The Kumo Xi ( traditional Chinese : 庫 莫 奚 ; simplified Chinese : 库 莫 奚 ; pinyin : Kùmò Xī ), also known as the Tatabi , were ancient steppe people located in current Northeast China from 207 CE to 907 CE. After the death of their ancestor Tadun in 207, they were no longer called Wuhuan but joined the Khitan Xianbei in submitting to the Yuwen Xianbei . Their history is widely linked to the more famous Khitan .
175-690: During their history, the Kumo Xi engaged in conflict with numerous Chinese dynasties and with the Khitan tribes, eventually suffering a series of disastrous defeats to Chinese armies and coming under the domination of the Khitans. In 907, the Kumo Xi were completely assimilated into the Khitan-led Liao dynasty of China. Omeljan Pritsak reconstructs the ethnonym underlying Middle Chinese * kʰuo-mɑk̚-ɦei as qu(o)mâġ-ġay . The first element qu(o)mâġ
350-586: A Christian couple in Luoyang of a Nestorian Christian Sogdian woman, Lady An (安氏) who died in 821 and her Nestorian Christian Han Chinese husband, Hua Xian (花献) who died in 827. These Han Chinese Christian men may have married Sogdian Christian women because of a lack of Han Chinese women belonging to the Christian religion, limiting their choice of spouses among the same ethnicity. Another epitaph in Luoyang of
525-688: A Nestorian Christian Sogdian woman also surnamed An was discovered and she was put in her tomb by her military officer son on 22 January 815. This Sogdian woman's husband was surnamed He (和) and he was a Han Chinese man and the family was indicated to be multiethnic on the epitaph pillar. In Luoyang, the mixed raced sons of Nestorian Christian Sogdian women and Han Chinese men had many career paths available for them. Neither their mixed ethnicity nor their faith were barriers and they were able to become civil officials, military officers, and to openly celebrate their Christian religion and support Christian monasteries. Vajrayana Buddhist master Amoghavajra assisted
700-477: A Northern Administration overseeing steppe and tribal affairs and a Southern Establishment overseeing the settled and Han population. The two institutions were headed by chancellors, the northern one appointed by the Xiao consort clan, and the southern one appointed by the ruling Yelü clan. In 917, Abaoji received naphtha as a gift from the state of Wuyue : The ruler of Wu State (Li Bian) sent to Abaoji, ruler of
875-552: A Xi instrument. Liao dynasty The Liao dynasty ( / l j aʊ / ; Khitan : Mos Jælud ; traditional Chinese : 遼朝 ; simplified Chinese : 辽朝 ; pinyin : Liáo cháo ), also known as the Khitan State ( Mos diau-d kitai huldʒi gur ), officially the Great Liao ( Chinese : 大遼 ; pinyin : Dà Liáo ), was an imperial dynasty of China that existed between 916 and 1125, ruled by
1050-584: A crucial pitched battle on the Gaoliang River . Taizong was wounded and fled south in a donkey cart. Capitalizing on the Liao victory, Jingzong launched a punitive expedition in 980, and defeated a Song army. In another campaign in 982, the Liao army was defeated and Jingzong was forced to retreat. An Shi Rebellion The An Lushan rebellion was a civil war in China that lasted from 755 to 763, at
1225-466: A mass migration of Han Chinese from northern China to southern China called 衣冠南渡(yì guān nán dù). These mass migrations led to southern China's population growth, economic, agricultural and cultural development as it stayed peaceful unlike the north. A massacre of foreign Arab and Persian Muslim merchants by former Yan rebel general Tian Shengong happened during the An Lushan rebellion in
1400-402: A move towards Han-style emperorship. Abaoji's rule went unchallenged until 910, when he disregarded Khitan calls for another member of the family to assume the position of Khagan. In 912 and 913, members of Abaoji's family attempted armed insurrections. After the first insurrection was discovered and defeated, Abaoji pardoned the conspirators. After the second, only his brothers were pardoned, with
1575-504: A new Later Han (Five Dynasties) dynasty. The occupation of Kaifeng lasted three months before Taizong withdrew. Shortly before reaching Liao territory, Taizong suddenly fell ill and died near modern-day Shijiazhuang at the age of 45 on 18 May 947. Yelü Ruan, posthumously Emperor Shizong of Liao , was the son of Yelü Bei , and not the designated heir of Emperor Taizong of Liao , who was Yelü Lihu , Taizong's younger brother. However Taizong had raised Ruan after Bei's departure in 930 and
1750-444: A plot with one of his uncles to defect to Later Zhou . He was executed when the plot was discovered. In 953, a son of Yelü Lihu named Wan also conspired against the emperor. Wan was spared but his co-conspirators were executed. In 959, Dilie, one of Louguo's co-conspirators, plotted rebellion. The next year, Wan's older brother, Xiyin, was arrested for plotting rebellion. Lihu was implicated and died in prison. During Muzong's reign,
1925-483: A powerful governor, Shi Jingtang, to be transferred for closer supervision by the court, leading to his rebellion. Hard pressed by Li Congke, Shi Jingtang sought aid from the Khitans. Taizong led a 50,000 strong cavalry force to his aid and defeated the Later Tang army near Taiyuan . On 28 November 936, Shi Jingtang was invested as emperor of Later Jin by the Khitans. In 938, the puppet emperor of Later Jin transferred
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#17327651897632100-591: A quarter of the empire's population, were no longer subject to the imperial revenue system. For these reasons, census numbers for the post-rebellion Tang are considered unreliable. The An Lushan rebellion was one of several wars in northern China along with the Uprising of the Five Barbarians , Huang Chao Rebellion, the wars of the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms and Jin–Song Wars which caused
2275-697: A regional warlord, according to the book, "History of An Lushan" (安祿山史記). Another source says the slaughter of the Hu barbarians serving Ashina Chengqing was done by Gao Juren in Fanyang in order to deprive him of his support base, since the Tiele, Tongluo, Sogdians and Turks were all Hu and supported the Turk Ashina Chengqing against the Mohe, Xi, Khitan and Goguryeo origin soldiers led by Gao Juren. Gao Juren
2450-520: A result of Amoghavajrya's assistance in crushing An Lushan, Estoteric Buddhism became the official state Buddhist sect supported by the Tang dynasty, "Imperial Buddhism" with state funding and backing for writing scriptures, and constructing monasteries and temples. The disciples of Amoghavajra did ceremonies for the state and emperor. Tang dynasty Emperor Suzong was crowned as cakravartin by Amoghavajra after victory against An Lushan in 759 and he had invoked
2625-533: A threat, ordered in 929 that the capital of Dongdan and all its inhabitants be moved to the Eastern Capital ( Dongjing ). Dongdan lost its semi-autonomous status. In 930, Bei fled by sea to the Later Tang court and was received by Li Siyuan as an honored guest. In 937, he was killed by Shi Jingtang , who overthrew Later Tang and ruled Later Jin (Five Dynasties) as a puppet of the Khitans. In 929,
2800-570: Is from * quo "yellowish" plus denominal suffix * -mAk , cognate with Mongolian qumaġ "fine sands" and with Turkic qumaq and qum . As for * ɦei , Christopher Atwood (2010) proposed that it reflects an i -suffixed form of OC 胡 *gâ > hú . Further, gâ is etymologically uncertain: Peter Benjamin Golden (2003) proposes several Mongolic etymologies: ɣai "trouble, misfortune, misery", χai "interjection of grief", χai "to seek", χai "to hew", albeit none compelling. Pritsak proposes that
2975-537: Is not a Chinese teaching." Then Prince Bei spoke: "Confucius is the great sage, revered for myriad generations. He should rank first." Abaoji was delighted. Thereupon he ordered that a Confucian temple be constructed and decreed that the heir himself should conduct the spring and autumn ritual offerings. Bei was still ruler of the Dongdan Kingdom in former Balhae , given to him by his father after participating in its conquest. Taizong, who still regarded him as
3150-430: Is shown, for example, by the luxurious house Emperor Xuanzong built for him in 751, in the capital Chang'an . The house was furnished with luxuries such as gold and silver objects and a pair of ten-foot-long (3.0 m) by six-foot-wide (1.8 m) couches appliqued with rare and expensive sandalwood. He was appointed by Emperor Xuanzong (following the suggestion of Xuanzong's favorite concubine Yang Guifei and with
3325-788: Is that true?" During his reign, Abaoji attacked numerous neighboring peoples and expanded Liao territory exponentially. Against the steppe nomads, he led campaigns in 908 against the Shiwei , in 910 the Kumo Xi, in 912 the Zubu , in 915 the Khongirad , and again in 919 to subdue the Khongirad. From 922 to 923, he raided the Jin and its successor, Later Tang . A year later he attacked the Tatars . His campaigns continued right up until his death in 926 with
3500-654: The Guanzhong region, which had been a political and economic heartland of China at least since the Han dynasty , and a shift of the economic center of China towards the Jiangnan region. Beginning in 742, Eurasia entered a 13-year period of major political turmoil, with the regional empires generally suffering "a major rebellion, revolution, or dynastic change." In this year the Second Turkic Khaganate of
3675-618: The Kazakhs of Kazakhstan and areas adjoining it, and by some Slavic peoples, such as the Russians and Bulgarians . There is no consensus among historians regarding the etymology of "Liao". Some believe that "Liao" was derived from the word for "iron" in the Khitan language , while others believe that the name came from the Liao River catchment which was the traditional homeland of
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#17327651897633850-514: The Khitan large script . While superficially similar to Chinese writing, it arbitrarily adds and reduces strokes to Chinese characters to compose words, making it completely unrecognizable to Han readers. In 925, the arrival of a Uyghur delegation led Abaoji to order his younger brother, Yelü Diela , to study the Old Uyghur language. Uyghur influence led to the development of a Khitan small script with more phonetic elements. The Khitan script
4025-513: The Khitan people . The earliest reference to a Khitan state is found in the Book of Wei , a history of the Northern Wei dynasty (386–534) that was completed in 554. Several books written after 554 mention the Khitans being active during the late third and early fourth centuries. The Book of Jin (648), a history of the Jin dynasty (266–420) , refers to the Khitans in the section covering
4200-469: The Khongirad rebelled. In the same year, Taizong sent his younger brother, Yelü Lihu , to attack the Later Tang at Datong . In 933, Taizong led a campaign against some Tangut tribes. The most important expansion of Khitan territory during this period, however, came from political instability in the south. In 933, the Later Tang emperor died. His son, Li Conghou , lasted only five months before his adoptive brother, Li Congke , killed him. Li Congke ordered
4375-441: The Second Turkic Khaganate offered to aid the Tang in return for subdued Türkic households under Tang control. The Türks attacked the Khitans from the north while the Tang invaded from the south. The Khitans suffered a heavy defeat before Sun Wanrong rescued the situation and counterattacked, seizing Yingzhou and Youzhou . A 170,000 strong Tang army was sent against the Khitans and defeated. Another 200,000 soldiers were sent against
4550-453: The Siege of Suiyang (January–October 757), almost two years after their initial capture of Luoyang. Originally, An Lushan's forces were blocked from the main imperial (or "Western") capital at Chang'an (modern Xi'an ), by loyal troops placed in nearly impregnable defensive positions in the intervening high mountain passes of Tongguan . Unfortunately for Chang'an, the two generals in charge of
4725-739: The Sixteen Prefectures (including present-day Beijing and part of Hebei) by fueling a proxy war that led to the collapse of the Later Tang (923–936). In 1004, the Liao launched an expedition against the Northern Song dynasty . After heavy fighting and large casualties between the two empires, both sides worked out the Chanyuan Treaty . Through the treaty, the Liao forced the Northern Song to recognize them as peers and heralded an era of peace and stability between
4900-504: The Sixteen Prefectures over to the Khitans, granting them access to the strategic fortifications of northern China and the Central Plains . A new "Southern Capital" ( Nanjing ) was constructed at modern Beijing . Shi Jingtang behaved as a vassal and even allowed Khitan envoys to cross his territory to contact Southern Tang , his geopolitical rival. Shi Jingtang died in 942. His nephew and successor, Shi Chonggui , came under
5075-650: The Tang dynasty state against the An Lushan rebellion. He carried out Vajrayana rituals which were ostensibly effective in supernaturally attacking and destroying An Lushan's army including the death of one of An Lushan's generals, Zhou Zhiguang. Amoghavajra used his rituals against An Lushan while staying in Chang'an when it was occupied in 756 while the Tang dynasty crown prince and Xuanzong emperor had retreated to Sichuan. Amoghavajra's rituals were explicitly intended to introduce death, disaster and disease against An Lushan. As
5250-582: The Tarim Basin area was completely lost. Moreover, during the rebellion, the Tang general Gao Juren massacred all the Sogdians in Fanyang, who were identified through their noses and faces. The political decline was paralleled by economic decline, including large Tang governmental debt to Uighur money lenders. The old taxation system of Zu Yong Diao no longer functioned after the rebellion. In addition to being politically and economically detrimental to
5425-659: The Tibetan Empire was proceeding more successfully, with the campaign to capture the Tibetans' Central Asian territories appearing nearly successful. With the assassination of the Tibetan emperor Me Agtsom in 755 in the midst of a major rebellion within the Tibetan polity, final Tang victory over the Tibetan Empire seemed all but assured. However, back in the increasingly financially challenged Chinese heartland,
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5600-532: The Umayyad dynasty , and eventually the absence of strong troops guarding the palace coupled with a string of natural disasters. An Lushan was very influential in the Tang court, his close relationship with Emperor Xuanzong led to him being adopted by the imperial concubine Yang Guifei. The positions of power of Yang clan members (the family of the preceding Sui dynasty into which the Tang emperor had married) were important in this situation, especially complicated by
5775-561: The Xar Moron River , south of the Supreme Capital, for several days. The deadlock was resolved by a royal cousin named Yelü Wuzhi and ultimately Lihu, who the Khitan nobility viewed as cruel and spoiled, was unable to gain enough support to further challenge Shizong. After a peace was brokered, Ruan formally assumed the role of emperor and the title of emperor. Shizong promptly exiled both Empress Shulü Ping and Yelü Lihu from
5950-506: The Yangzhou massacre (760) . Since Tian Shengong was defecting to the Tang dynasty and wanted them to publicly recognize and acknowledge him as a regional warlord without him giving up territory, and the Tang court portrayed the war as between rebel Hu barbarians of the Yan against Han Chinese of the Tang dynasty, Tian Shengong slaughtered foreigners as a blood sacrifice to prove he was loyal to
6125-761: The Yelü clan of the Khitan people . Founded around the time of the collapse of the Tang dynasty , at its greatest extent it ruled over Northeast China , the Mongolian Plateau , the northern part of the Korean Peninsula , southern portions of the Russian Far East , and the northern tip of the North China Plain . The dynasty rose from the consolidation of power among the Khitans in the 8th century and their expansionist campaigns in
6300-508: The proto-Mongolic Donghu confederation in the 4th century BC. The Weishu (Description of the Khitan, Vol. 1000, 2221) records that the Kumo Xi and Khitans (descendants of the Xianbei) spoke the same language. The Book of Wei (Description of the Khitan, Vol. 100, 2223) records : 契丹國, 在庫莫奚東, 異種同類, 俱竄於松漠之間. 登國中, 國軍大破之, 遂逃迸, 與庫莫奚分背. The Khitan state was situated east of the Kumo Xi. They were different ethnic groups but belonged to
6475-734: The qu(o)mâġ-ġay comprised two Proto-Mongolic groups: the Qu(o)mâġ , whom he linked to the Kimek and the Qun/ Cumans (whose ethnonym possibly meant "yellow") and the Qay proper. However, Golden thinks that qu(o)mâġ-ġay simply means "desert Qay" or "sand Qay", referring to their earlier habitat. As for the exonym Tatabï given to Kumo Xi by Göktürks , Yury Zuev (2002) compares Tatabï to Avestan tata apo and proposes an etymology from Iranic * tata-api "falling waters", after having noted that
6650-460: The "Eastern Capital" city of Luoyang on 18 January 756, defeating the poorly supplied General Feng Changqing . There, on 5 February, ^ An Lushan declared himself Emperor of the new Great Yan dynasty (大燕皇帝). His next steps would be to capture the Tang western capital of Chang'an and then to attempt to continue into southern China to complete his conquest. However, the Battle of Yongqiu , in
6825-644: The 730s, the Yila became a tribe independent of the Yaonian. Under the influence of Han culture, Yundeshi (820s–860s?), Abaoji's grandfather, became the first Khitan to practice and teach settled agriculture. Shulan, Abaoji's uncle, was the first Khitan to practice masonry and build walled cities. To their south, the Han people of Youzhou Jiedushi fled the rule of Liu Rengong , most of them ending up in Yila territory. Han farmers were resettled by Abaoji and Han craftsman taught
7000-540: The 922–923 and 924–925 campaigns. Toward the end of 927, Bei approached his mother and formally withdrew his claim. Deguang succeeded the throne. "The ruler who has received the Mandate of Heaven should be attentive to Heaven and respectful to the great spirits. To those of greatest merit I should offer my veneration. Which among them ranks first?" All present replied that it should be the Buddha. Abaoji responded: "Buddhism
7175-517: The Acala vidyaraja against An Lushan. The Tang dynasty crown prince Li Heng (later Suzong) also received important strategic military information from Chang'an when it was occupied by An Lushan though secret message sent by Amoghavajra. In the beginning of 757 and continuing through October of that year, a protracted stalemate between the Yan and Tang forces occurred in Suiyang . The siege was noted for
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7350-592: The Dahe Confederation is listed as Daji, Hebian, Duhuo, Fenwen, Tubian, Ruixi, Zhuijin, and Fu. The Hedahe were the leading tribe of the Confederation, from which its name is taken from. Other tribes mentioned are: Danjieli, Yishihuo, Shihuo, Nawei, Pinmo, Nahuiji, Jijie, and Xiwa. The component tribes were largely autonomous and the Dahe were only responsible for foreign affairs. After the Dahe united
7525-577: The Dahe Confederation, which was why Abaoji had them swear allegiance to Yelü Bei when he announced him as heir apparent. Bei's mother, Shulü Ping, who was exceptionally powerful in her own right, commanding thousands of horsemen and leading troops on campaign, took control of all military and civil affairs as regent, after having cut off her right hand to be buried with her husband. Shulü Ping herself disproved of her first son as heir due to his Chinese leanings and used all her influence to have Bei set aside for his younger brother, Deguang, who had participated in
7700-917: The Daji, Tanhan for the Hebian, Wufeng for the Duhuo, Yuling for the Fenwen, Rilian for the Tubian, Tuhe for the Ruixi, Wandan for the Zhuijin, Pili for the Fu. The chieftains of the tribes were appointed as prefects. The Tang emperor bestowed the Chinese surname Li on the Dahe and appointed their leader to a governorship that was "an office specifically created for the indirect management of the Khitan tribes". Some Khitan tribes such as
7875-520: The Danlijie, Yishihuo, Shihuo, Nawei, Pinmo, Nahuiji, Jijie, Xiwa, Yaonian, and Yila. Other tribes are also mentioned: the Yishi, Pin, Chute, Wukui, Niela, Tulübu, and Tuju. The Tang governor An Lushan launched two invasions into Khitan territory in 751 and 755. After being soundly defeated by the Khitans during the first invasion, An Lushan was successful in the second. An then led a rebellion against
8050-717: The East Christians like the Bactrian Priest Yisi of Balkh helped the Tang dynasty general Guo Ziyi militarily crush the An Lushan rebellion, with Yisi personally acting as a military commander and Yisi and the Nestorian Church of the East were rewarded by the Tang dynasty with titles and positions as described in the Nestorian Stele . Epitaphs were found dating from the Tang dynasty of
8225-518: The Han Chinese Tang dynasty state. He killed other foreign Hu barbarian ethnicities as well whose ethnic groups were not specified, not only Arabs and Persians, since it was directed against all foreigners. The former Yan rebel general Gao Juren, of Goguryeo descent, ordered a mass slaughter of West Asian (Central Asian) Sogdians in Fanyang, also known as Jicheng (Beijing) , in Youzhou. They were identified through their big noses and lances were used to impale their children when he rebelled against
8400-506: The Jade Seal of State Transmission (chuanguo yuxi). Ideologically, the Liao therefore regarded itself as the legitimate successor of the Later Jin, and the ruler of China. It hence chose the Water element, the element that follows the Metal element, the dynastic element of the Later Jin, according to the sequence of creation of the Five Elements (wuxing). It also chose the Water element's corresponding color black as its dynastic color. His victory did not last. Having brought inadequate supplies,
8575-401: The Jin forces, and in 946, the Jin commander in chief, Du Chongwei, surrendered. In early 947, Taizong entered Kaifeng unopposed. The Jin emperor and his family were exiled to the Supreme Capital. The Jin army was disarmed and disbanded, their horses confiscated. With this great victory, Taizong formally adopted a dynastic name, the "Great Liao". With the conquest of Later Jin, the Liao acquired
8750-422: The Khitans but failed to stop their advance. However the Khitans failed to account for the Türks sacking their capital, Xincheng, and the defection of the Kumo Xi from their ranks. Sun Wanrong was killed by his servant. Although the rebellion was defeated, it took over fifteen years from 700 to 714 before the Tang were able to reassert control over the Khitans. In 720 the military chief ( Yaguan ) Ketuyu attacked
8925-407: The Khitans how to spin and weave. The adoption of agrarian culture, Han refugees, and more advanced labor organization made the Yila tribe far richer than other Khitans. Abaoji placed Han intellectuals such as Kang Moji, Han Yanhui, and Han Zhigu into his administration. Kang Moji was responsible for legal matters between Khitans and Han. Later he supervised the building of the capital city. Han Yanhui
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#17327651897639100-447: The Khitans wantonly looted the city and plundered the countryside provisions, and imposed harsh levies on the local populace, causing them to become resentful and attack them. Rather than stay and govern the conquered city, the Khitans decided to ship everything of value, from Jin officials and palace women to maps and music instruments, back to the Supreme Capital. Taizong also faced another threat from Taiyuan, where Liu Zhiyuan announced
9275-403: The Khitans, the system of rotating leadership was replaced by "Shixuan", electing a leader based on their talent and ability from the Dahe lineage. The other clans had the right to vote but not to be elected. Brothers, cousins, and nephews often succeeded rather than the son of the previous leader. No internal conflicts among the Khitan tribes are recorded after the unification of the Dahe. In
9450-467: The King of Qi before submitting to Tang rule. Wang Wujun also ruled Chengde Circuit as a de facto independent Kingdom of Zhao before submitting to Tang again under Emperor Dezong . Liang Chongyi seized control of the Shannan East Circuit before being defeated by Tang in 781. 「賊臣不救，孤城圍逼，父陷子死，巢傾卵覆。」 — Excerpt from Yan Zhenqing 's Draft of a Requiem to My Nephew about the deaths of Yan Gaoqing (Magistrate of Changshan) and Yan Jiming Censuses taken in
9625-412: The Kumo Xi. Xianzhi captured 700 Xi households who were later settled as the Dieladieda tribe under Abaoji's reign. Saladi, Abaoji's father, captured 7,000 Xi households and moved them to Qinghe in the region of Raole (west of modern Ningcheng County ). During the Xiantong reign period (860–874), Xianzhi sent envoys to the Tang court twice. Towards the end of Xiantong period (860–874), when Xi'er became
9800-399: The Liao assisted Northern Han in fending off an attack by Later Zhou in 952. The Zhou attacked Han again in 954, and the Khitans once again came to their aid. The Khitans captured some Han troops by mistake and handed them back. On some occasions, Han envoys would visit the Liao to discuss strategic matters. Emperor Shizong of Later Zhou believed that the Liao dynasty were poised to invade
9975-406: The Liao court was moved to the " Supreme Capital " (Shangjing), a newly built walled city with a grand park and imperial tents where the Chinese palaces would normally be located. Abaoji fostered the construction of 30 more walled cities for his captured ethnic Han subjects to inhabit. The Supreme Capital was joined by the "Eastern Capital" ( Dongjing ). Administration of the empire was divided between
10150-499: The Liao dynasty are considerable, and a number of various statuary and other artifacts exist in museums and other collections, major questions remain over the exact nature and extent of the influence of the Liao culture upon subsequent developments, such as the musical and theatrical arts. The "Great Khitan State" ( Chinese : 大契丹 ; pinyin : Dà Qìdān ) was founded in 907 by Abaoji (Emperor Taizu of Liao). In 947, Abaoji's successor, Emperor Taizong of Liao , officially renamed
10325-421: The Mongolian Plateau in 924, but there is no indication whatsoever of any conflict with the Kyrgyz. The only information we have from Khitan (Liao) sources regarding the Kyrgyz indicates that the two powers maintained diplomatic relations. Scholars who write of a Kyrgyz "empire" from about 840 to about 924 are describing a fantasy. All available evidence suggests that despite some brief extensions of their power onto
10500-406: The Mongolian Plateau, the Kyrgyz did not maintain a significant political or military presence there after their victories in the 840s. Abaoji died of typhoid fever at the age of 54 on 6 September 926. Yelü Deguang, posthumously Emperor Taizong of Liao , was the second son of Shulü Ping and not the first in line for the Khitan throne. His elder brother, the 26-year old heir apparent Yelü Bei ,
10675-823: The Prince of Guangping (the son of Li Heng, who by this point had taken imperial title as Emperor Suzong), with aid from Huige , was able to recapture Chang'an in summer 757 by defeating Yan forces in the Battle of Xiangji Temple . Tang forces under Li Chu and Huige forces then advanced east, toward Luoyang. In winter 757, An put together his forces and sent them, under Yan Zhuang's command, to defend Shan Commandery (陝郡, roughly modern Sanmenxia , Henan). When Yan forces engaged Tang forces, however, they saw that Huige forces were on Tang's side, and, in fear, they collapsed. Yan Zhuang and Zhang Tongru (張通儒) fled back to Luoyang to inform An, and An, after executing some 30 Tang generals who had been captured, abandoned Luoyang and fled north, to Yecheng , which he converted to Ancheng Municipality. At
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#173276518976310850-414: The Prince of Guichuan and made him the jiedushi of Fanyang Circuit; instead, Shi, hoarding the supplies that An Lushan had previously shipped to Fanyang, began to disobey An Qingxu's orders, and An Qingxu could not keep him in check. When the Tang general Guo Ziyi attacked Tong Pass, intending to recapture Chang'an, however, An was able to send forces to repel Guo's attack. However, the Tang prince Li Chu
11025-433: The Qara Khitai in Central Asia where they were seen as Chinese, the term "Khitai" came to mean "China" to people near them in Central Asia, Russia and northwestern China. The name was then introduced to medieval Europe via Islamic and Russian sources, and became " Cathay ". In the modern era, words related to Khitay are still used as a name for China by Turkic peoples , such as the Uyghurs in China's Xinjiang region and
11200-481: The Qidan (Liao), a quantity of furious fiery oil (meng huoyou) which on being set alight and coming in contact with water blazed all the more fiercely. It could be used in attacking cities. Tai Zu (Abaoji) was delighted, and at once got ready a cavalry force thirty thousand strong with the intention of attacking Youzhou. But his queen, Shulü laughed and said: 'Whoever heard of attacking a country with oil? Would it not be better to take three thousand horse and lie in wait on
11375-402: The Sogdian-Turkic General An Lushan had worked himself into a position of trust with the Tang emperor Xuanzong and his consort Yang Guifei . An Lushan was a general of uncertain birth origins, but thought to have been adopted by a Sogdian father and Göktürk mother of the Ashina tribe . Eventually he managed to become a favorite of the reigning emperor of China. His success in this regard
11550-433: The Song concentrated all their forces on an invasion of Han. This time they intercepted Liao forces en route to Han and crushed them. In the summer of 979, Emperor Taizong of Song took Taiyuan and annexed Northern Han. Taizong then made the disastrous mistake of attempting to invade Liao. His already overextended and tired troops advanced on the Supreme Capital. Initial skirmishes ended in the Song army's favor but they lost
11725-470: The Songmo, Xuanzhou, Neiji, Yishige, and Yishihuo were not included in the Dahe Confederation. The Neiji tribe led by Sun Aocao submitted to the Tang in 619. Aocao's great-grandson Sun Wanrong was appointed prefect of Guicheng. Towards the turn of the century, however, Tang control of the north began to slip. The Governor-general of Yingzhou , Zhao Wenhui, regarded the Khitan chieftains as his servants. The Khitan chieftain Sun Wanrong and his brother-in-law,
11900-419: The Sui and Tang . In the Book of Sui (Volume 84), the Khitan are described as "bellicose in plundering and raiding borders" and "the most uncourteous and arrogant among all barbarians". Living in the frigid and windy Northern Desert, the Khitan people made animal husbandry, hunting and fishing their occupations, which could provide them (meat, fish and milk) for food, wool and hides for clothing. They used
12075-467: The Tang army's determination to fight to the last man, as well as the large-scale cannibalism practised by the defenders, who in this way were able to hold out longer. Their resistance effectively blocked the Yan forces from attacking the extensive areas south of the Yangzi River , which remained relatively untouched by the An–Shi disturbances. The Tang imperial forces were helped by the newly formed dynasty's internal fighting. On 29 January 757, An Lushan
12250-432: The Tang dynasty. Furthermore, the Tang government also lost most of its control over the Western Regions , due to troop withdrawal to central China to attempt to crush the rebellion and deal with subsequent disturbances. Continued military and economic weakness resulted in further subsequent erosions of Tang territorial control during the ensuing years, particularly in regard to the Tibetan empires. By 790 Chinese control over
12425-511: The Tang general Wei Boyu ( 衛伯玉 ). Shi Siming was angered by Shi Chaoyi's failures and considered punishing him and the generals below him. On 18 April, Shi Siming ordered Shi Chaoyi to build a triangular fort with a hill as its side, to store food supplies, and ordered that it be completed in one day. Near the end of the day, Shi Chaoyi had completed it, but had not plastered the walls with mud, when Shi Siming arrived and rebuked him for not applying mud. He ordered his own servants to stay and watch
12600-474: The Tang in 756 against An Lushan. With Uyghur assistance, the Tang Imperial forces recaptured both Chang'an and Luoyang in late 757. However, they failed to capture or subdue the rebel troops, who fled to the rebel heartland in the northeast. Uyghur Khaganate diplomats clashed against Arab Abbasid diplomats over who would enter the diplomatic hall in Chang'an first in 758. The Nestorian Church of
12775-498: The Tang that included Khitan troops in his army. An had a Khitan eunuch named Li Zhuer who worked for him as a teenager but An Lushan used a sword to sever his genitals and he almost died after losing multiple pints of blood. An revived him by smearing ashes on his injury. Li Zhuer was highly trusted by An Lushan, and he and two other men served as his personal attendants. Li Zhuer was approached by conspirators who wanted to kill An when he became ill and started abusing his subordinates. An
12950-499: The Tang's weakness, proceeded to briefly capture Chang'an on 18 November 763 before conquering much of Tang's territories in Central Asia . In 765, Pugu Huai'en , allied with Uyghur and Tibetan forces launched another siege on Chang'an. Furthermore, Yan generals who had surrendered to Tang were allowed by Emperor Daizong to retain as independent military governors (Jiedushi), this began an era of warlordism that plagued Tang for
13125-507: The Tang, a situation that lasted from 755 until the fall of the Uighurs in 840. There were 29 recorded tribute activities to the Tang from 756 to 841. From 840 until the rise of Abaoji, the Khitans remained a tributary of the Tang dynasty. Towards the end of that period, the Khitans began a series of major conquests. Under the reign of Xianzhi Khagan (860?–882?), the Khitans subjugated the Kumo Xi and Shiwei. Two campaigns were launched against
13300-609: The Türks to the west, and destroyed the Xi ... All the northeastern barbarians surrendered to them. Abaoji , posthumously Emperor Taizu of Liao, was born in 872 to the Yila chieftain, Saladi. By the time of Abaoji, the Yila had become the largest and strongest of the Khitan tribes, even though the Yaonian khans still held overall power. The Yila tribe was descended from the Yishihuo, who settled closer to Han civilization than other Khitans. In
13475-490: The Türks. Ketuyu suffered a defeat against the Tang in 732 and fled while his Kumo Xi allies surrendered to the Tang. In 734, Ketuyu defeated a Tang army with the support of his Türkic allies and then lost another battle against Tang forces under the command of Zhang Shougui. The Tang convinced a Khitan military official, Li Guozhe, to murder Ketuyu and the Khitan ruler Qulie, who had been enthroned by Ketuyu. The rebellion of Ketuyu ended Dahe supremacy in 730. Li Guozhe, chief of
13650-662: The Xiongnu (under Modu Chanyu ), and then sought refuge in the Wuwan Mountains. During the Han Dynasty, Cao Cao killed their leader Tadun . (The Xi) were the descendants. In 388 AD, the Kumo Xi and Khitans fought with the Xianbei-led Northern Wei dynasty . The conflict severely weakened the Kumo Xi while the Khitans were not as badly affected, resulting in their split into separate polities. By
13825-528: The Xiwandan, Hedahe (Adahe), Fufuyu (Jufufu), Yuling (Yuyuling), Rilian, Piqie (Pilier), Li (black), and Tuliuhan (Tuliuyu). The eight tribes shared power by rotating leadership triennially. The Khitan federation presented tribute to the Northern Yan (409–436), which in return invested the Khitan khan as Prince Guishan. The Khitans also regularly presented tribute to the Northern Wei (386–534) court in
14000-599: The Yila, Abaoji raided the Tang dynasty , attacked the Jurchens , and established superiority over the Shiwei and Kumo Xi . In 903, Abaoji was named Yüyue, the supreme commander of all Khitans, second only to the Yaonian Khagan. Two years later, he led 70,000 cavalry to Datong to form a blood oath with the Shatuo warlord Li Keyong . Abaoji and Li Keyong had a conversation about the Khitan way of succession. Abaoji
14175-485: The Yishihuo tribe, and Nieli, also from the Yishihuo tribe, founded a new confederation. Nieli enthroned Zuwu Khagan from the Yaonian clan as the supreme ruler of the Khitans, while Nieli became the military chief. Although there was a khagan, the military chief's power actually exceeded that of the khagan throughout the duration of the confederation. The ten tribes of the Yaonian Confederation consisted of
14350-679: The Yuwen, the Khitans and Kumo Xi fled to the region of Songmo (modern southern Hexigten Banner and western Ongniud Banner ). According to the New Book of Tang , the territory of the Khitans rested on what is now the area south of Xar Moron River and east of the Laoha. The Khitans then faced a joint invasion by the Rouran Khaganate and Goguryeo , which caused them to migrate south to the east of Bailang River (modern Daling River ). By
14525-502: The Zhou. In 958, the Han reported renewed attacks by the Zhou. In the following year, the Zhou invaded Liao territory, taking some border prefectures. Muzong headed south to confront the Zhou invasion but the Zhou emperor fell sick and had to return to Kaifeng . He died soon after and the Zhou invaders withdrew. In 960, the Zhou were replaced by the Song dynasty , which attacked Han in 963, and
14700-488: The agreement of Chancellor Li Linfu ) to be Jiedushi of three garrisons in the north— Pinglu , Fanyang and Hedong . In effect, An was given control over the entire area north of the lower reaches of the Yellow River , including garrisons about 164,000 strong. He took advantage of various circumstances, such as popular discontent with an extravagant Tang court, the synchronous Sogdian-involved Abbasid Revolution against
14875-403: The approximate midpoint of the Tang dynasty (618–907). It began as a commandery rebellion attempting to overthrow and replace the Tang government with the rogue Yan dynasty . The rebels succeeded in capturing the imperial capital Chang'an after the emperor had fled to Sichuan, but eventually succumbed to internal divisions and counterattacks by the Tang and their allies. The rebellion spanned
15050-640: The army on the verge of mutiny, the Emperor had no choice but to agree, ordering the strangling of Lady Yang. The incident made Xuanzong fear for his own safety, so he fled to Chengdu at once. However, people stopped his horse, not wanting him to go away. So he made the crown prince, Li Heng, stay to hold the fort. Instead, Li Heng fled in the other direction to Lingzhou (today called Lingwu , in Ningxia province). Later, on 12 August, after reaching Sichuan, Xuanzong abdicated (becoming Taishang Huang ), in favor of
15225-409: The borders, laying waste the country, so that the city will be starved out? By that means they will be brought to straits infallibly, even though it takes a few years. So why all this haste? Take care lest you be worsted, so that the Han people mock at us, and our own people fall away.' Therefore he went no further in his design. In 920, Abaoji ordered the development of a Khitan writing system known as
15400-430: The capital now lay open. With rebel forces clearly an imminent threat to the imperial seat of Chang'an, and with conflicting advice from his advisers, Tang emperor Xuanzong determined to flee to the relative sanctuary of Sichuan with its natural protection of mountain ranges so the Tang forces could reorganize and regroup. He brought along the bulk of his court and household. The route of travel from Chang'an to Sichuan
15575-409: The capital, ending their political ambitions. Shizong hoped this would secure his position but he quickly became disillusioned as the internal situation of the Liao remained unstable. In 948, the second son of Taizong, Yelü Tiande, conspired to murder the emperor. The conspiracy failed and the conspirators' lives were spared. Among them, Xiao Han, a nephew of Shulü Ping, conspired against Shizong again in
15750-418: The city and declared himself emperor of a new state of Qin (later changed to Han). In 784, Zhu Ci was defeated and killed. Li Huaixian and fellow Yan generals Xue Song, Li Baochen, and Tian Chengsi submitted to Tang thus were allowed to keep their territory. Li Huaixian was made the military governor (jiedushi) of Lulong Circuit (headquartered in modern Beijing) consisting of Youzhou , the core territory of
15925-410: The combined forces of the Tang and their Huige allies were led by his eldest son. This son, first named Li Chu, was renamed Li Yu in 758, after being named crown prince. On 18 May 762, on the death of his father, he became Emperor Daizong of Tang . By this time it was clear that the new Yan dynasty would not last and Yan officers and soldiers began to defect to the Tang side. Then, in the winter of 762,
16100-481: The competing states except for Northern Han by 978. Realizing their precarious situation, the Han strengthened their ties to the Liao with monthly courtesy missions starting in 971. In 974, the Song began negotiations with Liao for a possible neutrality treaty. The diplomatic efforts ended in failure and the Song invaded Han in 976 and 977, both times being repelled by Liao intervention. With the conquest of Wuyue in 978,
16275-631: The conquest of Balhae and the creation of the puppet Kingdom of Dongdan . Most of Balhae's population was relocated to what is now Liaoning . The destruction of Balhae resulted in three independent groups beyond Khitan control: the northwestern Balhae people in modern Heilongjiang , the Balhae people west of the Yalu River , and the state of Jeongan in the upper valley of the Mudan River . The Khitan ruler Abaoji did extend his influence onto
16450-438: The crown prince, who had already been proclaimed emperor. In July 756 An Lushan and his rebel forces captured Chang'an, an event that had a devastating effect upon this thriving metropolis. Before the revolt, estimates put the population within the city walls at from 800,000 to 1,000,000. Including small cities in the vicinity forming the metropolitan area, the census in 742 recorded 362,921 families with 1,960,188 persons. Much of
16625-566: The defection of the Karluk Turks in the midst of the battle. However, the Arabs did not proceed any further after the battle, and the Tang retained their Central Asian territories until the An Lushan rebellion. Further, southern expansion of the Tang was limited by the ineffective, and even disastrous, campaigns against the Kingdom of Nanzhao . However, the concurrent Tang campaign against
16800-490: The dynasty as " Great Liao " ( Chinese : 大遼 ; pinyin : Dà Liáo ). This was probably due to the inclusion of non-Khitan peoples in the state. The name was changed back to "Great Khitan" in 983 during the reign of the Emperor Shengzong of Liao due to a reassertion of Khitan identity. In 1066, Emperor Daozong of Liao reintroduced the dynastic name "Great Liao" and the title remained in official use until
16975-574: The dynasty's collapse. Both "Great Khitan" and "Great Liao" enjoyed about 100 years of usage each. In 1124, the successor state established by Yelü Dashi in the Western Regions also officially adopted the dynastic name "Great Liao". In historiography, however, this regime is more commonly called the "Western Liao" or "Qara Khitai". Due to the dominance of the Khitans during the Liao dynasty in Northeast China and Mongolia and later
17150-596: The early Tang dynasty (around the 7th century AD), the (now named) Xi had become subordinate to the Khitans. After the Khitans' Li-Sun Rebellion (696-697) and revolt of Ketuyu (730-734), the Xi regained their position of dominance. The Xi then entered a golden age, lasting from approximately 755 to 847. During this period the Xi were friendly with An Lushan , and supported An in his An Shi Rebellion (756-763), plundering Han territories frequently within this period. This aggressive policy seems to have consumed Xi forces, especially weakening their demographic vitality, allowing
17325-479: The early history of the Khitan, there was a man riding a white horse and a woman riding a cart drawn by a gray ox. They met on the Liao River and then became husband and wife. They had eight sons who were called by the previous histories the persons who took turns to be the supreme leader. This event was known from Zhao Zhizhong who had been an official historian of the Khitan, so that it must be true ... (Zhizhong)
17500-661: The eastern Eurasian Steppe was overthrown and then replaced by Sogdian-influenced Uighur rulers. This was apparently the first of several revolutionary events either led by or intimately connected with the merchants and tradespeople involved with the international commerce often referred to as the Silk Road . In 747, the Abbasids began their rebellion against the Umayyad Caliphate in Merv , Khurasan , resulting in
17675-537: The eastern capital Luoyang was retaken by Tang forces for the second time. Yan Emperor Shi Chaoyi attempted to flee, but was intercepted early in 763. Shi Chaoyi chose suicide over capture, dying on 17 February 763, ending the eight-year-long rebellion. The end of the rebellion was a long process of rebuilding and recovery . Due to the Imperial Court's weakened condition, other disturbances flared up. The Tibetan Empire under Trisong Detsän , taking advantage of
17850-488: The empire, the rebellion also affected the intellectual culture of the Tang dynasty. Many intellectuals had their careers interrupted, giving them time to ponder the causes of the unrest. Some lost faith in themselves, concluding that a lack of moral seriousness in intellectual culture had been the cause of the rebellion. However, a political and cultural recovery eventually did occur within Tang China several decades after
18025-476: The following year. Despite being spared again, Xiao Han returned to his old ways a third time, resulting in his execution. In 947, a planned invasion of Goryeo was aborted when the Khitans realized that enemy defenses were more formidable than they had thought. From 949 to 950, Shizong invaded Later Han . In late 951, Shizong decided to invade Later Zhou . Before the army set off, Shizong and his entourage got drunk after making sacrifices to his father. Chage,
18200-706: The form of horses and animal skins. Trade occurred on the border in Helong (modern Chaoyang ) and Miyun. In 553, the Khitans suffered a defeat to the armies of Northern Qi (550–577) and lost a large portion of their population as well as cattle. For a time they resided in Goguryeo . In 584, they submitted to the Sui dynasty (581–618). In 605, they were attacked by the Türks and lost 40,000 men and women. The eight tribes of old dispersed. Only two Khitan leaders are known from this period: Hechen and Wuyu. The title of Khitan chieftains
18375-496: The former Yan. In 768, Li Huaixian was killed by his subordinates Zhu Xicai , Zhu Ci and Zhu Tao who then took over command of the circuit. Lulong Circuit remained a semi-independent fief, survived the fragmentation of Tang until being annexed by Li Cunxu 's Jin state in 913. Li Baozhen kept control of the Chengde Circuit . His son Li Weiyue , along with Tian Chengsi's son Tian Yue, rebelled against Tang in 781 but
18550-639: The frontier commander of Lulong . The Xi were never able to recover from their defeat in 847. In the late ninth century AD the Khitans rose to eventually absorb the remnants of Xi people, and established the Liao dynasty in 907. It is believed that the Xiqin , a bowed, stringed instrument that is the ancestor of the Chinese Erhu , the Mongolian Khuuchir and Morin khuur , was derived from
18725-407: The general Xue Song to Fanyang to seek aid from Shi, offering the throne to him. Shi thus advanced south toward Yecheng. Meanwhile, Tang forces, under the command of nine generals (with Li Siye having died during the siege), were uncoordinated. On 7 April 759, Shi engaged Tang forces—and, when a storm suddenly arrived, both armies panicked; Shi's forces fled north, and Tang forces fled south, lifting
18900-611: The general Cai Xide (蔡希德) at Taiyuan to watch Li Guangbi's actions. He also sent the general Yin Ziqi (尹子奇) to attack the city of Suiyang , then under the defense by the Tang generals Zhang Xun and Xu Yuan (許遠), intending to capture Suiyang first and then send Yin south to capture Tang territory south of the Huai River (Yin, however, was locked into a siege of Suiyang that would last until winter 757, stopping any possibility of Yan's advancing south). To show favor to Shi, he created Shi
19075-480: The governor of Songmo, Li Jinzhong , felt insulted and bullied by Zhao. In 696, a famine occurred in Khitan territory and Zhao failed to provide relief, sparking a rebellion. The Dahe leader, Li Jinzhong, captured Yingzhou and declared himself "Wushang Khagan" (paramount khagan). The Tang sent 28 generals against the Khitans but were defeated at Xiashi Gorge ( Lulong County ). The Tang troops continued to suffer defeat until Li Jinzhong died of disease. Qapaghan Qaghan of
19250-455: The half-century before the rebellion show a gradual increase in population, with the last census undertaken before the rebellion, in 755, recording a population of 52,919,309 in 8,914,709 taxpaying households. However, a census taken in 764, the year following the end of the rebellion, recorded only 16,900,000 in 2,900,000 households. Later censuses count only households, but by 855 this figure had risen to only 4,955,151 households, little over half
19425-402: The horsedrawn cart for their shelters throughout the seasonal migrations. In the ancient Khitan way of life their wealth consisted of horses and their strength of soldiers. The horses were released in the open country and the soldiers were demobilized among the people. Whenever a military campaign occurred, they were called to arms. The mounted archers and armed soldiers received their orders at
19600-404: The hour mao and assembled at the hour chen . The horses went after water and grass and men depended on kumiss. They bent the powerful bow and shot living animals in order to provide for their daily needs. They also had dried food and fodder. Such was their way of living. On account of this, they hold the upper hand and encountered no opposition whenever they went. There were eight Khitan tribes:
19775-529: The idea that the Khitan were solely Xiongnu in origin, there is some support for the claim that they are of mixed Xianbei and Xiongnu origin. Beginning with Rashid-al-Din Hamadani in the fourteenth century, several scholars have theorized that the Khitans were Mongolic in origin, and in the late 19th century, Western scholars made the claim that the Khitans were Tungusic in origin – modern linguistic analysis has discredited this claim. After splitting from
19950-458: The influence of an anti-Khitan court led by the army commander Jing Yanguang . In 943, Shi Chonggui revoked the trading privileges of the Khitans in Kaifeng and confiscated their property, sending their representative back to the Khitan court. Taizong invaded in the following year but suffered a defeat in 945, having to escape the battle on a camel. However, with persistence, the Khitans wore down
20125-572: The king (of the Khitan), their territory began to be expanded. Afterwards, when Qinde became the king, taking advantage of the turmoil in China, they frequently raided the borders. Up to the time of Abaoji who was more valiant, all of the five tribes of the Xi, the seven tribes of the Shiwei and the Tartar were subdued ... Furthermore, they invaded the Shiwei and Jurchen to the north, captured the old land of
20300-456: The latter half of the 9th century. Eventually the Yila chieftain, Abaoji , became the leader of the Khitans and proclaimed a Chinese-style dynastic state in 916. The Liao dynasty launched multiple military campaigns against neighboring states and peoples including the Kumo Xi , Shiwei , Tatars , Zubu , Khongirad , Balhae , Goryeo , Later Tang , and the Song dynasty . Its conquests include
20475-423: The latter half of the dynasty that continued into the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period for decades after the ultimate demise of the Tang. The fear of repeating Tang's commandery secessionism also led the Song dynasty that followed to distrust and oppress prominent military commanders even when invaded by hostile foreign states such as Liao , Western Xia and Jin . It also triggered the long-term decline of
20650-453: The leadership. Shi Siming ruled for two years, but was in turn killed by his own son Shi Chaoyi , who ruled for another two years until the Yan dynasty fell to Tang forces on 17 February 763. There were also other anti-Tang rebel forces, especially those in An Lushan's base area in Hebei , as well as Sogdian forces and other opportunist parties who took advantages of the chaos. The rebellion
20825-490: The less aggressive Khitans to dominate them. Xi raids into Tang territory provoked successive heavy responses from the Tang court, resulting in battles in the 760s and in 795 that were disastrous for the Xi. After 795, the Xi became a tributary people to the Tang . The Uyghur Empire (744-840) collapsed in the 840's. When the Tang dynasty simultaneously displayed signs of division, the Xi rose in rebellion in 847, and were subsequently and disastrously defeated by Zhang Zhongwu ,
21000-568: The loss of a sixth of the world's population at that time, though Pinker stated that the figure was controversial. Matthew White, from whom Pinker had taken the figure of 36 million, later revised his figure down to 13 million (based on a different calculation from the census results) in his book The Great Big Book of Horrible Things . White's revised figure is repeated by cultural historians such as Johan Norberg . Historians such as Charles Patrick Fitzgerald argue that claims of massive depopulation are incompatible with contemporary accounts of
21175-838: The name of a Xī-(奚)-associated tribe Bái-Xí 白霫 (< MC * bˠæk̚-ziɪp̚ ) literally meant "white downpour/torrent" in Chinese , and that the Xī (奚) and Xí (霫) occupied the same area, Zhongjing (中京). The Kumo Xi were descendants of the Wuhuan . The Book of the Later Han records that “the language and culture of the Xianbei are the same as the Wuhuan”. Along with the Xianbei, the Wuhuan formed part of
21350-487: The number recorded in 755. The difference in the census figures amounts to 36 million people less, two-thirds of the population of the empire, though scholars have attributed this to factors including a breakdown in taxation and census gathering. The figure of 36 million was used in Steven Pinker 's book The Better Angels of Our Nature , where it is presented as proportionally the largest atrocity in history with
21525-425: The other conspirators suffering violent deaths. The brothers plotted rebellions in 917 and 918, both of which were easily crushed. In 916, Abaoji assumed the title of Celestial Emperor , proclaimed a Chinese era name , and built a Confucian temple . He named his eldest son, Yelü Bei , from his primary consort, Shulü Ping , as heir apparent and demanded the entire nobility to swear fealty to him. Two years later,
21700-405: The pardoning of many rebels. Indeed, some were even given their own garrisons to command. Political and economic control of large swathes of the empire became intermittent or was lost, and these areas came to be controlled by fanzhen , autonomous regional authorities headed by the jiedushi (regional military governors). In Hebei, three fanzhen became virtually independent for the remainder of
21875-443: The plastering. He then angrily stated, "After I capture Shan Prefecture, I will kill you, thief!" That night, Shi Chaoyi's subordinates Luo Yue ( 駱悅 ) and Cai Wenjing ( 蔡文景 ) warned him that he was in dire straits—and that if he refused to take action to depose Shi Siming, they would defect to Tang. Shi Chaoyi agreed to take action, and Luo persuaded Shi Siming's guard commander General Cao (personal name lost to history) to agree with
22050-435: The plot. That night, Luo led 300 soldiers and ambushed Shi Siming, binding him and then beginning a return to Luoyang with the troops. On the way back to Luoyang, Luo feared that someone might try to rescue Shi Siming, and so strangled him to death. Shi Chaoyi was enthroned as the new emperor of Yan even though he failed to get widespread support from the other Yan generals. By 762, Emperor Suzong had become seriously ill; and
22225-517: The population fled at the approach of the rebels. Then the city was captured and looted by the rebel forces and the remaining population put in jeopardy. The third son of Xuanzong, Li Heng, was proclaimed Emperor Suzong at Lingzhou (modern-day Lingwu ), although another group of local officials and Confucian literati tried to promote a different prince, Li Lin, the Prince of Yong , at Jinling (modern-day Nanjing ). One of Suzong's first acts as emperor
22400-407: The position of Yang Guifei's relative Yang Guozhong in the Tang governmental administration. The An Lushan rebellion signaled a period of disorder spanning the reigns of three Tang dynasty emperors, beginning during the final ( Tianbao era) period of the reign of Xuanzong (8 September 712 to 12 August 756), continuing through the reign of Suzong (12 August 756 to 16 May 762) and ending during
22575-634: The presence of other Khitans, because he feared that they would emulate the Han and grow soft. After arriving, I was granted an audience. Abaoji invited me into his great tent. Abaoji was nine chi tall [very tall!]. He was wearing a long gown of brocade with a wide sash tied at the back. He and his consort sat on facing couches. I was led forth and presented. Before I could deliver my message, Abaoji [mockingly] asked: "I have heard that in your Chinese land you now have one Son of Heaven in Henan and another in Hebei;
22750-518: The proclamation of a new Abbasid Caliph in about 750. This rebellion also seems to have been organized by merchants and persons identifying themselves as merchants. The western expansion of the Tang Empire was checked in 751 by the defeat of a large expeditionary force led by General Gao Xianzhi in the Battle of Talas in the modern Fergana Valley , with the Abbasid victory attributable to
22925-461: The rebel Yan emperor Shi Chaoyi and defeated rival Yan dynasty forces under the Turk Ashina Chengqing . High nosed Sogdians were slaughtered in Youzhou in 761. Youzhou had Linzhou, another "protected" prefecture attached to it, and Sogdians lived there in great numbers. Gao Juren, like Tian Shengong, wanted to defect to the Tang dynasty and wanted them to publicly recognize and acknowledge him as
23100-417: The rebellion was ultimately suppressed by a large-scale alliance between the imperial dynasty and various participants, including local militias and foreign support, the dynasty did not overall change the structure of the military committee, but only followed the old principles of establishing territory. It was a direct cause of the dynasty's decline, and led to rampant secessionism among regional warlords during
23275-487: The reign of Daizong (18 May 762 to 23 May 779), as well as spanning the four imperial claimants of the failed Yan dynasty. At the end of 755 An Lushan revolted. On 16 December, his army surged down from Fanyang (near modern Beijing ). Along the way, An Lushan treated surrendered local Tang officials with respect. As a result, more and more of them joined his ranks. He moved rapidly along the Grand Canal and captured
23450-553: The reign of Murong Sheng (398–401). Samguk Sagi (1145), a history of the Three Kingdoms of Korea , mentions a Khitan raid taking place in 378. According to sinologists Denis C. Twitchett and Klaus-Peter Tietze, it is generally held that the Khitans emerged from the Yuwen branch of the Xianbei people. Following a defeat at the hands of another branch of the Xianbei in 345, the Yuwen split into three tribes, one of which
23625-468: The reigning Khitan ruler, Suogu. Suogu fled to Yingzhou seeking Chinese protection. General Xue Tai was ordered to punish Ketuyu but he failed and was captured along with Suogu and the Kumo Xi king Li Dapu. Ketuyu enthroned Suogu's cousin Yuyu as the new Khitan ruler. Ketuyu sent tribute to the Tang court but the official in charge treated him with rudeness. Ketuyu murdered the Khitan ruler Shaogu and defected to
23800-508: The reigns of three Tang emperors: Xuanzong , Suzong , and Daizong . On 16 December 755, An Lushan , the jiedushi of the Taiyuan Commandery , mobilized his army and marched to Fanyang . An Lushan led the rebellion for two years before he was assassinated by his son An Qingxu . Two years after An Qingxu's ascension, Shi Siming , the governor of Pinglu Commandery and a close ally of An Lushan, killed An Qingxu and usurped
23975-438: The relationship between them was as close as father and son. Ruan participated in the invasion of Later Jin , earning himself as a capable warrior and commander. Upon Taizong's death, Ruan declared himself emperor before "his father's coffin". Lihu attacked Ruan while he was on his way back to the Supreme Capital but was defeated. His mother, Shulü Ping , then led her own army to confront Ruan. The two armies faced each other on
24150-623: The rest of the dynasty. In 781, The Circuits of Shannan East, Chengde, Weibo and Zhiqing rose up against Tang court in what was called the Four Garrisons Rebellion ( Chinese : 四镇之乱 ). In 782, a Tang general-governor of Huaxi-Cicuit, Li Xilie also rebelled in 782 and proclaimed as the Emperor of Chu. In 783, the Jingyuan mutiny forced the Emperor Dezong to flee Chang'an. Zhu Ci , the jiedushi of Lulong, captured
24325-512: The same ethnic stock, and fled to the region of Songmo together. During the period of Dengguo (386-395), they were severely defeated by the imperial troops. Therefore, they (the Khitan) fled in disorder and split off from the Kumo Xi. The Book of Sui records: 奚本曰庫莫奚, 東部胡之種. The Xi were originally called the Kumo Xi. They were of Donghu origin. The New Book of Tang records: 奚亦東胡種, 為匈奴所破, 保烏丸山. 漢曹操斬其帥蹋頓蓋其後也. The Xi were also of Donghu (the eastern barbarians) origin. They were defeated by
24500-419: The sides stalemated. At this time, Shi was described as cruel and prone to kill, terrorizing his army. He favored Shi Chaoqing over Shi Chaoyi and considered creating Shi Chaoqing crown prince and killing Shi Chaoyi. In spring 761, Shi Siming began another attempt to attack Shan Prefecture, wanting to attack Chang'an. He had Shi Chaoyi serve as his forward commander, but Shi Chaoyi was repeatedly repelled by
24675-516: The siege on Yecheng. An Qingxu's forces gathered the food and supplies abandoned by Tang forces, and An thereafter considered, with Sun Xiaozhe (孫孝哲) and Cui, the possibility of refusing Shi, who gathered his troops and again approached Yecheng, admittance. Shi himself was not communicating with An, but was feasting his soldiers and watching Yecheng. Zhang and Gao Shang (高尚) requested permission to meet Shi, and An agreed; Shi gave them gifts and let them return to Yecheng. An, unsure what to do, again offered
24850-483: The soldiers resented Cui for his harshness. By winter 758, the Tang generals Guo Ziyi, Lu Jiong (魯炅), Li Huan (李奐), Xu Shuji (許叔冀), Li Siye , Ji Guangchen (季廣琛), Cui Guangyuan (崔光遠), Dong Qin (董秦), Li Guangbi , and Wang Sili (王思禮), were gathering at Yecheng and putting it under siege. An Qingxu tried to fight out of the siege, but was defeated by Tang forces, and his brother An Qinghe (安慶和) was killed. Meanwhile, with Shi recently having again rebelled against Tang, An sent
25025-410: The son of Abaoji 's younger brother, Anduan, took advantage of the situation to kill Shizong. Chage was executed. Shizong died at the age of 33 and had not produced a son of age to inherit the throne. Shizong's rule was characterized by a series of rebellions from within his extended family. Although ruling for only four years, Shizong oversaw the formalization of the dual government system, which brought
25200-520: The spring of 756, went badly for An Lushan. Although his army, under Linghu Chao, was numerous, it was unable to make further territorial gains due to the failure to wrest control of Yongqiu (modern Qi County, Kaifeng , in Henan ) and (later) the nearby Suiyang from the Tang defenders led by Zhang Xun . This prevented the Yan forces from conquering southern China, before the Tang were able to recover. The Yan army did not take control of Suiyang until after
25375-524: The structure of the Southern Establishment closer to the model used by the Tang dynasty. Yelü Jing, posthumously Emperor Muzong of Liao , succeeded his cousin, Emperor Shizong of Liao . Muzong was a heavy drinker and spent most of his time either hunting or sleeping. The Chinese called him the "Sleeping Prince". The first half of his reign was marred by continued instability within his family. A younger brother of Shizong, Louguo, hatched
25550-664: The throne to Shi, which Shi declined. Shi instead suggested to him that perhaps they could both be emperors of independent, allied states. An, pleased, exited Yecheng and met with Shi to swear to the alliance. On 10 April 759, An Qingxu was killed by Shi Siming who enthroned as Emperor Zhaowu of Yan. Shi Siming soon left Empress Xin's son Shi Chaoqing ( 史朝清 ) in charge of Fanyang and headed south. He quickly captured Bian Prefecture (汴州, roughly modern Kaifeng , Henan) and Luoyang, but his further attempts to advance were rebuffed by Tang forces at Heyang (河陽, in modern Jiaozuo , Henan) and Shan Prefecture (陝州, roughly modern Sanmenxia , Henan), and
25725-506: The time that An arrived at Yecheng, he had only 1,000 infantry soldiers and 300 cavalry soldiers. Soon, however, Yan generals Ashina Chengqing (阿史那承慶), Cai Xide, Tian Chengsi , and Wu Lingxun (武令珣), who had been attacking other Tang cities, headed to Yecheng and coalesced there, allowing An to have over 60,000 soldiers under his disposal and thus regaining some measure of strength. Meanwhile, apprehensive of Shi, he sent Ashina and An Shouzhong (安守忠) to Fanyang to order Shi to contribute troops, but
25900-605: The time the Book of Wei was written in 554, the Khitans had formed a state in what is now China's Jilin and Liaoning Provinces. The Khitans suffered a series of military defeats to other nomadic groups in the region, as well as to the Chinese Northern Qi (550–577) and Sui (589–618) dynasties. Khitan tribes at various times fell under the influence of Turkic tribes such as the Uighurs and Chinese dynasties such as
26075-425: The title of Dama Yueshali, the commander of the khagan's personal guard, in the late 9th century. In 901, Abaoji was elected Yilijin (chieftain) of the Yila by the triennial council. None of the Khitans except the Yaonian used surnames at the time, but later in the 930s, Abaoji's clan adopted Yelü as their surname. At the same time their consort clan also began using the surname Xiao. After his accession as leader of
26250-510: The traditional method of succession by the strongest candidate. In addition, the adoption of Han systems and the push to reform Khitan practices led Abaoji to set up two parallel governments. The Northern Administration governed Khitan areas following traditional Khitan practices, while the Southern Administration governed areas with large non-Khitan populations, adopting traditional Han governmental practices. The Liao dynasty
26425-419: The troops at Tong Pass, Gao Xianzhi and Feng Changqing, were executed due to a court intrigue involving the powerful eunuch Bian Lingcheng. Yang Guozhong, with grossly inept military judgment, then ordered the replacement General Geshu Han , who was in charge of the troops in the passes, together with reinforcement troops, to attack An's army on open ground. On 7 July, the Tang forces were defeated. The road to
26600-405: The two powers that lasted approximately 120 years. It was the first state to control all of Manchuria. Tension between traditional Khitan social and political practices and Han influence and customs was a defining feature of the dynasty. This tension led to a series of succession crises; Liao emperors favored the Han concept of primogeniture , while much of the rest of the Khitan elite supported
26775-440: The war, which was fought intermittently over three or four provinces. They point out that the numbers recorded on the postwar registers reflect not only population loss, but also a breakdown of accuracy of the census system as well as the removal from the census figures of various classes of untaxed persons, such as those in religious orders, foreigners and merchants. In addition, several of the northern provinces, with approximately
26950-508: The way, an incident occurred at Mawei Inn, in today's Xingping in Xianyang , Shaanxi . Xuanzong's bodyguard troops were hungry and tired, and very angry with Yang Guozhong for exposing the whole country to danger. They demanded the death of the much-hated Yang Guozhong, and then of his cousin and imperial favorite, Yang Guifei. Soon the angry soldiers killed Yang Guozhong, Yang Xuan (his son), Lady Han and Lady Qin (Yang Guifei's sisters). With
27125-399: Was 37 years old. Muzong was the second and last Liao emperor to succeed Abaoji who was not a direct descendant of Yelü Bei. Yelü Xian, posthumously Emperor Jingzong of Liao , was the son of Emperor Shizong of Liao . During his reign, the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period came to an end with the rise of the Song dynasty , which replaced Later Zhou in 960. The Song had defeated all
27300-546: Was An Lushan's eunuch after this and highly used and trusted by him. Li Zhu'er and another two men helped carry the obese An Lushan when he was taking off or putting on his clothes. Li Zhu'er helped clothe and unclothe at the Huaqing (Hua-ch'ing) steam baths granted by Emperor Xuanzang. Li Zhuer was approached by people who wanted to assassinate An Lushan after An Lushan became paranoid and blind, stricken with skin disease and started flogging and murdering his subordinates. An Lushan
27475-429: Was Mofuhe or Mohefu. Sometime during the Sui dynasty, the military organization of the Khitans became more advanced. According to the Book of Sui , "In the case of a military operation, the chieftains discussed it together. In mobilizing troops, tallies needed to be matched". In the early 7th century, the Dahe clan unified the Khitan tribes in a federation that was able to raise 34,000 troops. The tribal composition of
27650-453: Was an important turning point in the history of medieval China, as the military activities and associated casualties caused significant depopulation from famine, displacement, and large-scale infrastructure destruction, significantly weakening the Tang dynasty, collapsing the prestige of the Tang emperors as the Khan of Heaven and leading to the permanent loss of the Western Regions . Even though
27825-670: Was asked which dynasty the Central Plain was in, when the leadership rotated among the eight (Khitan) men. Zhizhong could not answer, but he said that it probably was in the Qin/Han period. (I) am afraid that it was not true. In 628, the Dahe Confederation led by Mohui submitted to the Tang. In 648, they submitted to the Tang again under the leadership of Kuge . Kuge was appointed the Governor-general of Songmo and several prefectures were set up for Khitan tribes: Qiaoluo for
28000-426: Was betrayed and killed by his son, An Qingxu , (An Lushan's violent paranoia posed too much of a threat to his entourage). The rebel An Lushan had a Khitan eunuch named Li Zhu'er (李豬兒) (Li Chu-erh) who was working for An Lushan when he was a teenager but An Lushan used a sword to sever his genitals and he almost died after losing multiple pints of blood. An Lushan revived him after smearing ashes on his injury. Li Zhu'er
28175-481: Was called the Kumo Xi . In 388 the Kumo Xi itself split, with one group remaining under the name Kumo Xi and the other group becoming the Khitans. This view is partially backed up by the Book of Wei , which describes the Khitans being of Xianbei origins. Beginning in the Song dynasty, some Chinese scholars suggested that the Khitans might have descended from the Xiongnu people. While modern historians have rejected
28350-435: Was concerned that he would be replaced in three years and Keyong noted that there was also a practice of replacement for his post. He told Abaoji that he could just refuse to be replaced. In 907, Abaoji demanded that he be made Khagan, and ascended as supreme leader of the Khitans with support from seven other tribes. Abaoji then slaughtered the other Khitan chieftains, alarming the Khitan elite, many of whom saw his action as
28525-658: Was destroyed by the Jurchen -led Jin dynasty in 1125 with the capture of the Emperor Tianzuo of Liao . However, the remaining Liao loyalists, led by Yelü Dashi (who would become Emperor Dezong), established the Western Liao dynasty (or "Qara Khitai"), which ruled over parts of Central Asia for almost a century before being conquered by the Mongol Empire . Although cultural achievements associated with
28700-409: Was disliked by the conservative Khitan elites for his intellectual pursuits. As a polymath , Yelü Bei was skilled in painting, writing in both Khitan and Chinese languages, and possessed a large personal library. He also had a taste for Chinese culture, music, medicine, and prognostication. Chinese-style primogeniture was also not a custom among the Khitans, who had elected their leader since the time of
28875-508: Was hacked to death by Li Zhuer and another conspirator, Yan Zhuang, who was beaten by An before. An screamed "this is a thief of my own household" as he desperately shook his curtains since he could not find his sword to defend himself. The An Lushan Rebellion marked the beginning of the end of the Tang dynasty. Following the An Lushan Rebellion, the Khitans became vassals of the Uighurs while simultaneously paying tribute to
29050-480: Was hacked to death in his stomach and abdomen by Li Zhuer and another conspirator, Yan Zhuang (Yen Chuang) (嚴莊) who was beaten by An before. An Lushan screamed "this is a thief of my own household" as he desperately shook his curtains since he could not find his sword to defend himself. An Lushan's intestines came out of his body as he was hacked to death by Li Zhuer and Yan Zhuang. A horse was once crushed to death under An Lushan's sheer weight due to his fatness. It
29225-725: Was intending to have Ashina and An Shouzhong take over Shi's command if possible. Instead, Shi arrested Ashina and An Shouzhong and submitted to Tang. Many other cities previously under Yan's control also submitted to Tang, and An Qingxu's territory shrank to just Yecheng and the surrounding area. It was said that An Qingxu became cruel and paranoid in light of these military losses, and that if generals submitted to Tang, he would slaughter their families if they were Han and their tribes if they were non-Han. Meanwhile, believing accusations that Zhang made against Cai, he killed Cai, which further led to dissension among his soldiers, particularly since he then put Cui Qianyou (崔乾祐) in command of his army, and
29400-446: Was later killed by Li Huaixian, who was loyal to Shi Chaoyi. The rebellion of An Lushan and its aftermath greatly weakened the centralized bureaucracy of the Tang dynasty, especially in regards to its perimeters. Virtually autonomous provinces and ad hoc financial organizations arose, reducing the influence of the regular bureaucracy in Chang'an. The Tang dynasty's desire for political stability in this turbulent period also resulted in
29575-464: Was later killed by his officer Wang Wujun . Chengde's last ruler, Wang Rong later founded the Zhao Dynasty that lasted until 921. Tian Chengsi had full control of the Weibo Circuit . He later annexed Xue Song 's Zhaoyi Circuit. Weibo Circuit remained independent until integrated with the Later Liang state in 910. Li Zhengji became the powerful ruler of the Pinglu Circuit (modern Tai'an, Shandong). His son Li Na rebelled and proclaimed to be
29750-412: Was made an official in charge of military affairs and oversaw the subdued Han population, settling them and making sure they did not flee. Han Zhigu participated in strategy and decision making. He later took charge of the department handling Han affairs and managed protocols of foreign affairs. He also combined Han institutions and Khitan customs to make them easier to understand for Khitans. Abaoji held
29925-412: Was notoriously difficult, requiring hard travel on the way through the intervening Qin Mountains . However, the geographical features of the terrain were not the only hardships on the journey: there was a matter that first had to be settled, involving the relationship between Xuanzong and the Yang family, especially the emperor's beloved Yang Guifei. So, before progressing more than a few kilometers along
30100-435: Was repelled with the aid of the Khitans. Border skirmishes occurred between the Liao and Song in 963 and 967. There were minor troubles with the Shiwei and Khongirad in 965, but otherwise the northern frontier remained calm for the Liao. In 969, Muzong spent an entire month drinking and began to act violently and irrationally, butchering some of his bodyguards. On 12 March, six of his personal attendants murdered him. He
30275-467: Was said that An Qingxu was an introvert who couldn't speak to others properly. As a result, Yan Zhuang advised him not to meet officials frequently, and he entrusted most of affairs of state to Yan and created Yan the Prince of Fengyi. He tried to ingratiate his generals by promoting their positions. Meanwhile, with the major general Shi Siming besieging the Tang general Li Guangbi at Taiyuan , An Qingxu ordered Shi to return to his base of Fanyang and leave
30450-407: Was to appoint the generals Guo Ziyi and Li Guangbi to deal with the rebellion. The generals, after much discussion, decided to borrow troops from an offshoot of the Turkic Tujue tribe, the Huihe, or Huige, also known as the Uyghur Khaganate , who were ruled by Bayanchur Khan until his death in the summer of 759. Three thousand Arab mercenaries were sent by the Abbasid caliph al-Mansur to join
30625-450: Was used for memorial inscriptions on wood and stone and record keeping in the Northern Administration. Almost no extensive documents written in Khitan script have survived, suggesting that few were ever produced. In the Southern Establishment, Chinese was the administrative language, which many Khitans learned, including Abaoji's sons. In a conversation with Yao Kun, an envoy from Later Tang, Abaoji said he spoke Chinese but did not speak it in
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