 martyrs and assigned June 20, the anniversary of the 1584 martyrdom of Archbishop Dermot O'Hurley , as their feast day. Many other causes for Roman Catholic Martyrdom and possible Sainthood, however, remain under active investigation. Religious persecution of Catholics in Ireland began under King Henry VIII (then Lord of Ireland ) after his excommunication in 1533. The Irish Parliament adopted

23635-463: Was a documented attempt to cause the Catholic clergy to die out in Ireland within a generation. Priests had to register with the local magistrates to be allowed to preach, and most did so. Bishops were not permitted to register. In 1713, the Irish House of Commons declared that "prosecution and informing against Papists was an honourable service", which revived the Elizabethan era profession of

23798-600: Was also a category of people called British subjects without citizenship (BSWC) . Irish citizens who fulfilled certain requirements could file formal claims with the Home Secretary to remain British subjects under this definition. Additionally, those who did not qualify for CUKC status or citizenship in other Commonwealth countries, or were connected with a country that had not yet defined citizenship laws, would transitionally remain British subjects in this group. All British subjects initially held an automatic right to settle in

23961-429: Was born in the UK or, if they are female, were married to a person with right of abode before 1983. Almost every person who still retains British subject status has UK right of abode. As of 2024, about 22,700 people hold valid British passports with the status, and fewer than 700 do not have right of abode. All British subjects may become British citizens by registration, rather than naturalisation , after residing in

24124-584: Was codified in statute law for the first time by the British Nationality and Status of Aliens Act 1914 , which formalised the status as a common nationality among the United Kingdom, its colonies, and the self-governing Dominions . Dominions that adopted this Act as part of their own nationality laws ( Australia , Canada , Ireland , Newfoundland , New Zealand , and South Africa ) were authorised to grant subject status to aliens by imperial naturalisation . During this time, British subject status

24287-419: Was completely successful, it was a signal failure in its main purpose of Protestantising the people. Nay even, it had the very opposite effect; for whilst in the sixteenth century they, clergy as well as laity, gave evidence of the wavering convictions of the period, in the nineteenth century they had become the most staunch Catholics in northern Europe." The 1975 canonization of Archbishop Oliver Plunkett , who

24450-425: Was considered an underground pit, where rats lived. Some people had been imprisoned and tied to the wall there, and untied after their death. Old Believers were persecuted and executed, the order was that even those renouncing completely their beliefs and baptized in the state church to be lynched without mercy. The writer Lomonosov opposed the religious teachings and by his initiative a scientific book against them

24613-544: Was dismissed in safety with an injunction to remember his words, that the Queen and her officers were dealing unjustly with the Irish; that the Catholic religion was contaminated by impiety; that holy bishops and priests were inhumanely and barbarously tortured; that Catholic noblemen were cruelly imprisoned and ruined; that wrong was deemed right; that he himself had been treacherously and perfidiously kidnapped; and that for these reasons he would neither give tribute or allegiance to

24776-523: Was especially militant during the middle Stalinist era from 1929 to 1939. The Soviet Union attempted to suppress religion over wide areas of its influence, including places like central Asia, and the post- World War II Eastern bloc . One state within that bloc, the Socialist People's Republic of Albania under Enver Hoxha , went so far as to officially ban all religious practices. The Baháʼís are Iran's largest religious minority, and Iran

24939-455: Was executed in Dublin for writing a volume denouncing the Act of Supremacy. As this had not yet been made into a crime in Ireland, Fr. Travers was instead tried at the summer assizes for high treason and involvement in the recent rebellion of Silken Thomas. According to historian R. Dudley Edwards, Fr. Travers had acted only in non-combatant roles as a peace negotiator and had even offered himself as

25102-429: Was generally resolved for people who were solely British subjects. British subjects without right of abode are subject to immigration controls when entering the United Kingdom. They are required to pay an immigration health surcharge to access National Health Service benefits when residing in the UK for longer than six months and do not qualify for most welfare programmes. Before the United Kingdom withdrew from

25265-468: Was given legal effect after passage and ratification of the Statute of Westminster 1931 . Diverging developments in Dominion nationality laws, as well as growing assertions of local national identity separate from that of Britain and the Empire, culminated with the creation of Canadian citizenship in 1946 . Combined with the approaching independence of India and Pakistan in 1947, nationality law reform

25428-455: Was granted in 1949 to British subjects who did not become CUKCs or citizens of any other Commonwealth country or the Republic of Ireland . Irish citizens born before 1949 may make formal claims at any time to retain status as British subjects based on: Crown service in the UK, passports or certificates of entitlement describing holders as British subjects, or proof of other associations with

25591-781: Was granted the right to heavily punish with death for blasphemy against the Orthodox Church or breach of ecclesiastical privileges. He advised all means of destruction to be used against heretics, but without bloodshed, in the name of 'saving souls'. Heretics were drowned. Novgorod Bishop Gennady Gonzov turned to Tsar Ivan III requesting the death of heretics. Gennady admired the Spanish inquisitors, especially his contemporary Torquemada , who for 15 years of inquisition activity burned and punished thousands of people. As in Rome, persecuted fled to depopulated areas. The most terrible punishment

25754-606: Was launched in 1569, at almost the same time as the Northern Rebellion in England. The Wexford Martyrs were found guilty of high treason for aiding in the escape of James Eustace, 3rd Viscount Baltinglass and refusing to take the Oath of Supremacy and declare Elizabeth I of England to be the Supreme Head of the Church of England and Ireland. The ongoing religious persecution also became highly significant as

25917-413: Was necessary at this point to address ideas that were incompatible with the previous system. The British Nationality Act 1948 redefined British subject as any citizen of the United Kingdom, its colonies, or other Commonwealth countries. Commonwealth citizen was first defined in this Act to have the same meaning. This alternative term was necessary to retain a number of newly independent countries in

26080-427: Was published. The book was destroyed, the Russian synod insisted Lomonosov's works to be burned and requested his punishment. ...were cutting heads, hanging, some by the neck, some by the foot, many of them were stabbed with sharp sticks and impaled on hooks. This included the tethering to a ponytail, drowning and freezing people alive in lakes. The winners did not spare even the sick and the elderly, taking them out of

26243-409: Was revoked at the federal level in 1975, but not fully phased out in provinces until 2006. Because each country now defined British subject in separate pieces of legislation and these definitions were not always updated or kept at parity, individuals could have been British subjects in one country at a given time but not another. For example, a South African citizen in 1967 would have been considered

26406-527: Was the principal form of British nationality. There were certain territories that came under British jurisdiction but were not formally incorporated as Crown territory proper. These included protectorates , protected states, League of Nations mandates , and United Nations trust territories . Because they were foreign lands, birth in one of these areas did not automatically confer British subject status. Instead, most people associated with these territories were designated as British protected persons . Following

26569-419: Was used for exactly the same purpose. The last priests held on both islands were finally released following the Stuart Restoration in 1662. Officially Beatified Martyrs of the era include: Servants of God include: Martyred by the Protestant and Parliamentarian soldiers under the command of the Lord President of Munster , Murchadh na dTóiteán , during the Sack of Cashel During the Stuart Restoration ,

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