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161-529: The Jalayirids were Mongol and Turkicized and Turkic-speaking . They are credited with bolstering the Turkic presence in Arabic-speaking Iraq so much so that Turkic became the second-most-spoken language after Arabic. The Jalayirids were also culturally Persianate , and their era marks an important period in the evolution of Persian art , where it developed important aspects that would serve as

322-638: A faithful servant as long as he lived. After the death of Kā’ūs, Shaykh Uways Jalayir confirmed his son, Hūshang, as the successor of Shirvanshahs . Due to his campaigns, Shaykh Uways Jalayir spent much time in Iran, and he died in Tabriz in 1374. During his lifetime, the Jalayirid state reached its peak in power. In addition to his military adventures, which were considerable, he was known for his attempts to revive commercial enterprise, which had suffered heavily in

483-579: A former amir of Malek Asraf’s named Akhichuq attempted to keep the region in Mongol hands. Despite a campaign that ended prematurely, as well as the brief conquest of Azerbaijan by the Muzaffarids , Uvais conquered the area in 1360. In addition to Baghdad, he could now boast Tabriz as a large city under his control. In 1364, Shaykh Uways Jalayir campaigned against the Shirvan Shah Kai-Ka’us, but

644-613: A large Jochid delegation to participate in Hulagu 's expedition in the Middle East in 1256–1257. One of the Jochid princes who joined Hulagu's army was accused of witchcraft and sorcery against Hulagu. After receiving permission from Berke, Hulagu executed him. After that two more Jochid princes died suspiciously. According to some Muslim sources, Hulagu refused to share his war booty with Berke in accordance with Genghis Khan's wish. Berke

805-776: A large portion of Cumans were driven out of the Crimean peninsula , and it became one of the appanages of the Mongol Empire. The remnants of the Crimean Cumans survived in the Crimean mountains , and they would, in time, mix with other groups in the Crimea (including Greeks, Goths, and Mongols) to form the Crimean Tatar population. Moving north, Batu began the Mongol invasion of Rus' and spent three years subjugating

966-739: A mixed Xiongnu-Donghu ancestry for some tribes (e.g. the Khitan ). The Donghu are mentioned by Sima Qian as already existing in Inner Mongolia north of Yan in 699–632 BCE along with the Shanrong . Unofficial Chinese sources such as Yi Zhou Shu ("Lost Book of Zhou") and the Classic of Mountains and Seas project the Donghu's activities back to the Shang dynasty (1600–1046 BCE). However,

1127-477: A partial calque of Turkic Altan Orda . Золотая ( Zolotáya ) was translated to 'Golden', while Орда ( Ordá ) was transliterated to 'Horde'. The Turkic word orda means 'palace', 'camp' or 'headquarters', in this case the headquarters of the khan, being the capital of the khanate, metonymically extended to the khanate itself. The English word horde , in the sense of a large (and often threatening) group, emerged later, metaphorically extended from

1288-454: A punitive expedition led by his brother, Dyuden , to punish those stubborn subjects, leading to the sacking of a number of cities in 1293, including Vladimir and Moscow, finally forcing Dmitry to abdicate. Only the city of Tver offered stiff resistance to the Mongol invaders, leading to another Mongol army being sent to attack the city. Nogai did not choose to intervene in Russian affairs but

1449-582: A revolt begun by the governor of Baghdad, Khwaja Mirjan, forced him to return to reassert his authority. In 1366, Shaykh Uways Jalayir marched against the Kara Koyunlu , defeating their leader, Bairam Khwaja , at the battle of Mush. Later, he defeated the Shirvanshah, who had attacked Tabriz twice in the meantime. According to Zayn al- Dīn Qazvīnī and Ḥāfiẓ Abrū, Kā’ūs readily overpowered all of Shirvan and Darband for Shaykh Uways Jalayir , and remained

1610-640: A severe punitive expedition. But after Alexander Nevsky begged Berke not to punish his people, and the cities of Vladimir-Suzdal agreed to pay a large indemnity, Berke relented. Alexander died on his trip back in Gorodets on the Volga. He was well loved by the people and called the "sun of Suzdal". When the former Seljuk Sultan Kaykaus II was arrested in the Byzantine Empire , his younger brother Kayqubad II appealed to Berke. An Egyptian envoy

1771-677: A small army and 200 Kalmyk soldiers defeated 1,700 Soviet soldiers in Durvud province of Kalmykia but the Oirats' state was destroyed by the Soviet Army in 1930. Kalmykian nationalists and Pan-Mongolists attempted to migrate Kalmyks to Mongolia in the 1920s. Mongolia suggested to migrate the Soviet Union's Mongols to Mongolia in the 1920s but Russia refused the suggestion. Stalin deported all Kalmyks to Siberia in 1943 and around half of

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1932-399: A sovereign state or merge Inner Mongolia with Mongolia. Mongolian is the official national language of Mongolia, where it is spoken by nearly 2.8 million people (2010 estimate), and the official provincial language of China's Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region , where there are at least 4.1 million ethnic Mongols. Across the whole of China, the language is spoken by roughly half of

2093-736: A tribe of Shiwei . It resurfaced in the late 11th century during the Khitan -ruled Liao dynasty . After the fall of the Liao in 1125, the Khamag Mongols became a leading tribe on the Mongolian Plateau . However, their wars with the Jurchen -ruled Jin dynasty and the Tatar confederation had weakened them. In the thirteenth century, the word Mongol grew into an umbrella term for a large group of Mongolic-speaking tribes united under

2254-468: A vassal of Nogai. Daniel , Alexander Nevsky's youngest son, failed to appear at the court of Toqta. The division of the authority of the Golden Horde led to the creation of two rival groups of Russian princes. Toqta attempted to reassert his authority over northern Russia ; he confirmed Andrey as the grand prince and authorized him to depose Dmitry, who refused to surrender his throne. Toqta sent

2415-574: A victory banquet during the Mongol occupation of Eastern Europe. He sent his brothers to the kurultai, and the new Khagan of the Mongols was elected in 1246. All the senior princes of Rus', including Yaroslav II of Vladimir , Daniel of Galicia , and Sviatoslav III of Vladimir , acknowledged Batu's supremacy. Originally Batu ordered Daniel to turn the administration of Galicia over to the Mongols, but Daniel personally visited Batu in 1245 and pledged allegiance to him. After returning from his trip, Daniel

2576-593: Is now Xinjiang , at about the age of 42. Although some modern historians believe that he died of natural causes because of deteriorating health, he may have succumbed to the combined effects of alcoholism and gout , or he may have been poisoned. William of Rubruck and a Muslim chronicler state that Batu killed the imperial envoy, and one of his brothers murdered the Great Khan Güyük, but these claims are not completely corroborated by other major sources. Güyük's widow Oghul Qaimish took over as regent, but she

2737-518: The Buryats are classified either as distinct ethno-linguistic groups or subgroups of Mongols. The Mongols are bound together by a common heritage and ethnic identity . Their indigenous dialects are collectively known as the Mongolian language . The contiguous geographical area in which the Mongols primarily live is referred to as the Mongol heartland , especially in history books. The ancestors of

2898-689: The Carpathian Mountains . Talabuga's soldiers were angered and sacked Galicia and Volhynia instead. In 1286, Talabuga and Nogai attacked Poland and ravaged the country. After returning, Talabuga overthrew Töde Möngke, who was left to live in peace. Talabuga's army made unsuccessful attempts to invade the Ilkhanate in 1288 and 1290. During a punitive expedition against the Circassians , Talabuga became resentful of Nogai, whom he believed did not provide him with adequate support during

3059-633: The Cuman language . The existence of Arabic-Mongol and Persian-Mongol dictionaries dating from the middle of the 14th century and prepared for the use of the Egyptian Mamluk Sultanate suggests that there was a practical need for such works in the chancelleries handling correspondence with the Golden Horde. It is thus reasonable to conclude that letters received by the Mamluks – if not also written by them – must have been in Mongol. When

3220-660: The Dai Khitai in Afghanistan. With the expansion of the Mongol Empire, the Mongolic peoples settled over almost all Eurasia and carried on military campaigns from the Adriatic Sea to Indonesian Java and from Japan to Palestine . They simultaneously became Padishahs of Persia , Emperors of China , and Great Khans of the Mongols, and one ( Al-Adil Kitbugha ) became Sultan of Egypt . The Mongolic peoples of

3381-625: The Golden Horde established themselves to govern Russia by 1240. By 1279, they conquered the Song dynasty and brought all of China proper under the control of the Yuan dynasty . ... from Chinggis up high down to the common people, all are shaven in the style pojiao . As with small boys in China, they leave three locks, one hanging from the crown of their heads. When it has grown some, they clip it;

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3542-521: The Golden Horde in 1385. Timur completed his Indian campaign and returned to Azerbaijan in 1396. Kara Koyunlu ruler Kara Yusuf, who retreated to Mosul to avoid a sudden raid, was able to take shelter in the Ottomans in 1400. The hosting of Yildirim Bayezid to Kara Yusuf was one of the main reasons Timur launched a campaign against the Ottomans . He was able to reach Damascus by escaping into

3703-490: The Golden Horde under Jani Beg in 1357. Malek Asraf was executed, and Azerbaijan was conquered. Following Jani Beg's withdrawal from Azerbaijan, as well as his son Berdi Beg ’s similar abandonment of the region in 1358, the area became a prime target for its neighbors. Shaykh Uways Jalayir , who at first had recognized the sovereignty of the Blue Horde, decided to take the former Chobanid lands for himself, even as

3864-844: The Ming dynasty . After the fall of the Yuan dynasty in 1368, the Mongols continued to rule the Northern Yuan in northern China and the Mongolian steppe. However, the Oirads began to challenge the Eastern Mongols under the Borjigin monarchs in the late 14th century and Mongolia was divided into two parts: Western Mongolia ( Oirats ) and Eastern Mongolia ( Khalkha , Inner Mongols , Barga , Buryats ). The earliest written references to

4025-658: The Mongolia-Russia border . Oka Buryats revolted in 1767 and Russia completely conquered the Buryat region in the late 18th century. Russia and Qing were rival empires until the early 20th century, however, both empires carried out united policy against Central Asians. The Qing Empire conquered Upper Mongolia or the Oirat's Khoshut Khanate in the 1720s and 80,000 people were killed. By that period, Upper Mongolian population reached 200,000. The Dzungar Khanate conquered by

4186-541: The Mongolian and Tibetan Affairs Commission , lie dormant. Agin-Buryat Okrug and Ust-Orda Buryat Okrugs merged with Irkutsk Oblast and Chita Oblast in 2008 despite Buryats' resistance. Small scale protests occurred in Inner Mongolia in 2011 . The Inner Mongolian People's Party is a member of the Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization and its leaders are attemptin to establish

4347-611: The Nogai Horde . Toqta established the Byzantine-Mongol alliance by Maria, an illegitimate daughter of Andronikos II Palaiologos . A report reached Western Europe that Toqta was highly favourable to the Christians. According to Muslim observers, however, Toqta remained an idol-worshiper ( Buddhism and Tengerism ) and showed favour to religious men of all faiths, though he preferred Muslims. He demanded that

4508-809: The Shiwei (a subtribe called the "Shiwei Menggu" is held to be the origin of the Genghisid Mongols). Besides these three Xianbei groups, there were others such as the Murong , Duan and Tuoba . Their culture was nomadic, their religion shamanism or Buddhism and their military strength formidable. There is still no direct evidence that the Rouran spoke Mongolic languages , although most scholars agree that they were Proto-Mongolic. The Khitan, however, had two scripts of their own and many Mongolic words are found in their half-deciphered writings. Geographically,

4669-809: The Shiwei . The Khitans, who were independent after their separation from the Kumo Xi (of Wuhuan origin) in 388, continued as a minor power in Manchuria until one of them, Abaoji (872–926), established the Liao dynasty (916–1125). The destruction of Uyghur Khaganate by the Kirghiz resulted in the end of Turkic dominance in Mongolia. According to historians, Kirghiz were not interested in assimilating newly acquired lands; instead, they controlled local tribes through various manaps (tribal leaders). The Khitans occupied

4830-607: The Soviet–Japanese War of 1945 (Mongolian name: Liberation War of 1945 ). Japan forced Inner Mongolian and Barga people to fight against Mongolians but they surrendered to Mongolians and started to fight against their Japanese and Manchu allies. Marshal Khorloogiin Choibalsan called Inner Mongolians and Xinjiang Oirats to migrate to Mongolia during the war but the Soviet Army blocked Inner Mongolian migrants' way. It

4991-615: The Tuoba Xianbei ruled the southern part of Inner Mongolia and northern China, the Rouran ( Yujiulü Shelun was the first to use the title khagan in 402) ruled eastern Mongolia, western Mongolia, the northern part of Inner Mongolia and northern Mongolia, the Khitan were concentrated in eastern part of Inner Mongolia north of Korea and the Shiwei were located to the north of the Khitan. These tribes and kingdoms were soon overshadowed by

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5152-831: The Urals to the Danube in the west, and from the Black Sea to the Caspian Sea in the south, while bordering the Caucasus Mountains and the territories of the Mongol dynasty known as the Ilkhanate . The khanate experienced violent internal political disorder known as the Great Troubles (1359–1381), before it briefly reunited under Tokhtamysh (1381–1395). However, soon after the 1396 invasion of Timur ,

5313-555: The Volga River . His brother Orda returned to take part in the succession. The Mongol armies would never again travel so far west. In 1242, after retreating through Hungary, destroying Pest in the process, and subjugating Bulgaria , Batu established his capital at Sarai, commanding the lower stretch of the Volga River , on the site of the Khazar capital of Atil . Shortly before that, the younger brother of Batu and Orda, Shiban ,

5474-709: The Xiongnu , whose identity is still debated today. Although some scholars maintain that they were proto-Mongols , they were more likely a multi-ethnic group of Mongolic and Turkic tribes . It has been suggested that the language of the Huns was related to the Xiongnu. The Donghu, however, can be much more easily labeled proto-Mongol since the Chinese histories trace only Mongolic tribes and kingdoms ( Xianbei and Wuhuan peoples) from them, although some historical texts claim

5635-468: The Yakuts after their migration to northern Siberia and about 30% of Yakut words have Mongol origin. However, remnants of the Yuan imperial family retreated north to Mongolia in 1368, retaining their language and culture. There were 250,000 Mongols in southern China and many Mongols were massacred by the rebel army. The survivors were trapped in southern China and eventually assimilated. The Dongxiangs , Bonans , Yugur and Monguor people were invaded by

5796-428: The "Tatar yoke" at the Great Stand on the Ugra River in 1480, which traditionally marks the end of Mongol rule over Russia. The Crimean Khanate and the Kazakh Khanate , the last remnants of the Golden Horde, survived until 1783 and 1847 respectively, when they were conquered by the expanding Russian state. The name Golden Horde is a partial calque of Russian Золотая Орда ( Zolotáya Ordá ), itself supposedly

5957-436: The (97,000–98,000) Kalmyks deported to Siberia died before being allowed to return home in 1957. The government of the Soviet Union forbade teaching the Kalmyk language during the deportation. The Kalmyks' main purpose was to migrate to Mongolia and many Kalmyks joined the German Army. Marshal Khorloogiin Choibalsan attempted to migrate the deportees to Mongolia and he met with them in Siberia during his visit to Russia. Under

6118-399: The 14–16th centuries, however, the Ming dynasty was defeated by the Oirat, Southern Mongol, Eastern Mongol and united Mongol armies. Esen's 30,000 cavalries defeated 500,000 Chinese soldiers in the 1449 Tumu Crisis . Within eighteen months of his defeat of the titular Khan Taisun, in 1453, Esen himself took the title of Great Khan (1454–1455) of the Great Yuan . The Khalkha emerged during

6279-491: The 15th century and this conflict weakened Mongol strength. In 1688, the Western Mongol Dzungar Khanate 's king Galdan Boshugtu attacked Khalkha after murder of his younger brother by Tusheet Khan Chakhundorj (main or Central Khalkha leader) and the Khalkha-Oirat War began. Galdan threatened to kill Chakhundorj and Zanabazar (Javzandamba Khutagt I, spiritual head of Khalkha) but they escaped to Sunud (Inner Mongolia). Many Khalkha nobles and folks fled to Inner Mongolia because of

6440-527: The Bogd Khan regime. Russia encouraged Mongolia to become an autonomous region of China in 1914. Mongolia lost Barga , Dzungaria, Tuva , Upper Mongolia and Inner Mongolia in the 1915 Treaty of Kyakhta . In October 1919, the Republic of China occupied Mongolia after the suspicious deaths of Mongolian patriotic nobles. On 3 February 1921 the White Russian army—led by Baron Ungern and mainly consisting of Mongolian volunteer cavalries, and Buryat and Tatar cossacks —liberated Ulaanbaatar . Baron Ungern's purpose

6601-432: The Bogd Khanate, and the Russian czar, Nicholas II , referred to it as "Mongolian imperialism". Additionally, the United Kingdom urged Russia to abolish Mongolian independence as it was concerned that "if Mongolians gain independence, then Central Asians will revolt". 10,000 Khalkha and Inner Mongolian cavalries (about 3,500 Inner Mongols) defeated 70,000 Chinese soldiers and controlled almost all of Inner Mongolia; however,

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6762-466: The Buryat population in Russia died in the 1900s–1950s. 10,000 Buryats of the Buryat-Mongol Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic were massacred by Stalin's order in the 1930s. In 1919 the Buryats established a small theocratic Balagad state in Kizhinginsky District of Russia and it fell in 1926. In 1958, the name "Mongol" was removed from the name of the Buryat-Mongol Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic. On 22 January 1922 Mongolia proposed to migrate

6923-414: The Byzantine Empire and Egypt in an attempt to curb the authority of Nogai. Following the death of Constantine of Bulgaria in 1277, Michael VIII and Nogai supported different candidates to the throne, leading to relations to deteriorate. This led to an intervention by Mengu-Timur in Balkan affairs, in which Mengu-Timur and Metropolitan Kirill sent Bishop Theognost as their joint envoy to Michael VIII and

7084-417: The Communists were unable to defeat Japan and Kuomintang . Mongolia and Soviets supported the Uyghur and Kazakh separatist movement during the 1930s and 1940s. By 1945, the Soviets refused to support them after its alliance with the Chinese Communist Party and Mongolia interrupted its relations with the separatists under pressure. Xinjiang Oirat militant groups operated together the Turkic peoples but

7245-406: The Empire remained united under the supreme khan. Jochi was the eldest, but he died six months before Genghis. The westernmost lands occupied by the Mongols , which included what is today southern Russia and Kazakhstan , were given to Jochi's eldest sons, Batu Khan , who eventually became ruler of the Blue Horde , and Orda Khan , who became the leader of the White Horde . In 1235, Batu with

7406-502: The Golden Horde as some of Toqta's coins carried 'Phags-pa script in addition to Mongolian script and Persian characters. Toqta arrested the Italian residents of Sarai and besieged Caffa in 1307. The cause was apparently Toqta's displeasure at the Genoese slave trade of his subjects, who were mostly sold as soldiers to Egypt. In 1308, Caffa was plundered by the Mongols. During the late reign of Toqta, tensions between princes of Tver and Moscow became violent. Daniel of Moscow seized

7567-495: The Golden Horde. Backed by him, some princes, such as Dmitry of Pereslavl , refused to visit the court of Töde Möngke in Sarai, while Dmitry's brother Andrey of Gorodets sought assistance from Töde Möngke. Nogai vowed to support Dmitry in his struggle for the grand princely throne. On hearing about this, Andrey renounced his claims to Vladimir and Novgorod and returned to Gorodets. He returned with Mongol troops sent by Töde Möngke and seized Vladimir from Dmitry. Dmitry retaliated with

7728-406: The Great Khatun Töregene invited Batu to elect the next Emperor of the Mongol Empire in 1242, he declined to attend the kurultai and instead stayed at the Volga River . Although Batu excused himself by saying he was suffering from old age and illness, it seems that he did not support the election of Güyük Khan. Güyük and Büri , a grandson of Chagatai Khan , had quarreled violently with Batu at

7889-418: The Great said: "The headwaters of the Yenisei River must be Russian land". The Russian Empire sent the Kalmyks and Buryats to war to reduce the populations ( World War I and other wars). During the 20th century, Soviet scientists attempted to convince the Kalmyks and Buryats that they're not Mongols during (demongolization policy). 35,000 Buryats were killed during a rebellion in 1927, and around one-third of

8050-458: The Hu (胡) were not mentioned among the non-Shang fang (方 "border-region"; modern term fāngguó 方國 "fang-countries") in the extant oracle bones from the Shang period. The Xianbei formed part of the Donghu confederation, and possibly had in earlier times some independence within the Donghu confederation as well as from the Zhou dynasty. During the Warring States the poem " The Great Summons " ( Chinese : 大招 ; pinyin : Dà zhāo ) in

8211-410: The Ilkhan Ghazan and his successor Oljeitu give Azerbaijan back but was refused. Then he sought assistance from Egypt against the Ilkhanate. Toqta made his man ruler in Ghazna , but he was expelled by its people. Toqta dispatched a peace mission to the Ilkhan Gaykhatu in 1294, and peace was maintained mostly uninterrupted until 1318. In 1304, ambassadors from the Mongol rulers of Central Asia and

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8372-431: The Ilkhanate's, using a red ink square seal with Islamic phrases in Arabic.   Jalayirid Sultanate Mongol The Mongols are an East Asian ethnic group native to Mongolia , China ( Inner Mongolia and other 11 autonomous territories ), as well as Buryatia and Kalmykia republics of Russia . The Mongols are the principal member of the large family of Mongolic peoples . The Oirats and

8533-499: The Ilkhanate, in Baghdad, Syria , Diyarbakir and the Caucasus . Ilge Noyan's sons Agbuga (Āqbuqā), Tughu were also in the service of Abaga khan . Agbuga, who was promoted to mir-e mirān (commander-in-chief) by Keyhatu khan, was later assassinated by Baydu 's supporters in 1295. He became the patron (murabbī) of Sadr al-Din Zanjani, Kaykhatu's grand vizier. Aq buqa was married to Qhazan khan's sister Ūljatāy Sulṭān, but after his death, his son Hussein married his father's wife and took

8694-422: The Ilkhanate. Ilge Noyan had taken over pasturelands along the River Onon in Mongolia and produced several military commanders during the Mongol era. According to the Jami' al-tawarikh written by Rashid-al-Din Hamadani , Ilge, who accompanied Hulegu on his great expedition to Western Asia in the 1250s, was among the generals who besieged the Assassins' strongholds in Qohestan in 1256. Besides, Ilge joined

8855-399: The Jalayirid regarding the Ilkhanid heritage was their attempt to control Azerbaijan, the main center of the Ilkhanate. This province represented the symbolic heritage and material wealth of the Ilkhanate and became the focus of the Jalayirid political program. Shortly after Shaykh Uways Jalayir succeeded his father, the old enemy of the Jalayirids, the Chobanids, were overrun by the forces of

9016-402: The Kagamlik, near the Dnieper . Toqta had his son stationed troops in Saqchi and along the Danube as far as the Iron Gate. Nogai's son Chaka of Bulgaria , first escaped to the Alans, and then Bulgaria where he briefly ruled as emperor before he was murdered by Theodore Svetoslav on the orders of Toqta. After Mengu-Timur died, rulers of the Golden Horde withdrew their support from Kaidu ,

9177-425: The Kalmyk Khanate. The Kyrgyzs attacked them near Balkhash Lake . About 100,000–150,000 Kalmyks who settled on the west bank of the Volga River could not cross the river because the river did not freeze in the winter of 1771 and Catherine the Great executed influential nobles of them. After seven months of travel, only one-third (66,073) of the original group reached Dzungaria (Balkhash Lake, western border of

9338-401: The Kalmyks during the Kalmykian Famine but bolshevik Russia refused. 71,000–72,000 (93,000?; around half of the population) Kalmyks died during the Russian famine of 1921–22 . The Kalmyks revolted against the Soviet Union in 1926, 1930 and 1942–1943. In 1913, Nicholas II , tsar of Russia, said: "We need to prevent from Volg Tatars . But the Kalmyks are more dangerous than them because they are

9499-438: The Kazakhs to migrate westwards. In 1687, he besieged the City of Turkistan . Under the leadership of Abul Khair Khan , the Kazakhs won major victories over the Dzungars at the Bulanty River in 1726, and at the Battle of Anrakay in 1729. The Khalkha eventually submitted to Qing rule in 1691 by Zanabazar 's decision, thus bringing all of today's Mongolia under the rule of the Qing dynasty but Khalkha de facto remained under

9660-482: The Law of the Russian Federation of April 26, 1991 "On Rehabilitation of Exiled Peoples," repressions against Kalmyks and other peoples were qualified as acts of genocide. On 3 October 2002 the Ministry of Foreign Affairs announced that Taiwan recognizes Mongolia as an independent country, although no legislative actions were taken to address concerns over its constitutional claims to Mongolia. Offices established to support Taipei's claims over Outer Mongolia, such as

9821-413: The Liao dynasty led by Yelü Dashi fled west through Mongolia after being defeated by the Jurchen -led Jin dynasty and founded the Qara Khitai (Western Liao dynasty) in 1124 while still maintaining control over western Mongolia. In 1218, Genghis Khan incorporated the Qara Khitai after which the Khitan passed into obscurity. Some remnants surfaced as the Qutlugh-Khanid dynasty (1222–1306) in Iran and

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9982-446: The Manchus attack in exchange for thousands of taels of silver. By the 1620s, only the Chahars remained under his rule. The Chahar army was defeated in 1625 and 1628 by the Inner Mongol and Manchu armies due to Ligdan's faulty tactics. The Qing forces secured their control over Inner Mongolia by 1635, and the army of the last khan Ligdan moved to battle against Tibetan Gelugpa sect (Yellow Hat sect) forces. The Gelugpa forces supported

10143-431: The Manchus, while Ligdan supported Kagyu sect (Red Hat sect) of Tibetan Buddhism . Ligden died in 1634 on his way to Tibet . By 1636, most Inner Mongolian nobles had submitted to the Qing dynasty founded by the Manchus. Inner Mongolian Tengis noyan revolted against the Qing in the 1640s and the Khalkha battled to protect Sunud. Western Mongol Oirats and Eastern Mongolian Khalkhas vied for domination in Mongolia since

10304-416: The Mongolian army retreated due to lack of weapons in 1914. 400 Mongol soldiers and 3,795 Chinese soldiers died in this war. The Khalkhas, Khovd Oirats, Buryats, Dzungarian Oirats, Upper Mongols , Barga Mongols , most Inner Mongolian and some Tuvan leaders sent statements to support Bogd Khan's call of Mongolian reunification . In reality however, most of them were too prudent or irresolute to attempt joining

10465-437: The Mongols and ousted their troops in northern Podolia . In 1257, he repelled Mongol assaults led by the prince Kuremsa on Ponyzia and Volhynia and dispatched an expedition with the aim of taking Kiev. Despite initial successes, in 1259 a Mongol force under Boroldai entered Galicia and Volhynia and offered an ultimatum: Daniel was to destroy his fortifications or Boroldai would assault the towns. Daniel complied and pulled down

10626-421: The Mongols so send them to war to reduce the population". On 23 April 1923 Joseph Stalin , communist leader of Russia, said: "We are carrying out wrong policy on the Kalmyks who related to the Mongols. Our policy is too peaceful". In March 1927, Soviet deported 20,000 Kalmyks to Siberia, the tundra and Karelia .The Kalmyks founded the sovereign Republic of Oirat-Kalmyk on 22 March 1930. The Oirats' state had

10787-480: The Mongols. In 1261, Berke approved the establishment of a church in Sarai. After Möngke Khan died in 1259, the Toluid Civil War broke out between Kublai Khan and Ariq Böke . While Hulagu Khan of the Ilkhanate supported Kublai, Berke sided with Ariq Böke. There is evidence that Berke minted coins in Ariq Böke's name, but he remained militarily neutral. After the defeat of Ariq Böke in 1264, he freely acceded to Kublai's enthronement. However, some elites of

10948-481: The Oirats and Khalkhas before the war. Galdan Boshugtu sent his army to "liberate" Inner Mongolia after defeating the Khalkha's army and called Inner Mongolian nobles to fight for Mongolian independence. Some Inner Mongolian nobles, Tibetans , Kumul Khanate and some Moghulistan 's nobles supported his war against the Manchus, however, Inner Mongolian nobles did not battle against the Qing. There were three khans in Khalkha and Zasagt Khan Shar (Western Khalkha leader)

11109-425: The Oirats did not have the leading role due to their small population. Basmachis or Turkic and Tajik militants fought to liberate Soviet Central Asia until 1942. On February 2, 1913, the Treaty of friendship and alliance between the Government of Mongolia and Tibet was signed. Mongolian agents and Bogd Khan disrupted Soviet secret operations in Tibet to change its regime in the 1920s. On October 27, 1961,

11270-404: The Qaghan (Great Khan), they sent them to Mengu-Timur. One of them, Nomoghan, favorite of Kublai, was located in the Crimea. Mengu-Timur might have briefly struggled with Hulagu's successor Abagha , but the Great Khan Kublai forced them to sign a peace treaty. He was allowed to take his share in Persia. Independently from the Khan, Nogai expressed his desire to ally with Baibars in 1271. Despite

11431-420: The Qing Empire). The Qing Empire transmigrated the Kalmyks to five different areas to prevent their revolt and influential leaders of the Kalmyks died soon (killed by the Manchus). Russia states that Buryatia voluntarily merged with Russia in 1659 due to Mongolian oppression and the Kalmyks voluntarily accepted Russian rule in 1609 but only Georgia voluntarily accepted Russian rule. In the early 20th century,

11592-628: The Qing dynasty in 1755–1758 because of their leaders and military commanders conflicts. Some scholars estimate that about 80% of the Dzungar population were destroyed by a combination of warfare and disease during the Qing conquest of the Dzungar Khanate in 1755–1758. Mark Levene, a historian whose recent research interests focus on genocide , has stated that the extermination of the Dzungars

11753-523: The Timurid sources' nomenclature and call the left wing the White Horde. But Ötemish Hajji ( fl.  1550 ), a historian of Khwarazm , called the left wing the Blue Horde, and since he was familiar with the oral traditions of the khanate empire, it seems likely that the Russian chroniclers were correct, and that the khanate itself called its left wing the Blue Horde. The khanate apparently used

11914-514: The Tsarist government imposed a council on the Kalmyk Khan, thereby diluting his authority, while continuing to expect the Kalmyk Khan to provide cavalry units to fight on behalf of Russia. The Russian Orthodox church , by contrast, pressured Buddhist Kalmyks to adopt Orthodoxy. In January 1771, approximately 200,000 (170,000) Kalmyks began the migration from their pastures on the left bank of

12075-485: The United Nations recognized Mongolian independence and granted the nation full membership in the organization. The powerful states of Russia and China have committed many abuses against Mongols in their homeland, including war crimes and crimes against humanity, sometimes characterized as cultural genocide , with targets among the Mongol language, culture, tradition, history, religion, and ethnic identity. Peter

12236-592: The Volga to Dzungaria, through the territories of their Bashkir and Kazakh enemies. The last Kalmyk khan Ubashi led the migration to restore Mongolian independence. Ubashi Khan sent his 30,000 cavalries to the Russo-Turkish War (1768–74) to gain weapon before the migration. The Empress Catherine the Great ordered the Russian army, Bashkirs and Kazakhs to exterminate all migrants and the Empress abolished

12397-608: The White Horde and son of Orda Khan, also made peace with the Yuan dynasty and the Ilkhanate . According to Mamluk historians, Töde Möngke sent the Mamluks a letter proposing to fight against their common enemy, the unbelieving Ilkhanate. This indicates that he might have had an interest in Azerbaijan and Georgia , which were both ruled by the Ilkhans. In the 1270s, Nogai had raided Bulgaria, as well as Lithuania. He blockaded Michael Asen II inside Drăstăr in 1279, executed

12558-463: The White Horde joined Ariq Böke's resistance. Möngke ordered the Jochid and Chagatayid families to join Hulagu's expedition to Iran. Berke 's persuasion might have forced his brother Batu to postpone Hulagu's operation, little suspecting that it would result in eliminating the Jochid predominance there for several years. During the reign of Batu or his first two successors, the Golden Horde dispatched

12719-579: The Xiongnu, killing 2000, after having received generous gifts from Emperor Guangwu of Han . The Xianbei reached their peak under Tanshihuai Khan (reigned 156–181) who expanded the vast, but short lived, Xianbei state (93–234). Three prominent groups split from the Xianbei state as recorded by the Chinese histories: the Rouran (claimed by some to be the Pannonian Avars ), the Khitan people and

12880-419: The Yuan court was unable to send quick military support. From 1300 to 1302, a severe drought occurred in the areas surrounding the Black Sea . However, the troubles were soon overcome and conditions in the Golden Horde rapidly improved under Toqta's reign. After the defeat of Nogai Khan , his followers either fled to Podolia or remained under the service of Toqta, to become what would eventually be known as

13041-477: The Yuan dynasty announced to Toqta their general peace proposal. Toqta immediately accepted the supremacy of Yuan emperor Temür Öljeytü , and all yams (postal relays) and commercial networks across the Mongol khanates reopened. Toqta introduced the general peace among the Mongol khanates to the Russian princes at the assembly in Pereyaslavl (Pereslavl-Zalessky). The Yuan influence seemed to have increased in

13202-611: The anthology Verses of Chu mentions small-waisted and long-necked Xianbei women, and possibly also the book Discourses of the States , which states that during the reign of King Cheng of Zhou (reigned 1042–1021 BCE) the Xianbei came to participate at a meeting of Zhou subject-lords at Qiyang (岐阳) (now Qishan County ) but were only allowed to perform the fire ceremony under the supervision of Chu since they were not vassals (诸侯) by enfeoffment and establishment . The Xianbei chieftain

13363-642: The areas vacated by the Turkic Uyghurs bringing them under their control. The Yenisei Kirghiz state was centered on Khakassia and they were expelled from Mongolia by the Khitans in 924. Beginning in the 10th century, the Khitans, under the leadership of Abaoji , prevailed in several military campaigns against the Tang dynasty ' s border guards, and the Xi , Shiwei and Jurchen nomadic groups. Remnants of

13524-606: The assistance of the Kara Koyunlu . Shaikh 'Ali fell in battle against the Kara Koyunlu . In the spring of 1384, the Chagatai amir Timur attacked the Jalayirids and Azerbaijan. Although Sultan Ahmad was not captured, his subordinates in Soltaniyeh failed to defend the town and Timur took it with a minimum of resistance. In the midst of Timur's absence, Sultan Ahmad had to deal with an invasion by Tokhtamysh , Khan of

13685-476: The basis of later Persian paintings. The history of the Sultanate of Jalayirid can be divided into four phases: During the disintegration years of the Ilkhanate after the death of Abu Sa'id Bahadur Khan in 1335, the family of emir Ilge (Īlgā) Noyan, known as Köke (Kukā, ‘Blue’) Ilge, descendants of the Jalayirid tribe, first emerged as the inheritors of the traditional governors of the southwestern lands of

13846-580: The census took place in all cities, including Smolensk and Vitebsk . In 1277, Mengu-Timur launched a campaign against the Alans north of the Caucasus . Along with the Mongol army were also some of the princes who were ordered to join him in his expedition, where they took the fortified stronghold of the Alans, Dadakov , in 1278. After his Ossetian expedition, Mengu-Timur turned his attention to affairs with

14007-643: The city walls. In 1259 Berke launched savage attacks on Lithuania and Poland, and demanded the submission of Béla IV , the Hungarian monarch, and the French King Louis IX in 1259 and 1260. His assault on Prussia in 1259–1260 inflicted heavy losses on the Teutonic Order . The Lithuanians were probably tributary in the 1260s, when reports reached the Curia that they were in league with

14168-400: The country's 5.8 million ethnic Mongols (2005 estimate) However, the exact number of Mongolian speakers in China is unknown, as there is no data available on the language proficiency of that country's citizens. The use of Mongolian in China, specifically in Inner Mongolia, has witnessed periods of decline and revival over the last few hundred years. The language experienced a decline during

14329-487: The death of Batu Khan (the founder of the Golden Horde) in 1255, his dynasty flourished for a full century, until 1359, though the intrigues of Nogai instigated a partial civil war in the late 1290s. The Horde's military power peaked during the reign of Uzbeg Khan (1312–1341), who adopted Islam. The territory of the Golden Horde at its peak extended from Siberia and Central Asia to parts of Eastern Europe from

14490-754: The desert. Kara Yusuf was welcomed by Sheikh Mahmud, the nâib of Damascus. Not long after, Jalairid Sultan Ahmed also came to Damascus. Not wanting to worsen relations with Amir Teymur, Nasir-ad-Din Faraj agreed to capture Gara Yusif and Sultan Ahmed Jalairi, and hand them over to Teymur. Sultan Ahmed Jalayir and Kara Yusuf imprisoned on the order of Nasir-ad-Din Faraj . Together in prison, the two leaders renewed their friendship, making an agreement that Sultan Ahmed Jalayir should keep Baghdad while Qara Yusuf would have Azerbaijan. Ahmad also adopted his son Pirbudag. When Timur died in 1405 Nasir-ad-Din Faraj released them both. However, according to Faruk Sümer, they were released on

14651-528: The expedition to Baghdad and was tasked with overseeing the rebuilding of the city after its siege in 1258. Ilge Noyan served Hülegü until the khan's death in 1265. When the Abaka khan came to the throne in 1265 and was identified as a senior emir, Ilge was in charge of the ordos ("royal headquarters"). Ilge was one of the main military leaders in conflicts with the Mamluks and Jochids, neighbors and opponents of

14812-579: The fact that he was proposing a joint attack on the Ilkhanate with the Mamluks of Egypt , Mengu-Timur congratulated Abagha when Baraq was defeated by the Ilkhan in 1270. In 1267, Mengu-Timur issued a diploma ( jarliq ) to exempt Russian clergy from any taxation, and gave to the Genoese and Venice exclusive trading rights in Caffa and Azov . Some of Mengu-Timur's relatives converted to Christianity at

14973-594: The far northwest was not counted until winter of 1258–1259. There was an uprising in Novgorod against the Mongol census, but Alexander Nevsky forced the city to submit to the census and taxation. With the new powers afforded to Batu by Möngke, he now had direct control over the princes of Rus'. However, Andrey II refused to submit to Batu. Batu sent a punitive expedition under Nevruy, who defeated Andrey and forced him to flee to Novgorod, then Pskov , and finally to Sweden . The Mongols overran Vladimir and harshly punished

15134-552: The following spring, he undertook a successful campaign against the Kara Koyunlu under Bayram Khwaja , who had been raiding from the west. Shaikh Hussain Jalayir lost his supporters because of the external enemies and conflicts within the amirs. His brother Sultan Ahmad Jalayir came to power as a result of a plot against him. Ahmad's other brothers, Shaikh 'Ali and Bayazid opposed him. To secure his position, Ahmad requested

15295-515: The founder of the Timurid Empire , the Golden Horde broke into smaller Tatar khanates which declined steadily in power. At the start of the 15th century, the Horde began to fall apart. By 1466, it was being referred to simply as the " Great Horde ". Within its territories there emerged numerous predominantly Turkic khanates. These internal struggles allowed Moscow to formally rid itself of

15456-546: The government's new policy and Soviets. The government and Soviet soldiers defeated the rebels in October. The Buryats started to migrate to Mongolia in the 1900s due to Russian oppression. Joseph Stalin 's regime stopped the migration in 1930 and started a campaign of ethnic cleansing against newcomers and Mongolians. During the Stalinist repressions in Mongolia , almost all adult Buryat men and 22,000–33,000 Mongols (3–5% of

15617-526: The grand prince of Vladimir to allow German merchants free travel through his lands. The gramota says: Mengu-Timur's word to Prince Yaroslav: give the German merchants way into your lands. From Prince Yaroslav to the people of Riga , to the great and the young, and to all: your way is clear through my lands; and who comes to fight, with them I do as I know; but for the merchant the way is clear. This decree also allowed Novgorod's merchants to travel throughout

15778-608: The great general Subutai began an invasion westwards, first conquering the Bashkirs and then moving on to Volga Bulgaria in 1236. From there he conquered some of the southern steppes of present-day Ukraine in 1237, forcing many of the local Cumans to retreat westward. The Mongol campaign against the Kypchaks and Cumans had already started under Jochi and Subutai in 1216–1218 when the Merkits took shelter among them. By 1239

15939-544: The head of the House of Ögedei . Kaidu tried to restore his influence in the Golden Horde by sponsoring his own candidate Kobeleg against Bayan ( r.  1299–1304 ), Khan of the White Horde. After taking military support from Toqta, Bayan asked help from the Yuan dynasty and the Ilkhanate to organize a unified attack on the Chagatai Khanate under the leadership of Kaidu and his second-in-command Duwa . However,

16100-592: The independence of Outer Mongolia, the Mongolian army controlled Khalkha and Khovd regions (modern day Uvs , Khovd , and Bayan-Ölgii provinces ), but Northern Xinjiang (the Altai and Ili regions of the Qing empire), Upper Mongolia , Barga and Inner Mongolia came under control of the newly formed Republic of China . On February 2, 1913, the Bogd Khanate of Mongolia sent Mongolian cavalries to "liberate" Inner Mongolia from China. Russia refused to sell weapons to

16261-540: The invasions of Hungary and Poland . Talabuga challenged Nogai, but was defeated in a coup and replaced with Toqta in 1291. Andrey, accompanied by a number of Rostov princes and the bishop of Rostov, went to Toqta to renew his patent and complain about Dmitry. Mikhail Yaroslavich was summoned to appear before Nogai in Sarai, where he chose to side with Nogai and went to him instead for confirmation of his throne, while Dmitry refused to appear, considering himself to be

16422-760: The lands of Suzdal without restraint. Mengu Timur honored his vow: when the Danes and the Livonian Knights attacked the Novgorod Republic in 1269, the Khan's great basqaq (darughachi) , Amraghan, and many Mongols assisted the army assembled by the grand prince Yaroslav. The Germans and the Danes were so cowed that they sent gifts to the Mongols and abandoned the region of Narva . The Mongol Khan's authority extended to all principalities, and in 1274–1275

16583-614: The late Qing government encouraged Han Chinese settlement of Mongolian lands under the name of " New Policies " or "New Administration" (xinzheng). As a result, some Mongol leaders, especially those of Outer Mongolia, decided to seek Mongolian independence. After the Xinhai Revolution , the Mongolian Revolution on 30 November 1911 in Outer Mongolia ended an over 200-year rule of the Qing dynasty. With

16744-403: The late Qing period, a revival between 1947 and 1965, a second decline between 1966 and 1976, a second revival between 1977 and 1992, and a third decline between 1995 and 2012. However, in spite of the decline of the Mongolian language in some of Inner Mongolia's urban areas and educational spheres, the ethnic identity of the urbanized Chinese-speaking Mongols is most likely going to survive due to

16905-903: The modern-day Mongols are referred to as Proto-Mongols . Broadly defined, the term includes the Mongols proper (also known as the Khalkha Mongols ), Buryats , Oirats , the Kalmyks and the Southern Mongols. The latter comprises the Abaga Mongols , Abaganar , Aohans , Arkhorchin, Asud , Baarins , Chahars , Darkhan ( Shar Darkhad ), Dörvön Khüükhed, Eastern Dorbets , Gorlos Mongols , Ikhmyangan, Jalaids, Jaruud, Kharchins , Khishigten , Khorchins , Khuuchid, Muumyangan, Naimans , Onnigud, Ordos , Sunud, Tumed , Urad and Üzemchins . The designation "Mongol" briefly appeared in 8th century records of Tang China to describe

17066-721: The next year while on campaign in Tiflis , causing his troops to retreat. Ariq Böke had earlier placed Chagatai's grandson Alghu as Chagatayid Khan , ruling Central Asia. He took control of Samarkand and Bukhara . When the Muslim elites and the Jochid retainers in Bukhara declared their loyalty to Berke, Alghu smashed the Golden Horde appanages in Khorazm. Alghu insisted Hulagu attack the Golden Horde; he accused Berke of purging his family in 1252. In Bukhara, he and Hulagu slaughtered all

17227-466: The orders of rebellious wali of Damascus – Sheykh Mahmud. In 1409 fall, Qara Yusuf entered Tabriz and sent a raiding party to Shirvan , especially Shaki , which was fruitless. Kara Koyunlu defeated Jalayirds in 1432, bringing an end to the dynasty. The Jalayirid administration was modeled after Ilkhanate protocols, with documents in Persian and Mongolian. Its diplomatic correspondence also resembled

17388-569: The past years, in the region, as well as his patronage to the arts. His chronicler, Abu Bakr al-Qutbi al Ahri, wrote of Shaykh Uways Jalayir’ deeds in the Tarikh-i Shaikh Uvais . Shaykh Uways Jalayir was succeeded by his son Shaikh Hasan Jalayir . He appointed his son Hassan as his successor in Baghdad. After his death the power of the dynasty began to disappear sharply. In 1376, Shaikh Hussain Jalayir took up residence in Tabriz. In

17549-419: The patriarch of Constantinople with their respective gifts and letters. Mengu-Timur was succeeded in 1281 by his brother Töde Möngke , who was a Muslim. However, Nogai Khan was now strong enough to establish himself as an independent ruler. The Golden Horde was thus ruled by two khans. Töde Möngke made peace with Kublai, returned his sons to him, and acknowledged his supremacy. Nogai and Köchü , Khan of

17710-468: The place and went further east instead. In 1248, Güyük demanded Batu come east to meet him, a move that some contemporaries regarded as a pretext for Batu's arrest. In compliance with the order, Batu approached, bringing a large army. When Güyük moved westwards, Tolui 's widow and a sister of Batu's stepmother Sorghaghtani warned Batu that the Jochids might be his target. Güyük died on the way, in what

17871-595: The plough in Middle Mongol language sources appear towards the end of the 14th c. In 1434, Eastern Mongol Taisun Khan 's (1433–1452) Oirat prime minister Togoon Taish reunited the Mongols after killing Adai Khan in Khorchin . Togoon died in 1439 and his son Esen Taish became ruler of Northern Yuan dynasty. Esen later unified the Mongol tribes. The Ming dynasty attempted to invade the Northern Yuan in

18032-595: The population of Mongolia is only hundred thousands". The proportion of victims in relation to the population of the country is much higher than the corresponding figures of the Great Purge in the Soviet Union. The Manchukuo (1932–1945), puppet state of the Empire of Japan (1868–1947) invaded Barga and some part of Inner Mongolia with Japanese help. The Mongolian army advanced to the Great Wall of China during

18193-781: The presence of urban ethnic communities. The multilingual situation in Inner Mongolia does not appear to obstruct efforts by ethnic Mongols to preserve their language. Although an unknown number of Mongols in China, such as the Tumets, may have completely or partially lost the ability to speak their language, they are still registered as ethnic Mongols and continue to identify themselves as ethnic Mongols. The children of inter-ethnic Mongol-Chinese marriages also claim to be and are registered as ethnic Mongols. Golden Horde The Golden Horde , self-designated as Ulug Ulus ( lit.   ' Great State ' in Kipchak Turkic ),

18354-526: The present-day Xianbei (鮮卑). Again in Inner Mongolia another closely connected core Mongolic Xianbei region was the Upper Xiajiadian culture (1000–600 BCE) where the Donghu confederation was centered. After the Donghu were defeated by Xiongnu king Modu Chanyu , the Xianbei and Wuhuan survived as the main remnants of the confederation. Tadun Khan of the Wuhuan (died 207 AD) was the ancestor of

18515-516: The principalities, whilst his cousins Möngke , Kadan , and Güyük moved southwards into Alania . Using the migration of the Cumans as their casus belli , the Mongols continued west, raiding Poland and Hungary, which culminated in Mongol victories at the battles of Legnica and Mohi . In 1241, however, Ögedei Khan died in the Mongolian homeland. Batu turned back from his siege of Vienna but did not return to Mongolia, rather opting to stay at

18676-503: The principality. The Livonian Knights stopped their advance to Novgorod and Pskov. Thanks to his friendship with Sartaq Khan , Batu's son, who was a Christian , Alexander was installed as the grand prince of Vladimir by Batu in 1252. After Batu died in 1256, his son Sartaq Khan was appointed by Möngke Khan . As soon as he returned from the court of the Great Khan in Mongolia, Sartaq died. The infant Ulaghchi succeeded him under

18837-464: The proto-Mongolic Kumo Xi . The Wuhuan are of the direct Donghu royal line and the New Book of Tang says that in 209 BCE, Modu Chanyu defeated the Wuhuan instead of using the word Donghu. The Xianbei, however, were of the lateral Donghu line and had a somewhat separate identity, although they shared the same language with the Wuhuan. In 49 CE the Xianbei ruler Bianhe (Bayan Khan?) raided and defeated

18998-463: The rebel emperor Ivailo in 1280, and forced George Terter I to seek refuge in the Byzantine Empire in 1292. In 1284, Saqchi came under the Mongol rule during the major invasion of Bulgaria, and coins were struck in the Khan's name. Smilets was installed by Nogai as emperor of Bulgaria. Accordingly, the reign of Smilets has been considered the height of Mongol overlordship in Bulgaria. When he

19159-480: The regency of Boragchin Khatun . The khatun summoned all the princes of Rus' to Sarai to renew their patents. In 1256, Andrey traveled to Sarai to ask for pardon. He was once again reappointed as the grand prince of Vladimir . Ulaghchi died soon after and Batu Khan's younger brother Berke , who had been converted to Islam , was enthroned as khan of the Golden Horde in 1258. In 1256, Daniel of Galicia openly defied

19320-509: The reign of Dayan Khan (1479–1543) as one of the six tumens of the Eastern Mongolic peoples. They quickly became the dominant Mongolic clan in Mongolia proper. He reunited the Mongols again. In 1550, Altan Khan led a Khalkha Mongol raid on Beijing. The Mongols voluntarily reunified during Eastern Mongolian Tümen Zasagt Khan rule (1558–1592) for the last time (the Mongol Empire united all Mongols before this). Eastern Mongolia

19481-460: The reputation of the Mongol hordes. The appellation Golden is said to have been inspired by the golden color of the tents the Mongols lived in during wartime, or an actual golden tent used by Batu Khan or by Özbeg Khan , or to have been bestowed by the Slavic tributaries to describe the great wealth of the khan. It was not until the 16th century that Russian chroniclers begin explicitly using

19642-546: The retainers of the Golden Horde and reduced their families into slavery, sparing only the Great Khan Kublai's men. After Berke gave his allegiance to Kublai, Alghu declared war on Berke, seizing Otrar and Khorazm . While the left bank of Khorazm would eventually be retaken, Berke had lost control over Transoxiana. In 1264 Berke marched past Tiflis to fight against Hulagu's successor Abaqa , but he died en route. Berke left no sons, so Batu's grandson Mengu-Timur

19803-728: The rise of the First Turkic Khaganate in 555, the Uyghur Khaganate in 745 and the Yenisei Kirghiz states in 840. The Tuoba were eventually absorbed into China. The Rouran fled west from the Göktürks and either disappeared into obscurity or, as some say, invaded Europe as the Avars under their Khan, Bayan I . Some Rouran under Tatar Khan migrated east, founding the Tatar confederation , who became part of

19964-410: The rule of Genghis Khan . There are several proposals for the ethnonym Mongol's etymology: In various times Mongolic peoples have been equated with the Scythians , the Magog , and the Tungusic peoples . Based on Chinese historical texts the ancestry of the Mongolic peoples can be traced back to the Donghu , a nomadic confederation occupying eastern Mongolia and Manchuria . The Donghu neighboured

20125-399: The rule of Galdan Boshugtu Khaan until 1696. The Mongol-Oirat's Code (a treaty of alliance) against foreign invasion between the Oirats and Khalkhas was signed in 1640, however, the Mongols could not unite against foreign invasions. Chakhundorj fought against Russian invasion of Outer Mongolia until 1688 and stopped Russian invasion of Khövsgöl Province . Zanabazar struggled to bring together

20286-431: The same time and settled in Russia; one of them was a prince who settled in Rostov and became known as Tsarevich Peter of the Horde (Peter Ordynsky). Even though Nogai invaded the Orthodox Christian Byzantine Empire in 1271, the Khan sent his envoys to maintain friendly relationship with Michael VIII Palaiologos, who sued for peace and married one of his daughters, Euphrosyne Palaiologina , to Nogai. Mengu-Timur ordered

20447-439: The sides of Lake Baikal were separated from Mongolia. In 1689 the Treaty of Nerchinsk established the northern border of Manchuria north of the present line. The Russians retained Trans-Baikalia between Lake Baikal and the Argun River north of Mongolia. The Treaty of Kyakhta (1727) , along with the Treaty of Nerchinsk, regulated the relations between Russian and Qing empires until the mid-nineteenth century, and established

20608-553: The strands lower on both sides they plait to hang down on the shoulders. With the breakup of the empire, the dispersed Mongolic peoples quickly adopted the mostly Turkic cultures surrounding them and were assimilated, forming parts of Afghanistan's Hazaras , Azerbaijanis , Uzbeks , Karakalpaks , Tatars , Bashkirs , Turkmens , Uyghurs , Nogays , Kyrgyzs , Kazakhs , Caucasus peoples , Iranian peoples and Moghuls ; linguistic and cultural Persianization also began to be prominent in these territories. Some Mongols assimilated into

20769-452: The support of Mongol troops from Nogai and retook his holdings. In 1285, Andrey again led a Mongol army under a Borjigin prince to Vladimir, but Dmitry expelled them. In 1283, Mengu-Timur converted to Islam and abandoned state affairs. Rumors spread that the khan was mentally ill and only cared for clerics and sheikhs. In 1285, Talabuga and Nogai invaded Hungary . While Nogai was successful in subduing Slovakia , Talabuga stalled north of

20930-413: The term White Horde to refer to its right wing, which was situated in Batu's home base in Sarai and controlled the ulus. The designations Golden Horde, Blue Horde, and White Horde have not been encountered in the sources of the Mongol period. 2nd invasion (1259–60) 3rd invasion (1287–88) At his death in 1227, Genghis Khan divided the Mongol Empire amongst his four sons as appanages , but

21091-404: The term to refer to this particular successor khanate of the Mongol Empire. The first known use of the term, in 1565, in a Russian chronicle called History of Kazan , applied it to the Ulus of Batu, centered on Sarai . In contemporary Persian, Armenian and Muslim writings, and in the records of the 13th and early 14th centuries such as the Yuanshi and the Jami' al-tawarikh , the khanate

21252-446: The time. He then proceeded to Tabriz where he put Muhammad on the throne and married the granddaughter of Chupan and the wife of Abu Sa'id, Dilshad Khatun . Shaykh Ḥasan was the ‘biklārī bik [beglerbeg], or amīr al-umarā’’. For a short time in 1337–1338, Hasan Buzurg-un's authority was recognized in all parts of the Ilkhanate Empire except Khorasan, but after being expelled by Ḥasan-e Kucak and his brother Malek Ašraf in 1338–1339, he

21413-526: The title of gūrgān (greregen) or royal son-in-law. Hussein first served Oljaitu and then Abu Sa'id, and took part in the march on Gilan in 1317. He was later appointed ruler of Arran in 1313 and died in Khorasan in 1322. After his death, his son Shaykh Hasan ("Hasan Buzurg", "Hasan The Great") became the head of the family. He was both the cousin of Abu Sa'id and the nephew of Amir Choban. After defeating his rivals, Hasan Buzurg strengthened his ties with Muhammad Khan (Pir Hussein), who ruled Anatolia at

21574-435: The total population; common citizens, monks, Pan-Mongolists, nationalists, patriots, hundreds of military officers, nobles, intellectuals and elite people) were shot dead under Soviet orders. Some authors also offer much higher estimates, up to 100,000 victims. Around the late 1930s the Mongolian People's Republic had an overall population of about 700,000 to 900,000 people. By 1939, Soviet said "We repressed too many people,

21735-434: The town of Kolomna from Ryazan , which turned to the local basqaq for protection. However, this did not deter Daniel, who defeated the Ryazan and Mongol troops in 1301, and then seized Mozhaysk in 1303 and then Pereslavl-Zalessky, which threw off the already weak balance of interprincely relations. Daniel may have been motivated to round out his appanage, which in terms of the modern administrative divisions of Russia,

21896-405: The unity of the realm. Batu, Möngke, and other princely lines shared rule over the area from Afghanistan to Turkey . Batu allowed Möngke's census-takers to operate freely in his realm. Local censuses took place in the 1240s, including the areas of Russia and Turkey. In 1251–1259, Möngke conducted the first empire-wide census of the Mongol Empire; while North China was completed in 1252, Novgorod in

22057-476: The war. Few Khalkhas fled to the Buryat region and Russia threatened to exterminate them if they did not submit, but many of them submitted to Galdan Boshugtu. In 1683 Galdan 's armies reached Tashkent and the Syr Darya and crushed two armies of the Kazakhs . After that Galdan subjugated the Black Khirgizs and ravaged the Fergana Valley . From 1685 Galdan's forces aggressively pushed the Kazakhs. While his general Rabtan took Taraz , and his main force forced

22218-467: The young prince Nogai to invade the Ilkhanate but Hulagu forced him back in 1262. The Ilkhanid army then crossed the Terek River , capturing an empty Jochid encampment, only to be routed in a surprise attack by Nogai's forces. Many of them were drowned as the ice broke on the frozen Terek River. The outbreak of conflict was made more annoying to Berke by the rebellion of Suzdal at the same time, killing Mongol darughachis and tax-collectors. Berke planned

22379-420: Was "arguably the eighteenth century genocide par excellence." The Dzungar population reached 600,000 in 1755. About 200,000–250,000 Oirats migrated from western Mongolia to Volga River in 1607 and established the Kalmyk Khanate .The Torghuts were led by their Tayishi, Kho Orluk . Russia was concerned about their attack but the Kalmyks became a Russian ally and a treaty to protect the southern Russian border

22540-400: Was Galdan's ally. Tsetsen Khan (Eastern Khalkha leader) did not engage in this conflict. While Galdan was fighting in Eastern Mongolia, his nephew Tseveenravdan seized the Dzungarian throne in 1689 and this event made Galdan impossible to fight against the Qing Empire. The Russian and Qing Empires supported his action because this coup weakened Western Mongolian strength. Galdan Boshugtu's army

22701-401: Was a devoted Muslim who had had a close relationship with the Abbasid Caliph Al-Musta'sim , who had been killed by Hulagu in 1258. The Jochids believed that Hulagu's state eliminated their presence in the Transcaucasus . Those events increased the anger of Berke and the war between the Golden Horde and the Ilkhanate soon broke out in 1262. The increasing tension between Berke and Hulagu

22862-584: Was a part of a Pan-Mongolian plan and few Oirats and Inner Mongols ( Huuchids , Bargas, Tümeds , about 800 Uzemchins ) arrived . Inner Mongolian leaders carried out active policy to merge Inner Mongolia with Mongolia since 1911. They founded the Inner Mongolian Army in 1929 but the Inner Mongolian Army disbanded after ending World War II. The Japanese Empire supported Pan-Mongolism since the 1910s but there have never been active relations between Mongolia and Imperial Japan due to Russian resistance. The nominally independent Inner Mongolian Mengjiang state (1936–1945)

23023-454: Was a warning to the Golden Horde contingents in Hulagu's army to flee. One contingent reached the Kipchak Steppe, another traversed Khorasan , and a third body took refuge in Mamluk ruled Syria where they were well received by Sultan Baybars (1260–1277). Hulagu harshly punished the rest of the Golden Horde army in Iran. Berke sought a joint attack with Baybars and forged an alliance with the Mamluks against Hulagu. The Golden Horde dispatched

23184-423: Was also detained there. With the assistance of the Kingdom of Bulgaria (Berke's vassal), Nogai invaded the Empire in 1265. By the next year, the Mongol-Bulgarian army was within reach of Constantinople . Nogai forced Michael VIII Palaiologos to release Kaykaus and pay tribute to the Horde. Berke gave Kaykaus Crimea as an appanage and had him marry a Mongol woman. Hulagu died in February 1265 and Berke followed

23345-583: Was appointed joint guardian of the ritual torch along with Chu viscount Xiong Yi . These early Xianbei came from the nearby Zhukaigou culture (2200–1500 BCE) in the Ordos Desert , where maternal DNA corresponds to the Mongol Daur people and the Tungusic Evenks . The Zhukaigou Xianbei (part of the Ordos culture of Inner Mongolia and northern Shaanxi ) had trade relations with the Shang. Liu Song dynasty commentator Pei Yin (裴駰), in his Jixie (集解), quoted Eastern Han dynasty scholar Fu Qian (服虔)'s assertion that Shanrong (山戎) and Beidi (北狄) are ancestors of

23506-451: Was called the Ulus of Jochi ('realm of Jochi' in Mongolian ), Dasht-i-Qipchaq ( Persian : دشت قپچاق , 'Qipchaq Steppe') or Khanate of the Qipchaq and Comania or Cumania . The eastern or left wing (or "left hand" in official Mongolian-sponsored Persian sources) was referred to as the Blue Horde in Russian chronicles and as the White Horde in Timurid sources (e.g. Zafar-Nameh). Western scholars have tended to follow

23667-406: Was concerned by Toqta's actions; he found it necessary to remind Toqta that he still held supreme power in the affairs of the Golden Horde and consequently sent his senior wife to Toqta in 1293, where she was received with due honor. In the same year, Nogai sent an army to Serbia and forced the king to acknowledge himself as a vassal. Nogai's daughter married a son of Kublai's niece, Kelmish, who

23828-409: Was defeated by the outnumbering Qing army in 1696 and he died in 1697. The Mongols who fled to the Buryat region and Inner Mongolia returned after the war. Some Khalkhas mixed with the Buryats. The Buryats fought against Russian invasion since the 1620s and thousands of Buryats were massacred. The Buryat region was formally annexed to Russia by treaties in 1689 and 1727, when the territories on both

23989-433: Was divided into three parts in the 17th century: Outer Mongolia (Khalkha), Inner Mongolia (Inner Mongols) and the Buryat region in southern Siberia . The last Mongol khagan was Ligdan in the early 17th century. He got into conflicts with the Manchus over the looting of Chinese cities, and managed to alienate most Mongol tribes. In 1618, Ligdan signed a treaty with the Ming dynasty to protect their northern border from

24150-513: Was established with support of Japan in 1936; also, some Buryat and Inner Mongol nobles founded a Pan-Mongolist government with the support of Japan in 1919. The Inner Mongols established the short-lived Republic of Inner Mongolia in 1945. Another part of Choibalsan's plan was to merge Inner Mongolia and Dzungaria with Mongolia. By 1945, Chinese communist leader Mao Zedong requested the Soviets to stop Pan-Mongolism because China lost its control over Inner Mongolia and without Inner Mongolian support

24311-413: Was expelled by a local boyars c.  1295 , the Mongols launched another invasion to protect their protege. Nogai compelled Serbian king Stefan Milutin to accept Mongol supremacy and received his son, Stefan Dečanski , as hostage in 1287. Under his rule, the Vlachs , Slavs, Alans , and Turco-Mongols lived in modern-day Moldavia . At the same time, the influence of Nogai greatly increased in

24472-410: Was forced to evacuate Azerbaijan and his power only held in Iraq. Hasan Buzurg died in July 1356 and was buried in Najaf . He was succeeded by his son, Shaikh Uways Jalayir . According to historian Patrick Wing, while the Jalayirid sultans sought to preserve the social and political order of the Ilkhanate, they claimed to be the legitimate heirs of the rule of this order. At the center of the claims of

24633-423: Was given his own enormous ulus east of the Ural Mountains along the Ob and Irtysh Rivers . While the Mongolian language was undoubtedly in general use at the court of Batu, few Mongol texts written in the territory of the Golden Horde have survived, perhaps because of the prevalent general illiteracy. According to Grigor'ev, yarliq , or decrees of the Khans, were written in Mongol, then translated into

24794-413: Was nominated by Kublai and succeeded his uncle Berke. However, Mengu-Timur secretly supported the Ögedeid prince Kaidu against Kublai and the Ilkhanate. After the defeat of Ghiyas-ud-din Baraq , a peace treaty was concluded in 1267 granting one-third of Transoxiana to Kaidu and Mengu-Timur. In 1268, when a group of princes operating in Central Asia on Kublai's behalf mutinied and arrested two sons of

24955-402: Was originally a Mongol and later Turkicized khanate established in the 13th century and originating as the northwestern sector of the Mongol Empire . With the division of the Mongol Empire after 1259, it became a functionally separate khanate. It is also known as the Kipchak Khanate or the Ulus of Jochi , and replaced the earlier, less organized Cuman–Kipchak confederation . After

25116-447: Was probably poisoned by Töregene Khatun , who probably did it to spite Batu and even her own son Güyük, because he did not approve of her regency. Güyük appointed Andrey as the grand prince of Vladimir and Alexander was given the princely title of Kiev . However, when they returned, Andrey went to Vladimir while Alexander went to Novgorod instead. A bishop by the name of Cyril went to Kiev and found it so devastated that he abandoned

25277-456: Was signed between the Kalmyk Khanate and Russia. In 1724 the Kalmyks came under control of Russia. By the early 18th century, there were approximately 300,000–350,000 Kalmyks and 15,000,000 Russians. The Tsardom of Russia gradually chipped away at the autonomy of the Kalmyk Khanate. These policies, for instance, encouraged the establishment of Russian and German settlements on pastures the Kalmyks used to roam and feed their livestock. In addition,

25438-560: Was to find allies to defeat the Soviet Union . The Statement of Reunification of Mongolia was adopted by Mongolian revolutionaries in 1921. The Soviet, however, considered Mongolia to be Chinese territory in 1924 during a secret meeting with the Republic of China. However, the Soviets officially recognized Mongolian independence in 1945 but carried out various policies (political, economic and cultural) against Mongolia until its fall in 1991 to prevent Pan-Mongolism and other irredentist movements . On 10 April 1932, Mongolians revolted against

25599-452: Was unable to keep the succession within her branch of the family. With the assistance of Batu, Möngke succeeded as Great Khan in 1251. Utilizing the discovery of a plot designed to remove him, Möngke as the new Great Khan began a purge of his opponents. Estimates of the deaths of aristocrats, officials, and Mongol commanders range from 77 to 300. Batu became the most influential person in the Mongol Empire as his friendship with Möngke ensured

25760-529: Was visibly influenced by the Mongols, and equipped his army in the Mongol fashion, his horsemen with Mongol-style cuirasses, and their mounts armoured with shoulder, chest, and head pieces. Michael of Chernigov , who had killed a Mongol envoy in 1240, refused to show obeisance and was executed in 1246. When Güyük called Batu to pay him homage several times, Batu sent Yaroslav II , Andrey II of Vladimir and Alexander Nevsky to Karakorum in Mongolia in 1247. Yaroslav II never returned and died in Mongolia. He

25921-553: Was wife of a Qongirat general of the Golden Horde. Nogai was angry with Kelmish's family because her Buddhist son despised his Muslim daughter. For this reason, he demanded Toqta send Kelmish's husband to him. Nogai's independent actions relating to Russian affairs and foreign merchants had already irritated Toqta. Toqta thus refused and declared war on Nogai. Toqta was defeated in their first battle. Nogai's army turned their attention to Caffa and Soldaia , looting both cities. Within two years, Toqta returned and killed Nogai in 1299 at

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