A llanero ( Spanish pronunciation: [ʝaˈneɾo] , 'plainsman') is a Venezuelan and Colombian herder . The name is taken from the Llanos grasslands occupying eastern Colombia and western-central Venezuela.
186-470: During the Spanish American wars of independence , llanero lancers and cavalry served in both armies and provided the bulk of the cavalry during the war. They were known for being skilled riders who were in charge of all the tasks related to livestock and other ranch-related activities. The historical figure emerged in the 17th century until its disappearance at the end of the 19th century, with
372-493: A banner to organize the aggrieved, and the political causes could be discarded just as quickly as they were picked up. The Venezuelan Llaneros switched to the patriot banner once the elites and the urban centers became securely royalist after 1815, and it was the royal army in Mexico that ultimately brought about that nation's independence. Philosophers Works At the first years of war, during Spanish constitutional period,
558-553: A coalition of conservative and liberal royalist leaders who led the establishment of new states. The Spanish Constitution of 1812 attempted to return to the policies that the Spanish government had implemented under Habsburg rule. These policies gave recognized Spanish colonial territory as fellow kingdoms with equal standing to Spain. The policies under the Habsburgs, moreover, allowed for constant revisionism, through corruption and
744-418: A diario por Miguel López, es lo cierto que aquella noche estalló el alzamiento. El futuro general, Páez, que, aun siendo ya caporal en el Hato de la Calzada, estaba muy a disgusto con sus superiores, hizo causa, con los sediciosos, y a la hora que se formó el alboroto fue él el primero en levantarse, tomar la lanza y dirigirse al lugar donde la negrada daba gritos y hacía gestos de rebelión The Braves of Apure or
930-637: A general stalemate set in the war. In areas where royalists controlled the main population centers, most of the fighting by those seeking independence was done by isolated guerrilla bands . In New Spain, the two main guerrilla groups were led by Guadalupe Victoria in Puebla and Vicente Guerrero in Oaxaca. In northern South America, New Granadan and Venezuelan patriots, under leaders such as Simón Bolívar , Francisco de Paula Santander , Santiago Mariño , Manuel Piar and José Antonio Páez , carried out campaigns in
1116-411: A generalized Peruvian revolt, chose to avoid direct military confrontation. San Martín hoped that his presence would initiate an authentic Peruvian revolt against Spanish rule, believing that otherwise any liberation would be ephemeral. In the meantime, San Martín engaged in diplomacy with Viceroy Joaquín de la Pezuela , who was under orders from the constitutional government to negotiate on the basis of
1302-708: A junta in New Spain was also stopped. The escape to Cádiz and the dissolution of the Supreme Central Junta on 29 January 1810, because of the reverses suffered after the Battle of Ocaña by the Spanish forces paid with Spanish American money, set off another wave of juntas being established in the Americas. French forces had taken over southern Spain and forced the Supreme Junta to seek refuge in
1488-402: A la hora del sosiego y de la calma, cuando la brisa agita el precioso abanico de las palmeras, el llanero se columpia como un sultán oriental en la suave red de su chinchorro de finas cuerdas de moriche In the beginning, these riders lived in a semi-nomadic way, being hired by different herds to carry out their tasks; in these journeys there was always a cook, a doctor, and a physician apart from
1674-747: A las de Europa, ya por viveza de temperamento y malicia de ingenio, el llanero abandonó los sistemas de sus progenitores" y lucha hoy con toda clase de animales bravíos, poniendo en actividad sus no comunes habilidades, haciendo arte propio con su astucia y su prodigiosa destreza. La misma lucha perenne y expiatoria con los elementos ásperos y rebeldes de las llanuras le ha ido inspirando los medios eficaces, y con ellos ha logrado imponerse victoriosamente; hace del potro cerril su esclavo y poderoso auxiliar vadeando ríos, cazando reses bravas, guerreando contra sus propios compañeros: convierte fieras e impetuosas novillas en mansas y perezosas lecheras; burla la ferocidad del caimán ruidosamente en las revueltas ondas de los ríos; y
1860-488: A military conflict arose between Royalists and Patriots over the unity or independence of the empire. These juntas gained their own levels of independence and autonomy from Spain through declarations in 1808-1812. However, Ferdinand VII reimposed absolute monarchy in 1814 with a coup d'état , following the defeat of Napoleon and the Treaty of Valençay . He was able to defeat and repress the peninsular liberals, and abolished
2046-588: A new Army of the Three Guarantees . The representative of the new Spanish government, Superior Political Chief Juan O'Donojú , who replaced the previous viceroys, arrived in Veracruz on 1 July 1821, but he found that royalists held the entire country except for Veracruz, Mexico City and Acapulco . Since at the time that O'Donojú had left Spain, the Cortes was considering greatly expanding the autonomy of
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#17327757486972232-444: A new Cortes under its traditional form (with separate chambers for the clergy and the nobility), a promise never fulfilled. News of the events arrived through Spanish America during the next three weeks to nine months, depending on time it took goods and people to travel from Spain. Ferdinand's actions constituted a definitive de facto break both with the autonomous governments, which had not yet declared formal independence, and with
2418-412: A particular name that distinguishes it from the rest and shows the owner's affection towards it. Here are some: Lancero, Banderita, Guapetón, Corozo, Esmeralda, Cacique, Pluza de Garza, Bayoneta, Lucero, Torito, Bellaco, Caney, among others. For the llanero, the horse is par excellence a beast. Other animals are not beasts for the llanero. Like cattle, it is only beef. Pigs are herds. For their dressage,
2604-482: A period of marked economic growth for Venezuela. Cocoa plantations were established along the littoral valleys, which resulted in large importations of slaves . The growth of the cocoa-exporting economy was created by the Real Compañía Guipuzcoana de Caracas , which was granted a full monopoly over exports and imports in 1728. The company's second largest export was tobacco . It also promoted
2790-428: A priest, often their own family members, by eliminating these endowed funds ( capellanías ) that the lower clergy depended on disproportionately. Prominently in Mexico, lower clergy participated in the insurgency for independence with priests Miguel Hidalgo and José María Morelos . The reforms had mixed results. In some areas—such as Cuba , Río de la Plata and New Spain —the reforms had positive effects, improving
2976-832: A process of Balkanization in Latin America . Thus, the strict period of military campaigns ranges from the Battle of Chacaltaya (1809) in present-day Bolivia , to the Battle of Tampico (1829) in Mexico . In 1808, Napoleon Bonaparte , as part of his Continental Blockade strategy against the British Empire , forced the Spanish royal family to abdicate the throne, imposed the Bayonne Statute , and installed his brother, Joseph Bonaparte , as King of Spain. In
3162-514: A royalist army under La Serna's command in the Battle of Ayacucho on 9 December 1824. La Serna's army was numerically superior but consisted of mostly new recruits. The only significant royalist area remaining on the continent was the highland country of Upper Peru . Following the Battle of Ayacucho, the royalist troops of Upper Peru under the command of Olañeta surrendered after he died in Tumusla on 2 April 1825. Bolívar tended to favor maintaining
3348-470: A second, large, expeditionary force in 1819. This force, however, never left Spain. Instead, it became the means by which liberals were finally able to reinstate a constitutional regime. On 1 January 1820, Rafael Riego , commander of the Asturias Battalion, headed a rebellion among the troops, demanding the return of the 1812 Constitution. His troops marched through the cities of Andalusia with
3534-492: A state composed of regional departments . Venezuela became the Department of Venezuela through this territorial reorganization. The rising animosity between Venezuelans and New Granadians , due to irreconcilable differences in opinion as to how the new republic ought to be governed, led to the inevitable collapse of Gran Colombia in 1830. After 1830, the provinces within the old Captaincy General of Venezuela constituted
3720-467: A team of llaneros armed with lassos , they scurry and strongly immobilize the legs of the stallion with their lassos, another llanero arrives and rides on top of the beast, cuts off part of the mane to show that it has been tamed and grabs what remains, the ranger gives the Order and the others remove their lassos, the beast, being accustomed to the freedom of the plain, will try with all its might to take off
3906-577: A tenth of the royalist armies in Spanish America, and only about half of the expeditionary units, once they were deployed in the Americas. Since each European soldier casualty was replaced by a Spanish American soldier, over time, there were more and more Spanish American soldiers in the expeditionary units. For example, Pablo Morillo , commander in chief of the expeditionary force sent to South America, reported that he had only 2,000 European soldiers under his command in 1820; in other words, only half
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#17327757486974092-476: A term which eventually was generally applied to them. The idea that independence was not the initial concern is evidenced by the fact that few areas declared independence in the years after 1810. The congresses of Venezuela and New Granada did so in 1811 and also Paraguay in same year (14 and 15 May 1811). Some historians explain the reluctance to declare independence as a "mask of Ferdinand VII": that is, that patriot leaders felt that they needed to claim loyalty to
4278-547: A virtual prisoner, agreed to restore the Constitution. Riego's Revolt had two significant effects on the war in the Americas. Militarily, the large numbers of reinforcements, which were especially needed to retake New Granada and defend the Viceroyalty of Peru, would never arrive. Furthermore, as the royalists' situation became more desperate in region after region, the army experienced wholesale defections of units to
4464-537: Is based on meat, fish, chicken, chiguire meat (also known as capybara ), rice, arepas , and other starches, although wheat is not used. Llanero Ken, a doll dressed in the distinctive Llanero costume liqui liqui , including a customary starched hat, has become a popular doll in Venezuela. The Spanish also used the term to describe the nomadic tribes of the Llano Estacado of Texas and New Mexico and
4650-635: Is provided by the Royal Decree [ Real Cédula ] of February 15 of this year on the addition of the City of Trujillo and its jurisdiction to the Government of Maracaibo; and the creation for the present of a separate Command in the Province of Barinas. And to avoid the harm that would arise for the inhabitants of said Provinces of Maracaibo, Cumamá, Guayana, Margarita and Island of Trinidad, comprising
4836-469: The cabresteros , but the cheese makers, saddlers, bongueros and vegueros , each of them doing tasks that would be considered feminine for the time. Sobre la paja, la palma; sobre la palma, los cielos; sobre mi caballo, yo, y sobre mi, mi sombrero His way of riding a horse is different from that of his American companions. Ramón Páez in his book Wild Scenes in South America; or Life in
5022-536: The Junta Suprema de Caracas on 19 April 1810, set the stage for the fighting that would afflict the region for the next decade and a half. Political fault lines appeared, and were often the causes of military conflict. On the one hand the juntas challenged the authority of all royal officials, whether they recognized the Regency or not. On the other hand, royal officials and Spanish Americans who desired to keep
5208-568: The Llaneros , mixed-race slave and plains people, by attacking the white landowning class. Boves and his followers often disregarded the command of Spanish officials and were not concerned with actually re-establishing the toppled royal government, choosing instead to keep real power among themselves. Finally, in the back country of Upper Peru , the republiquetas kept the idea of independence alive by allying with disenfranchised members of rural society and native groups, but were never able to take
5394-455: The 1812 Constitution and to maintain the unity of the Spanish monarchy . However, these efforts proved fruitless, since independence and unity of the monarchy could not be reconciled, so the army sailed in late October to a better strategic position in Huacho , in northern Peru. During the next few months, successful land and naval campaigns against the royalists secured the new foothold, and it
5580-883: The 18th century , the Habsburg dynasty was replaced by the Bourbons , and the Spanish Empire declined in Europe to a second-rate power following the War of the Spanish Succession , but continued to be an important global power due to its possessions in the Americas. Similarly, the replacement of the Bourbons with the Bonaparte dynasty aimed to preserve the empire's integrity. However, Napoleonic Spain (1808-1813)
5766-546: The Alhóndiga de Granaditas in Guanajuato. In Venezuela during his Admirable Campaign , Simón Bolívar instituted a policy of a war to the death , in which royalist Spanish Americans would be purposely spared but even neutral Peninsulares would be killed, to drive a wedge between the two groups. This policy laid the ground for the violent royalist reaction under Boves. Often though, royalism or patriotism simply provided
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5952-540: The Bogotá Audiencia [ es ] ; the other three provinces by the one in Santo Domingo . The following year a joint governorship- captaincy general with powers over military and administrative matters was established for the same provinces. Regional governors and military commanders were subordinated to the governor-captain general of Caracas. To maintain uniformity in judicial matters, in 1777
6138-575: The Bourbon Reforms of the mid-eighteenth century introduced changes to the relationship of Spanish Americans to the Crown. The language used to describe the overseas empire shifted from "kingdoms" with independent standing with the crown to "colonies" subordinate to Spain. In an effort to better control the administration and economy of the overseas possessions the Crown reintroduced the practice of appointing outsiders, almost all peninsulars , to
6324-575: The Council of Castile , which led to the creation of a main government: the " Supreme Central and Governmental Junta of Spain and the Indies " on 25 September 1808. It was agreed that the kingdoms of the peninsula would send two representatives to this Supreme Central Junta, and that the overseas kingdoms would send one representative each. These kingdoms were defined as "the viceroyalties of New Spain (Mexico), Peru , New Granada , and Buenos Aires , and
6510-717: The New Kingdom of Granada . Thanks to their mannerisms, ethnic origin, dialect, culture, and role in the Spanish American Wars of Independence , Venezuelan civil wars and in Montoneras it has been romanticized and idealized and become the Venezuelan national hero and mythos. In the 16th century, the first herd was introduced about twenty-five leagues from the city of Calabozo by Cristóbal Rodríguez along with eleven families from El Tocuyo . He founded
6696-796: The Province of Trinidad was lost to the British in 1797. New Spain American Confederation of Venezuela Caudillismo Andean Hegemony Democratic period Bolivarian Revolution The Royal Decree establishing the Captaincy General: The King.—Inasmuch and keeping in mind what has been reported to me by the current Viceroy, Governor and Captain General of the New Kingdom of Granada and
6882-612: The restoration of the Republic and attempts by Pablo Morillo to suspend the Audiencia, both the Audiencia and the Captaincy General continued to function until 1821. Independence for Venezuela was consolidated in 1821 as part of Gran Colombia . The Congress of Cucuta looked to the territorial area of former Viceroyalty of New Granada (during the period of 1739–1777) as the basis for its territorial claims, and created
7068-401: The "war to the death" and carried out the execution of thirty-eight royalist officers who had surrendered. With the resources of New Granada, Bolívar became the undisputed leader of the patriots in Venezuela and orchestrated the union of the two regions in a new state called Colombia (Gran Colombia) . To counter the advances the pro-independence forces had made in South America, Spain prepared
7254-508: The 1820s. In Mexico, where the junta movement had been stopped in its early stages by a coalition of peninsular merchants and government officials, efforts to establish a government independent of the Regency or the French took the form of rebellion, under the leadership of Miguel Hidalgo . Hidalgo was captured and executed in 1811, but a resistance movement continued, which declared independence from Spain in 1813 . The Gutiérrez–Magee Expedition
7440-473: The 18th century evidenced the empire's difficulties in reinforcing its colonial possessions and provide them with economic aid. This led to an increased local participation in the financing of the defense and an increased participation in the militias by the Chilean-born. Such development was at odds with the ideals of the centralized absolute monarchy . The Spanish did also formal concessions to strengthen
7626-700: The Achaguas, the Yaguales, the Arichunas and Caquetíos ( Arawak family) were already almost destroyed by a war that lasted eighty years before the conquest, so that evangelization and its eventual miscegenation was given without much trouble. The indigenous component in the region was quite predominant, but today, it does not represent a third. For the 16th century the Spanish Crown prohibited amerindians, blacks or creole whites from riding an equine since it
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7812-600: The Andean hegemony and the birth of the Venezuelan oil industry. Its ethnic origin dates back to the union of the Arawaks , Andalusians , Canarians and to a lesser extent the slaves brought by The Crown during the Spanish colonization of the Americas . The way of working and being comes from the current Apure and Barinas states of the Venezuelans who adapted and modified Andalusian customs, and then exported them to
7998-513: The Army over the Andes in a move that turned the tables on the royalists. By 10 February, San Martín had control of northern and central Chile, and a year later, after a war with no quarter , the south. With the aid of a fleet under the command of former British naval officer Thomas Cochrane , Chile was secured from royalist control and independence was declared that year. San Martín and his allies spent
8184-527: The British Legion perished, as well as many of his Llanero soldiers, who were not prepared for the nearly 4,000-meter altitudes—but the gamble paid off. By August Bolívar was in control of Bogotá and its treasury, and gained the support of many in New Granada, which still resented the harsh reconquest carried out under Morillo. Nevertheless, Santander found it necessary to continue the policy of
8370-407: The Captaincy General of Venezuela, in the same manner that they are in regards to the administration of my Royal Treasury to the new Intendancy established in said Province and city of Caracas, its capital. In the same manner I have resolved to separate in judicial matters from the Audiencia of Santa Fe, and to add to the old one of Santo Domingo, the two mentioned Provinces of Maracaibo and Guayana, in
8556-682: The Captaincy General. The provinces of Maracaibo and Guayana, along with the city of Coro, rejected the republic, and after a year of war against the royalists, this First Republic collapsed. The provinces that had created the Venezuelan Republic were reconquered by Frigate Captain Domingo de Monteverde , who usurped power from the appointed Captain General Fernando Miyares . Because of this the Cortes of Cádiz erected
8742-550: The Caribbean and the Philippine Islands remained under control of royalists for the next decade and participated in the Cortes of Cádiz efforts to establish a liberal government for the Spanish monarchy. The recruitment of soldiers seemed to end up a common pool employed by opposing sides as cannon fodder. Socially, both apparently opposing positions, loyalist and pro-independence, had an uncertain significance for
8928-522: The Cedula de Poblacion of 1783 opening the island of Trinidad to immigration from, primarily, the French Caribbean islands. Negotiated by Phillipe Rose Roume de Saint-Laurant , the edict consists of 28 articles governing various forms of land grants to encourage population growth, the naturalization of inhabitants, taxation, the arming of slave owners, the duty and function of a militia to protect
9114-541: The Cortes of Cádiz was located in Spain, political and economic power and decisions were localized in Spain, effectively giving them control over all of colonial Latin America. These tensions further frustrated many Spanish-Americans because of their inability to control the politics that directly affected their economic and sociopolitical wellbeing, further leading them towards independence. This climate of instability created
9300-465: The Cortes, based on provinces, and not kingdoms, was more equitable and provided more time to determine what would be considered an overseas province. The Cortes of Cádiz was the first national assembly to claim sovereignty in Spain. It represented the abolition of the old kingdoms. The opening session was held on 24 September 1810, in the building now known as the Real Teatro de las Cortes under
9486-497: The Cortes. With Ferdinand VII's return, Venezuela was reunited in one captaincy general. In 1812 a new Audiencia appointed by the Cortes was able to return in Caracas. Under the leadership of Dominican-born Regent José Francisco Heredia (father of Cuban poet José María Heredia y Heredia ), the Audiencia put up fierce resistance to Monteverde's attempts to rule the Captaincy General under martial law . After an interruption due to
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#17327757486979672-494: The Creole potentates of European origin could give their support to the royalist or pro-independence cause, in relation to the commercial interests of each region. The Church was also divided, and except for the lower clergy, involved as combatants of insurgency, their position was in accordance with the political power. Winning Spanish American independence also involved civil war. The creation of juntas in Spanish America, such as
9858-650: The Liberator Simón Bolívar (the Llaneros called him culo de hierro – or "iron buttocks " – for his endurance on horseback). Those who in the end would get the llanero's sympathy for their cause. Páez, el centauro de los Llanos , the clarified citizen or the Taita was a man of the people, of humble and Canarian origin but above all llanero; Raised as one to become an excellent spearman, cabrestero , baquiano and leader, he made an image in
10044-460: The New World, and mestizos , of mixed Indigenous and European heritage, replaced Spanish-born appointees in most political offices. Criollos remained at the top of a social structure that retained some of its traditional features culturally, if not legally. Slavery finally ended in all of the new nations. For almost a century thereafter, conservatives and liberals fought to reverse or to deepen
10230-470: The Pacific to counter Spanish control of those waters and reach the royalist stronghold of Lima . By mid-1820 San Martín had assembled a fleet of eight warships and sixteen transport ships under the command of Admiral Cochrane . The fleet set sail from Valparaíso to Paracas in southern Peru . On 7 September, the army landed at Paracas and successfully took Pisco . After this, San Martín, waiting for
10416-433: The Provinces of Maracaibo and Guayana observe the provisions that in the future my Royal Audiencia of Santo Domingo issues, accepting the appeals that are lodged before it according to and in the manner they have been, or should have been done, before the Audiencia of Santa Fe; such is my will. Given in San Ildefonso on the eighth of September of 1777.—I the King. As representative of the King of Spain, José de Gálvez signed
10602-433: The Páez lancers, an army of llaneros made up of all classes, including the Negro Primero, a black maroon turned llanero of great caliber, were crucial in several battles, such as that of Las Queseras del Medio, in which 153 Paez llaneros lancers under the tactic "Vuelvan Caras" defeated with only 2 deaths 1,200 Spanish riders, giving a quantity of 400 casualties to the royalist side. The llaneros were also of vital importance in
10788-411: The Society of Jesus go into permanent exile. By limiting the power of the Church, the crown attempted to centralize itself within the institutions of colonial Latin America. Because of the physical and ideological proximity that the clergy had, they could directly influence and dictate the interactions between populations of colonial Latin America, either as legal counsel or an advisor; a directness which
10974-531: The Spanish Cortes and Ferdinand VII rejected the Treaty of Córdoba, and the final break with the mother country came on 19 May 1822, when the Mexican Congress conferred the throne on Iturbide. Spain recognized Mexico's independence in 1836. Central America gained its independence along with New Spain. On 15 September 1821, an Act of Independence was signed in Guatemala City which declared Central America (Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica) independent from Spain. The regional elites supported
11160-433: The Spanish proposal that the patriots rejoin Spain under the Spanish Constitution, the two sides established a six-month truce and the regularization of the rules of engagement under the law of nations on 25 and 26 November. The truce did not last six months. It was apparent to all that the royalist cause had been greatly weakened by the lack of reinforcements. Royalist soldiers and whole units began to desert or defect to
11346-425: The Spanish world almost uniformly rejected Napoleon's plan to place his brother, Joseph , on the throne, there was no clear solution to the lack of a king. Following traditional Spanish political theories on the contractual nature of the monarchy (see Philosophy of Law of Francisco Suárez ), the peninsular provinces responded to the crisis by establishing juntas . The move, however, led to more confusion, since there
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#173277574869711532-438: The Spanish world during the wars of independence were influenced by these factors. The Peninsular War was the trigger for conflicts in Spanish America in the absence of a legitimate monarch. The Peninsular War began an extended period of instability in the worldwide Spanish monarchy that lasted until 1823. Napoleon forced the Bourbon monarchs to abdicate, which precipitated a political crisis in Spain and Spanish America. Although
11718-401: The Supreme Junta. In particular Quito and Chuquisaca , which saw themselves as the capitals of kingdoms, resented being subsumed in the larger Viceroyalty of Peru and Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata respectively. This unrest led to the establishment of juntas in these cities in 1809, which were eventually quashed by the authorities within the year. An unsuccessful attempt at establishing
11904-400: The Venezuelan Llanos makes two observations about the way of riding of these riders Just like among the Arabs, riders never put their foot fully into the stirrups, and only hold on with their big toes to quickly get rid of them in the event of a fall. This continued habit of riding, arches the legs and feet in a characteristic way, and accredits them fame of good horsemen Very few people in
12090-431: The approval of the Venezuelan congress . Unlike San Martín, however, Bolívar did not have a professionally trained army, but rather a quickly assembled mix of Llanero guerrillas, New Granadan exiles led by Santander and British recruits . From June to July 1819, using the rainy season as cover, Bolívar led his army across the flooded plains and over the cold, forbidding passes of the Andes, with heavy losses—a quarter of
12276-401: The authorities early enough to stop them before they gained widespread support. Major cities and regional rivalry played an important role in the wars. The disappearance of a central, imperial authority—and in some cases of even a local, viceregal authority (as in the cases of New Granada and Río de la Plata)—initiated a prolonged period of balkanization in many regions of Spanish America. It
12462-470: The beginning of the independence process, the plains were an indispensable region due to its rich livestock and agricultural resources, and for having above all many strong, fast, disciplined riders, accustomed to a harsh environment. The plains (as the Andes), due to its difficulty of transportation, were an abandoned area compared to the others in the Captaincy General of Venezuela , this caused its inhabitants to develop their own way of life apart from
12648-434: The campaigns of Urica, Swamp of Vargas, Boyacá, the batlle of Junín, the battle of Ayacucho and Carabobo , which were decisive for the republican side. Llanero are divided into four types: the Cabrestero, the Baquiano, the Cuatrero and the Musician. The large crossings between herds to transport livestock are extremely rigorous and demanding. These cabresteros and baquianos guide thousands or hundreds of cattle through
12834-440: The clergy, the crown, according to William B. Taylor , undermined its own legitimacy, since parish priests had been traditionally the "natural local representatives of their Catholic king." In the economic sphere, the crown sought to gain control over church revenues. The Church functioned as one of the largest economic institutions within colonial Latin America. It owned and retained jurisdiction over large amounts of land, which
13020-419: The conditions for the two sides to forge an alliance. This alliance coalesced towards the end of 1820 behind Agustín de Iturbide , a colonel in the royal army, who at the time was assigned to destroy the guerrilla forces led by Vicente Guerrero . In January 1821, in expectation of the abolition in Spain of the Constitution of 1812, Iturbide was chosen and was sent by the officials of New Spain with Guerrero,
13206-403: The creation of a wealthy Creole class and further adapting those institutions to meet demands, rather than propose a radical shift in the complete make-up of socioeconomic life and traditions. However, institutional change did not come as anticipated and further spurred on the radicalization of Spanish-American social classes towards independence. Spain's international wars in the second half of
13392-452: The crown wanted for itself because of the economic value which could be derived from the land. Moreover, by taking that land for itself, the Crown had the opportunity to cut down the physical presence of the Church to further weaken its ideological and social role within local colonial communities. In a financial crisis of 1804, the crown attempted to call in debts owed the church, mainly in
13578-409: The crown would need to attempt to create the centralized, colonial state which it wanted to implement. Later in the eighteenth century the crown sought to decrease the privileges ( fueros ) of the clergy, restricting clerical authority to spiritual matters and undermining the power of parish priests, who often acted as agents of the crown in rural parishes. By desacralizing power and frontal attacks on
13764-503: The deadly piranhas and alligators that inhabit these waters, thanks to the stampedes, they usually did not approach these transfers, but from time to time an alligator was seen blocking the path, so the llaneros, armed with a knife and his falseta, had to sank underwater to catch the alligator and get it out of the way. If the piranhas reached these waters, the only option was to escape as quickly as possible, due to how fierce and dangerous they are. This river crossing took several hours. At
13950-414: The defense: In Chiloé Archipelago Spanish authorities promised freedom from the encomienda those indigenous locals who settled near the new stronghold of Ancud (founded in 1768) and contributed to its defense. The increased local organization of the defenses would ultimately undermine metropolitan authority and bolster the independence movement. Other factors may include Enlightenment thinking and
14136-422: The delay in the decisions with the most grave harm to my Royal Service. Therefore, to avoid these and greater harm, which would result in case of an invasion, I have best resolved the absolute separation of said Provinces of Cumaná, Guayana and Maracaibo, and islands of Trinidad and Margarita, from the Viceroyalty and Captaincy General of the New Kingdom of Granada, and add them in government and military matters to
14322-504: The deposed monarch to prepare the masses for the radical change that full independence eventually would entail. Nevertheless, even areas such as Río de la Plata and Chile, which more or less maintained de facto independence from the peninsular authorities, did not declare independence until quite a few years later, in 1816 and 1818, respectively. Overall, despite achieving formal or de facto independence, many regions of Spanish America were marked by nearly continuous wars, which lasted well into
14508-514: The development of new national boundaries based on the colonial provinces , which would form the future independent countries that constituted contemporary Latin America during the early 19th century. Cuba and Puerto Rico remained under Spanish rule until the 1898 Spanish–American War . The conflict resulted in the dissolution of the Spanish monarchy and the creation of new states. The independence of Spanish America did not constitute an anticolonial movement. The new republics immediately abandoned
14694-478: The different social strata of the monarchy. In Europe, the Spaniards made a forced recruitment for the expeditionary forces, leading to constant rebellions. Independent states relied on privateers, mercenaries, volunteers, adventurers or filibusters, reliable fighters when pay or booty was at a glance. For the mobilization of the population in the Americas, the vast majority or almost all of the troops of both sides,
14880-560: The direct causes of the wars of independence, which took place decades later, but they have been considered important elements of the political background in which the wars took place. Many Creoles, particularly the wealthy Creoles, were negatively impacted by the Bourbon Reforms. This resulted in their taking action by using their wealth and positions within society, often as leaders within their communities, to spur resistance to convey their displeasure with Spanish reforms because of
15066-776: The dissolution of the Second Republic . Participating in different campaigns and battles such as the Campaign of the Valleys of Aragua and El Tuy, the Second Battle de la Puerta, the Siege of Valencia and the emigration to the East until achieving the dissolution of the Second Republic and commanding its own militia made up of thousands of llaneros. The fall of the Second Republic brought with it several consequences for
15252-482: The duration of the wars. Underlying social and racial tensions also had a great impact on the nature of the fighting. Rural areas were pitted against urban centers, as grievances against the authorities found an outlet in the political conflict. This was the case with Hidalgo's peasant revolt, which was fueled as much by discontent over several years of bad harvests as with events in the Peninsular War. Hidalgo
15438-404: The effort of Spanish liberals to create a representative government that would fully include the overseas possessions. Such a government was seen as an alternative to independence by many in New Spain, Central America, the Caribbean, Quito, Peru, Upper Peru and Chile. Yet the news of the restoration of the " Ancien Régime " did not initiate a new wave of juntas, as had happened in 1809 and 1810, with
15624-448: The emergence of the new Spanish American republics in the post-Napoleonic world. Political independence was not necessarily the foreordained outcome of the political turmoil in Spanish America. "There was little interest in outright independence." As historians R.A. Humphreys and John Lynch note, "it is all too easy to equate the forces of discontent or even the forces of change with the forces of revolution." Since "by definition, there
15810-518: The empire together were split between liberals, who supported the efforts of the Cortes, and conservatives (often called " absolutists " in the historiography), who did not want to see any innovations in government. Finally, although the juntas claimed to carry out their actions in the name of the deposed king, Ferdinand VII , their creation provided an opportunity for people who favored outright independence to promote their agenda publicly and safely. The proponents of independence called themselves patriots,
15996-433: The end of the day, after eating, they took out their hammocks and put them on the available palm trees or trees, where these cowboys could rest quietly. If there were no logs nearby, they used the blanket and hammock for a kind of makeshift bed. If they had the opportunity and the fortune to find a pulpería -kind of hotel and groceries store-, they rested in those facilities thanks to the kindness of their owners. The quality of
16182-611: The end of this period the pro-independence forces made two important advances. In the Southern Cone , a veteran of the Spanish army with experience in the Peninsular War, José de San Martín , became the governor of the Province of Cuyo . He used this position to begin organizing an army as early as 1814 in preparation for an invasion of Chile. This was an important change in strategy after three United Provinces campaigns had been defeated in Upper Peru . San Martín's army became
16368-653: The examples of the Atlantic Revolutions. The Enlightenment spurred the desire for social and economic reform to spread throughout Spanish America and the Iberian Peninsula. Ideas about free trade and physiocratic economics were raised by the Enlightenment in Spain and spread to the overseas empire and a homegrown Spanish American Enlightenment . The political reforms implemented and the many constitutions written both in Spain and throughout
16554-736: The exploration and settlement of Venezuela's frontiers, most famously under the Expedition of the Limits, 1750-1761 headed by José de Iturriaga y Aguirre, which resulted in new settlements in Guayana Province . This growth was not experienced evenly, and the monopoly hurt small farmers, who continued to sell most of their product in the contraband trade. Resentment of the Company exploded in open revolt in 1749 headed by Canarian immigrant Juan Francisco de León. The Captaincy General, which
16740-493: The few cowboy presidents that history has seen. Contrary to Boves, Páez did not raise the llaneros based on their hatred, but based on their needs, first freeing them from Spanish rule and then the future Bogotá oligarchy. Bolívar Coronado points out that Sea que estuviesen oprimidos por el coronel Gonzalo de Orozco, que era el encargado general de Rodríguez, sea porque éste apoyaba en todo las trapacerías y atentados contra los intereses y contra el honor de los colindantes, cometidos
16926-777: The first law regulating the abuse of large hatcheries on the plain. From this date, the cuatreros who stole the cattle of the plains emerged, characterized by being armed robberies. At the end of the 18th century, the region exported 30,000 mules a year to the Antilles and sacrificed meat for the 1.5 million slaves there and in Cuba. There were 1.2 million head of cattle in the area before 1815. Between 1916 - 1917 Bolívar Coronado indicates that Los jinetes andaluces introdujeron en tierras llaneras las costumbres, los sistemas de organizar vacadas, someterlas, domarlas; pero ya por las necesidades de la propia naturaleza tropical, enteramente distinta
17112-471: The form of mortgages for haciendas owned by the elites. The Act of Consolidation simultaneously threatened the wealth of the church, whose capital was mainly lent for mortgages, as well as threatening the financial well-being of elites, who depended on mortgages for acquiring and keeping their estates. Shortening the repayment period meant many elites were faced with bankruptcy. The crown also sought to gain access to benefices elite families set aside to support
17298-478: The form of supplies and an army under Antonio José de Sucre to Guayaquil in February 1821. For a year Sucre was unable to take Quito, and by November both sides, exhausted, signed a ninety-day armistice. The following year, at the Battle of Pichincha on 24 May 1822, Sucre's Venezuelan forces finally conquered Quito; Gran Colombia's hold on the territory was secure. The following year, after a Peruvian patriot army
17484-626: The formal system of the Inquisition and noble titles. In most of these new countries, slavery was not abolished, and racial classification and hierarchy were imposed. Total abolition did not come until the 1850s in most of the Latin American republics. A caste system , influenced by the scientific racism of the European Enlightenment , was maintained until the 20th century. The Criollos of European descent born in
17670-727: The general political and intellectual climate of popular sovereignty that emerged from the Age of Enlightenment that influenced all of the Atlantic Revolutions , including the earlier revolutions in the United States and France . A more direct cause of the Spanish American wars of independence were the unique developments occurring within the Kingdom of Spain triggered by the Cortes of Cadiz , concluding with
17856-492: The general population and the hierarchy of the Spanish Catholic Church ; so, on 4 May, he repudiated the Constitution and ordered the arrest of liberal leaders on 10 May. Ferdinand justified his actions by stating that the Constitution and other changes had been made by a Cortes assembled in his absence and without his consent. He restored the former legal codes and political institutions and promised to convene
18042-673: The government of the Supreme Central Junta of Seville . At the beginning of 1810, new juntas appeared across Spanish America when the Central Junta fell to the French invasion. Although various regions objected to many crown policies, "there was little interest in outright independence; indeed there was widespread support for the Spanish Central Junta formed to lead the resistance against the French". While some Spanish Americans believed that independence
18228-467: The governors of the Provinces of Guayana and Maracaibo on the inconveniences that are created in the indicated provinces, as well as those of Cumaná and Islands of Margarita and Trinidad, by remaining united as they are to the Viceroyalty and Captaincy General of the indicated New Kingdom of Granada, because of the distance at which they find themselves from its capital Santa Fe, resulting as a consequence
18414-457: The ground. Llanero music is distinctive for its use of the harp , the maracas and a small guitar called a cuatro . The joropo , a Llanero dance, has become the national dance of Venezuela, and of the Llanos of Colombia. While Llanero music is relatively unknown outside of Colombia and Venezuela, the musical groups Los Llaneros and Cimarrón have toured throughout the world. Llanero cuisine
18600-588: The guerrilla movements. However, Ferdinand's actions did set areas outside of the control of the crown on the path to full independence. The governments of these regions, which had their origins in the juntas of 1810, and even moderates there, who had entertained a reconciliation with the crown, now saw the need to separate from Spain if they were to protect the reforms they had enacted. During this period, royalist forces made advances into New Granada, which they controlled from 1815 to 1819, and into Chile, which they controlled from 1814 to 1817. Except for royalist areas in
18786-513: The hope of extending the uprising to the civilian population, but locals were mostly indifferent. An uprising, however, did occur in Galicia in northern Spain, and from there it quickly spread throughout the country. On 7 March, the royal palace in Madrid was surrounded by soldiers under the command of General Francisco Ballesteros , and three days later, on 10 March, the besieged Ferdinand VII, now
18972-403: The immense plains because the railroad had not yet been introduced in that region (they still do not have a railroad). Each beef being marked according to the membership herd. Thanks to Bolívar Coronado we have several brands of cattle belonging to various herds of the 18th century, such as those of Evangelina López and Pedro Fraile. The cattle were not in bars, so the only way to differentiate them
19158-555: The independent captaincies general of the island of Cuba , Puerto Rico , Guatemala , Chile , Province of Venezuela , and the Philippines ." This plan was criticized for providing unequal representation to Spanish America; nevertheless, throughout the end of 1808 and early 1809, the regional capitals elected candidates, whose names were forwarded to the capitals of the viceroyalties or captaincies general. Several important and large cities were left without direct representation in
19344-460: The indiscriminate recruitment of native American communities was used, in general in traditional confronted regions; social improvements were promised, by both sides, to the indigenous and the different mestizo colonial castes, such as mulattoes ("pardos"), cholos, etc., and even African slaves were recruited by both sides. All those recruited in the Americas, and also the Spaniards, joined the enemy armies as combatants when they were captured. Likewise,
19530-406: The intervening years from the frontier regions of Maracaibo Province. The Audiencia was composed of a regent judge, three judges and a crown attorney. The governor-captain general served as its president. It was to carry out justice and to watch over the action of royal officials in the area of its jurisdiction. It only communicated directly with the Council of the Indies in Spain. A consulado
19716-498: The island, and trade and mercantile issues. The Royal Decree ( Real Cédula ) of June 13, 1786, was the first to establish the Real Audiencia, describe its functions and to define its limits (subsequent ones defined further faculties and appointed members): His Majesty has resolved in view of everything, that the Province of Maracaibo continue united, as it is, to the Captaincy General and Intendancy of Caracas, keeping what
19902-466: The island-city of Cádiz . The Supreme Junta replaced itself with a smaller, five-man council, called the Regency, or the Council of Regency of Spain and the Indies . Next, to establish a more legitimate government system, the Regency called for the convening of an "extraordinary and general Cortes of the Spanish Nation": which was convened as the Cortes of Cádiz . The plan for the election of
20088-519: The leader of the rebellions. He began so-called "peace" negotiations, suggesting the parties unite to establish an independent New Spain. Later, Iturbide was dethroned and quietly captured to be executed. The simple terms that Iturbide proposed became the basis of the Plan of Iguala : the independence of New Spain (now to be called the Mexican Empire) with Ferdinand VII or another Bourbon as emperor;
20274-407: The liberal Constitution of Cadiz , although he could not defeat the revolutionaries in Spanish America, who resisted and formed their own national congresses. The Spanish navy had collapsed in the war against Napoleon, so therefore, in practice, it did not support the expeditionary forces who arrived in small groups. In 1820 the Spanish army, led by Rafael Riego , revolted against absolutism, restored
20460-514: The llanero had several physical characteristics that resembled the Arabic one. Bolívar Coronado said La amada, o la querida, o la esposa, el caballo y la guitarra: he aquí los dioses del llanero Always on horseback, sober, haughty and extremely manly. Black coffee drinker and chimó chewer, a kind of tobacco. The llanero did both the male and female tasks. The great terrain of the plain forced them to be versatile when working so we have not only
20646-405: The llanero. The roof is casupo, a long leaf that is placed superimposed like tiles and is tied with a meccatillo . Those leaves are dried and toasted by the sun, it is a totally waterproof and cool roof. Its bahareque walls are made by opening a hole in the ground and there is a lot of wet mud put in it, a lot of straw cut into small pieces is added to it and a few men get into the hole to step on
20832-529: The llaneros. The main causes of the union of the llaneros with Boves was the repression made by the republicans towards them, the capture of black maroons who had escaped in the skirmish of the First Republic, the recruited peons and slaves, among others. All this had as a reaction a complete rejection in this land towards the republic. Boves, under a pirate flag as the main banner and a montonera made up mainly of lancers, started his participation in
21018-442: The llano. During the year, the Llaneros have to drive cattle great distances. During the winter wet season , the Llaneros have to drive the cattle to higher ground as the poor drainage of the plains means that the annual floods are extensive. Conversely, they have to drive the cattle towards wet areas during the dry summer. The Llaneros show their skills in coleo competitions, similar to rodeos, where they compete to drag cattle to
21204-773: The local economy and the efficiency of the government. In other areas, the changes in the crown's economic and administrative policies led to tensions with locals, which at times erupted into open revolts, such as the Revolt of the Comuneros in New Granada and the Rebellion of Túpac Amaru II in Peru . The loss of high offices to peninsulars and the eighteenth-century revolts in Spanish South America were some of
21390-468: The local society. Liberals on both sides of the Atlantic, nevertheless, continued to conspire to bring back a constitutional monarchy, ultimately succeeding in 1820. The most dramatic example of transatlantic collaboration is perhaps Francisco Javier Mina 's expedition to Texas and northern Mexico in 1816 and 1817. Spanish Americans in royalist areas who were committed to independence had already joined
21576-481: The main military effort of Spain was aimed at preserving the island of Cuba and the viceroyalty of Mexico in North America. But in 1814, with the restoration of Ferdinand VII, the strategic line of the war changed drastically, directing the major Spanish military effort towards South America. By 1815 the general outlines of which areas were controlled by royalists and pro-independence forces were established and
21762-480: The major cities or local province, the patria in Spanish. More often than not, juntas sought to maintain a province's independence from the capital of the former viceroyalty or captaincy general as much as from the Peninsula itself. Armed conflicts broke out between the provinces over the question of whether some cities or provinces were to be subordinate to others as they had been under the crown. This phenomenon
21948-446: The major population centers. Increasingly violent confrontations developed between Spaniards and Spanish Americans, but this tension was often related to class issues or fomented by patriot leaders to create a new sense of nationalism. After being incited to rid the country of the gachupines (a disparaging term for Peninsulares ), Hidalgo's forces indiscriminately massacred hundreds of Criollos and Peninsulares who had taken refuge at
22134-591: The majority of what is now regarded as South America . Following years of colonization by colonial Spain , the Bourbon dynasty took steps towards reorganizing their overseas possessions and Venezuela, in particular. When the New Granadan Viceroyalty was reestablished in 1739, the governor-captain general of Caracas was given military jurisdiction over the provinces of Maracaibo , Cumaná, Guayana, Trinidad and Margarita. The 18th century also marked
22320-539: The ministers who should serve in one and the other. The independence movement for Venezuela began with the establishment of the Caracas Junta in 1810. After the Venezuelan Declaration of Independence in 1811, the provinces of Caracas, Cumaná, Barinas, Margarita, and the newly separated ones of Barcelona , Trujillo , and Mérida established a Republic of Venezuela , which claimed the area of
22506-512: The mud until it is well mixed. Previously a frame is made with sticks and verada. For the walls, the mud is thrown until filling the spaces of the frame. The bahareque is very cool, it is ideal for the climate of the plain. Its patterns always follow rectangular shapes; It is also used for internal furniture, made entirely from the materials available on site. The external branches attached to the bahareque are called caney. Cattle form an important part of Llanero culture. There are 12 million cattle on
22692-559: The need to formally establish independence from the metropole . In Spain, a French army of the Holy Alliance invaded and supported the absolutists, restored Ferdinand VII, and occupied Spain until 1828. These conflicts were fought both as irregular warfare and conventional warfare . Some historians claim that the wars began as localized civil wars, that later spread and expanded as secessionist wars to promote general independence from Spanish rule. This independence led to
22878-455: The negative economic impact which they had. However, because of how quickly their revolts would further radicalize the lower classes, the Creoles quickly stopped supporting general violent insurrection because they benefitted from social change that occurred through the systems of the Spanish crown. Institutional change ensured stability by supporting the political institutions that allowed for
23064-475: The next two years planning an invasion of Peru, which began in 1820. In northern South America, after several failed campaigns to take Caracas and other urban centers of Venezuela, Simón Bolívar devised a similar plan in 1819 to cross the Andes and liberate New Granada from the royalists. Like San Martín, Bolívar personally undertook the efforts to create an army to invade a neighboring country, collaborated with pro-independence exiles from that region, and lacked
23250-429: The northeast and south, the provinces of New Granada had maintained independence from Spain since 1810, unlike neighboring Venezuela, where royalists and pro-independence forces had exchanged control of the region several times. To pacify Venezuela and to retake New Granada, Spain organized in 1815 the largest armed force it ever sent to the New World, consisting of 10,500 troops and nearly sixty ships. Although this force
23436-565: The notable exception of the establishment of a junta in Cuzco demanding the implementation of the Spanish Constitution. Instead most Spanish Americans were moderates who decided to wait and see what would come out of the restoration of normalcy. In fact, in areas of New Spain, Central America and Quito, governors found it expedient to leave the elected constitutional ayuntamientos in place for several years to prevent conflict with
23622-685: The nucleus of the Army of the Andes , which received crucial political and material support in 1816 when Juan Martín de Pueyrredón became Supreme Director of the United Provinces . In January 1817, San Martín was finally ready to advance against the royalists in Chile. Ignoring an injunction from the congress of the Río de la Plata not to move against Chile, San Martín together with General Bernardo O'Higgins Riquelme , later Supreme Director of Chile, led
23808-817: The only authority that could be used for protection during and after the conflict was the Caudillo whose dominion was thus legitimized; that is why after independence a stage of wars between rival chiefs was ready. As the Portuguese Joaquim Pedro de Oliveira Martins (1845-1894) said about the Iberian devotio Neither Boves nor Morillo managed to achieve the dominance of the llaneros, they were men like General José Antonio Páez , Manuel Cedeño, José Gregorio Monagas , José Antonio Anzoátegui , Francisco de Paula Santander, Ramón Nonato Pérez,Juan Ángel Bravo, Juan Mellado, Manuel Camacaro, Juan Nepomuceno Moreno and
23994-608: The outbreak of the Peninsular War , forming part of the broader context of the Napoleonic Wars . The conflict unfolded between the royalists, who were defeated and favored a unitary monarchy, and the patriots, who won and promoted either plural monarchies or republics, separated from Spain and from each other. These struggles ultimately led to the independence and secession of continental Spanish America from metropolitan rule, which, beyond this conflict, resulted in
24180-451: The overseas Spanish possessions, O'Donojú proposed to negotiate a treaty with Iturbide on the terms of the Plan of Iguala. The resulting Treaty of Córdoba , which was signed on 24 August, kept all existing laws, including the 1812 Constitution, in force until a new constitution for Mexico could be written. O'Donojú became part of the provisional governing junta until his death on 8 October. Both
24366-470: The overseas provinces, just as in Spain. It also ordered military commanders to begin armistice negotiations with the insurgents with the promise that they could participate in the restored representative government. In effect, the Spanish Constitution of 1812 adopted by the Cortes of Cádiz served as the basis for independence in New Spain and Central America, since in both regions it was
24552-493: The patriot forces in the country. An internecine conflict between La Serna and General Pedro Antonio Olañeta, which was an extension of the Liberal Triennium , proved to be the royalists' undoing. La Serna lost control of half of his best army by the beginning of 1824, giving the patriots an opportunity. Under the command of Bolívar and Sucre, the experienced veterans of the combined army, mainly Colombians, destroyed
24738-412: The patriot side. Politically, the reinstitution of a liberal regime changed the terms under which the Spanish government sought to engage the insurgents. The new government naively assumed that the insurgents were fighting for Spanish liberalism and that the Spanish Constitution could still be the basis of reconciliation between the two sides. The government implemented the Constitution and held elections in
24924-462: The patriots in large numbers. On 28 January 1821, the ayuntamiento of Maracaibo declared the province an independent republic that chose to join the new nation-state of Gran Colombia . Miguel de la Torre , who had replaced Morillo as head of the army, took this to be a violation of the truce, and although the republicans argued that Maracaibo had switched sides of its own volition, both sides began to prepare for renewed war. The fate of Venezuela
25110-489: The plain until he became caporal . The precarious situation of the plain and its inhabitants led to his companions persuading him to enter the Ejercito libertador . Due to his character and being someone for and for the people, it was not difficult for him to raise people in arms, reaching not only to command his own montonera, but to an entire country. Becoming not only the first Llanero president of Venezuela, but also one of
25296-426: The plains was not accustomed to human contact due to not being wired, which made the herding more complicated. If a large river blocks their way, they have to guide the herd and the cattle to pass this current; the bonguero, with his bongo -type of canoe- transported the merchandise and some llaneros. The cowboys and the cabrestero sank into the water and led the cattle and beasts through the stream. Always taking care of
25482-499: The political and legal changes made on both sides of the Atlantic—the myriad of juntas, the Cortes in Spain and several of the congresses in the Americas, and many of the constitutions and new legal codes—had been made in his name. Before entering Spanish territory, Ferdinand made loose promises to the Cortes that he would uphold the Spanish Constitution. But once in Spain he realized that he had significant support from conservatives in
25668-470: The population. Several of the promises made to the llaneros were not kept. Various charges were removed from different pardos and llaneros that were decorated by Boves and Monteverde . The prohibition of looting, and the fear of losing autonomy in their regions by the royalists led several troops to desert the Royalist Army. In some regions the war was constant for five, ten or even fifteen years and
25854-399: The province of Maracaibo into a separate Captaincy General with Miyares at its head, but did ratify Monteverde as Captain General of the smaller Venezuela. During this period, the province of Maracaibo elected a representative to the Cortes, José Domingo Rus , who served from March 3, 1812, to May 10, 1814, and continued to represent the province before the crown after Ferdinand VII abolished
26040-545: The provinces of Maracaibo, Margarita, Cumaná, Guayana and Trinidad were transferred to the Santo Domingo Audiencia, which had taken appeals from the province of Caracas since 1742. Judicial matters were finally centralized in 1786 with the creation of the Audiencia of Caracas [ es ] , which had jurisdiction over these same provinces and the new Barinas Province , which had been established in
26226-413: The pulperías or hato varied a lot, going from some quite gloomy or others quite adapted to the tasks of the field. Due to the great biodiversity of the plain, we have a large number of animals and flora that make this environment quite exotic and unique for dressage. The ranch and cattle are left free and grow in the field, until they reach the right age to be domesticated. Each horse or padrote has
26412-477: The rest of the population, with their own codes, but it was also a canton with many qualities that would be used by the different Caudillos on duty to raise montoneras. The lion of the Llanos, José Tomás Boves , taking advantage of the precarious situation of the peons of the field of the plain, made a large part of the llaneros join the Royalist Army, under the idea of the exploitation of the Mantuanos towards
26598-479: The retention of the Catholic Church as the official state religion and the protection of its existing privileges ; and the equality of all New Spaniards, whether immigrants or native-born. Many of that laws was abolished decades later or are in present-day Mexico. The following month the other important guerrilla leader, Guadalupe Victoria , joined the alliance, and on 1 March Iturbide was proclaimed head of
26784-563: The royal army abandoned the coastal city to reinforce positions in the highlands, with Cuzco as new capital of the viceroyalty. On the 12th San Martín entered Lima, where he was declared "Protector of the Country" on 28 July, an office which allowed him to rule the newly independent state. To ensure that the Presidency of Quito became a part of Gran Colombia and did not remain a collection of small, divided republics, Bolívar sent aid in
26970-618: The royal offices throughout the empire. This meant that Spanish American elites were thwarted in their expectations and ambitions by the crown's upending of long-standing practices of creole access to office holding. The regalist and secularizing policies of the Bourbon monarchy were aimed at decreasing the power of the Roman Catholic Church. The crown had already expelled the Jesuits in 1767, which saw many creole members of
27156-460: The sale of office, that provided the opportunity to grant more rights and change policy to respond to the demands of the populations. The restoration of the Spanish Constitution and representative government was enthusiastically welcomed in New Spain and Central America. Elections were held, local governments formed and deputies sent to the Cortes. The Spanish Constitution of 1812 could have been an opportunity to enact social change slowly and without
27342-662: The same Captaincy General, of having to recur for appeals in their affairs to the Audiencia Pretorial of Santo Domingo, the King has resolved to create another in Caracas, comprised for now of a Regent Dean, three judges [ oidores ] and a crown attorney [ fiscal ]; leaving the same number of ministers in the one in Santo Domingo and limiting its district to the Spanish part of that island, the islands of Cuba and Puerto Rico; to which end His Majesty will of course name
27528-466: The same manner that Cumaná and the islands of Margarita and Trinidad are, so that they find themselves under the same immediate Audiencia, Captain General and Intendant, be better ruled and governed with better utility to my Royal Service. Accordingly, I order the Viceroy and Audiencia of Santa Fe restrained from, and to abstain from, the knowledge of the respective matters which corresponded to them before
27714-407: The separation implied here; and order the governors of the Provinces of Cumaná, Guayana and Maracaibo, and Islands of Margarita and Trinidad, to obey as their Captain General, the one that today is, and in the future will be, of the Province of Venezuela, and carry out the orders that in my Royal Service he communicate to them in government and military matters; and that in the same way the governors of
27900-715: The siege of French army. It met as one body and its members represented the entire Spanish empire. Most Spanish Americans saw no reason to recognize a rump government that was under the threat of being captured by the French at any moment, and began to work for the creation of local juntas to preserve the region's independence from the French. Junta movements were successful in New Granada (Colombia), Venezuela , Chile and Río de la Plata (Argentina). Less successful, though serious movements, also occurred in Central America . Ultimately, Central America, along with most of New Spain, Quito (Ecuador), Peru, Upper Peru (Bolivia),
28086-546: The so-called Trienio Liberal , and ended the threat of invasion against the Río de la Plata , resulting in royalist collapse in the Americas. Over the course of the next decade, the Patriots' armies won major victories and obtained independence in their respective countries. Spain did not change the position against separatism, but the political instability in Spain, without a navy, army or treasury, convinced many Spanish Americans of
28272-427: The social and political changes unleashed by those rebellions. The Spanish American independences had as a direct consequence the forced displacement of the royalist Spanish population that suffered a forced emigration during the war and later, due to the laws of Expulsion of the Spaniards from the new states in the Americas with the purpose of consolidating their independence. Events in Spanish America transpired in
28458-477: The soldiers of his expeditionary force were European. It is estimated that in the Battle of Maipú only a quarter of the royalist forces were European soldiers, in the Battle of Carabobo about a fifth, and in the Battle of Ayacucho less than 1% was European. The American militias reflected the racial make-up of the local population. For example, in 1820 the royalist army in Venezuela had 843 white ( español ), 5,378 Casta , and 980 Indigenous soldiers. Towards
28644-424: The tamer, kicking and with several jumps, until in the end, the beast is defeated, and is tamed by the llanero. The horse is the llanero's best friend, so much so that they even have poems like these My wife and my horse They died at once; What woman, what demon, My horse is what I feel Alligators , caribs , babas , eels , wild pigs , bulls and jaguars are animals native to the region. The alligator
28830-414: The team of cabresteros and baquianos . They practiced fishing, hunting, bartering, and trading with each other. Due to the hostile flora and fauna of the plain, these adapted to combat it, so it was frequent the taming of alligators, bulls and pimps with their different utensils such as rope and knife. Tall in stature, lean bodies and strong muscles, adapted to the tropical climate. According to Ramón Páez,
29016-683: The terms of the Plan of Iguala and orchestrated the union of Central America with the Mexican Empire in January 1822. One years later, following Iturbide's downfall, the region, with the exception of Chiapas, peacefully seceded from Mexico on 1 July 1823, establishing the Federal Republic of Central America. The new state existed for seventeen years, centrifugal forces pulling the individual provinces apart by 1840. Unlike in New Spain and Central America, in South America independence
29202-411: The threat of a radicalized uprising from the lower social classes by offering an opportunity to enact change that those in power would believe would best benefit their respective territories. Among liberals, however, there was fear that the new regime would not last; and conservatives and the Church worried that the new liberal government would expand its reforms and anti-clerical legislation. Yet, because
29388-405: The town that he called San Luis de la Unión. From there the plains began to populate thanks to the mares and foals brought from the New Kingdom of Granada and the different Andalusian families from Seville , Almería , Granada , Cádiz , Jaén and Córdoba . By the middle of the 17th century there were some 137,800 cattle in the most important hatos . The natives of the region, that is to say,
29574-632: The unity of Upper Peru with Peru, but the Upper Peruvian leaders—many former royalists, like Casimiro Olañeta, nephew of General Olañeta—gathered in a congress under Sucre's auspices supported the country's independence. Bolívar left the decision to Sucre, who went along with the congress. Sucre proclaimed Upper Peru's independence in the city which now bears his name on 6 August, bringing the main wars of independence to an end. Captaincy General of Venezuela The Captaincy General of Venezuela ( Spanish : Capitanía General de Venezuela ),
29760-530: The vast Orinoco River basin and along the Caribbean coast, often with material aid coming from Curaçao and Haiti . Also, as mentioned above, in Upper Peru, guerrilla bands controlled the isolated, rural parts of the country. In March 1814, following the collapse of the First French Empire , Ferdinand VII was restored to the Spanish throne. This signified an important change, since most of
29946-568: The wake of the successful Haitian Revolution and transition to independence in Brazil . Brazil's independence in particular shared a common starting point with that of Spanish America, since both conflicts were triggered by Napoleon's invasion of the Iberian Peninsula, which forced the Portuguese royal family to flee to Brazil in 1807. The process of Latin American independence took place in
30132-415: The world are better riders than the Llaneros of Venezuela, excepting perhaps the Gauchos of Buenos Aires, equally skilled than these in their dexterity where they show beautiful feats in horsemanship, due to their work in the field of which they are accustomed since childhood. Their horses, moreover, are so well adapted to the different tasks of their profession that beast and man seem to be the same being. At
30318-399: Was a joint Tejanos-US volunteers expedition formed in Louisiana for Texas independence but was defeated in the Battle of Medina . In Central America, attempts at establishing juntas were also put down, but resulted in significantly less violence. The Caribbean islands, like the Philippines on the other side of the world, were relatively peaceful. Any plots to set up juntas were denounced to
30504-543: Was an administrative district of colonial Spain , created on September 8, 1777, through the Royal Decree of Graces of 1777, to provide more autonomy for the provinces of Venezuela , previously under the jurisdiction of the Audiencia of Santo Domingo (and thus the Viceroyalty of New Spain ) and then the Viceroyalty of New Granada . It established a unified government in political ( governorship ), military ( captaincy general ), fiscal ( intendancy ), ecclesiastical ( archdiocese ) and judicial ( audiencia ) affairs. Its creation
30690-427: Was applied to the Apache in particular. In Spanish , The Lone Ranger is known as El Llanero Solitario . Spanish American wars of independence Disintegration of Spanish America The Spanish American wars of independence ( Spanish : Guerras de independencia hispanoamericanas ) took place across the Spanish Empire in the early 19th century. The struggles in both hemispheres began shortly after
30876-440: Was at Huacho that San Martín learned that Guayaquil (in Ecuador ) had declared independence on 9 October. Bolívar, learning about the collapse of the Cádiz expedition , spent the year 1820 preparing a liberating campaign in Venezuela . Bolívar was aided by Spain's new policy of seeking engagement with the insurgents, which Morillo implemented, renouncing to the command in chief, and returning to Spain. Although Bolívar rejected
31062-454: Was crucial in retaking a solidly pro-independence region like New Granada (see Spanish reconquest of New Granada ), its soldiers were eventually spread out throughout Venezuela, New Granada, Quito, and Peru and were lost to tropical diseases, diluting their impact on the war. More importantly, the majority of the royalist forces were composed, not of soldiers sent from the peninsula, but of Spanish Americans. Overall, Europeans formed only about
31248-442: Was deposed in a coup d'état by José de la Serna , but it would be two months before San Martín moved his army closer to Lima by sailing it to Ancón . During the next few months San Martín once again engaged in negotiations, offering the creation of an independent monarchy; but La Serna insisted on the unity of the Spanish monarchy, so the negotiations came to nothing. By July La Serna judged his hold on Lima to be weak, and on 8 July
31434-441: Was destroyed in the Battle of Ica , San Martín met with Simón Bolívar in Guayaquil on 26 and 27 July. Thereafter San Martín decided to retire from the scene. For the next two years, two armies of Rioplatense (Argentinian), Chilean, Colombian and Peruvian patriots were destroyed trying to penetrate the royalist bastion in the Andean regions of Peru and Upper Peru . A year later a Peruvian congress resolved to make Bolívar head of
31620-592: Was essentially a new viceroyalty in all but name, was actually created slowly over time by centralizing fiscal, administrative, military and ecclesiastical rule in Caracas. The first step was the creation of the Intendancy of Caracas, by Minister of the Indies, José de Gálvez in 1776. The new intendancy ( superintendencia de ejército y real hacienda ) covered the provinces of Venezuela (Caracas), Cumaná (sometimes New Andalusia ), Guayana , Maracaibo , Trinidad and Margarita . Up to this point Maracaibo, Guayana and Trinidad's governance had been directly supervised by
31806-423: Was established in 1793 to oversee the new captaincy general's trade. In religious matters all of the provinces were also placed under the direction of the new archdiocese of Caracas in 1803. Two new dioceses , Mérida and Guayana were created, as well. Previously areas of the new diocese of Mérida had been part of the archdiocese of Bogotá , and Guayana had been part of the diocese of Puerto Rico . Control of
31992-406: Was hunted as a game and also for being an obstacle, usually with the falseta it is immobilized, but its skin, being so hard and resistant, it has to be nailed with the knife at specific points such as under the legs. Eels , capable of killing a stallion, are a real danger, the hunting method is to use a horse as a hook, when passing through the river, the horse would be attacked by the eels until it
32178-409: Was immobilized. Upon revealing their position, the llaneros would hunt them down, and the other eels flee the field to make way for the riders and cattle, and the horse recovers instantly, with no repercussions from the incident. Bahareque is the general name given to the construction system of certain types of houses in Colombia and Venezuela. The bahareques have generally been the type of dwelling for
32364-448: Was necessary, most who initially supported the creation of the new governments saw them as a means to preserve the region's autonomy from the French. Although there had been research on the idea of a separate Spanish American ("creole") identity separate from that of Iberia , political independence was not initially the aim of most Spanish Americans, nor was it necessarily inevitable. At the end of 1810, Ferdinand VII of Spain , captive,
32550-405: Was no central authority and most juntas did not recognize the claim of some juntas to represent the monarchy as a whole. The Junta of Seville, in particular, claimed authority over the overseas empire, because of the province's historic role as the exclusive entrepôt of the empire. This impasse was resolved through negotiations between the several juntas in Spain counted with the participation of
32736-426: Was no history of independence until it happened," when Spanish American independence did occur, explanations for why it came about have been sought. The Latin American Wars of Independence were essentially led by European diaspora against European empires. There are a number of factors that have been identified to have provoked the independent movements. First, increasing control by the Crown of its overseas empire via
32922-412: Was not clear which political units should replace the empire, and there were no new national identities to replace the traditional sense of being Spaniards. The original juntas of 1810 appealed first to a sense of being Spanish, which was counterposed to the French threat; second, to a general American identity, which was counterposed to the Peninsula lost to the French; and third, to a sense of belonging to
33108-418: Was only a privilege for the peninsular, however, the economy expanded to such an extent that they had to promote legal reforms so that the excluded classes may have this privilege in the short term. Between 1640 and 1790 the black maroons lived in cumbes , a society of maroons. These ended up mixing with the llaneros over the years. In the 18th century, the Cabildo de Santiago de León de Caracas issued
33294-433: Was originally part of a circle of liberal urbanites in Querétaro , who sought to establish a junta. After this conspiracy was discovered, Hidalgo turned to the rural people of the Mexican Bajío to build his army, and their interests soon overshadowed those of the urban intellectuals. A similar tension existed in Venezuela, where the Spanish immigrant José Tomás Boves formed a powerful, though irregular, royalist army out of
33480-406: Was part of the Bourbon Reforms and laid the groundwork for the future nation of Venezuela, in particular by orienting the province of Maracaibo towards the province of Caracas . In 1494, despite the presence of indigenous peoples in the Americas, Pope Alexander VI issued a papal decree with the Treaty of Tordesillas that unilaterally granted the Crown of Castile with full dominion over
33666-448: Was particularly evident in South America. This rivalry also led some regions to adopt the opposite political cause to that chosen by their rivals. Peru seems to have remained strongly royalist in large part because of its rivalry with Río de la Plata, to which it had lost control of Upper Peru when the latter was elevated to a viceroyalty in 1776. The creation of juntas in Río de la Plata allowed Peru to regain formal control of Upper Peru for
33852-408: Was recognized by the Cortes of Cádiz and by the governing juntas in the Americas as a king subordinate to popular sovereignty . The governing juntas across America wanted to reinstate Ferdinand VII as king and refused to accept the authority of the Council of Regency that was established with the dissolution of the Supreme and Central Governmental Junta of Spain and the Indies. In agreement on this,
34038-434: Was sealed when Bolívar returned there in April leading an army of 7,000 from New Granada. At the Battle of Carabobo on 24 June, the Gran Colombian forces decisively defeated the royalist forces, assuring control of Venezuela save for Puerto Cabello and guaranteeing Venezuelan independence. Bolívar could now concentrate on Gran Colombia's claims to southern New Granada and Quito. In Peru, on 29 January 1821, Viceroy Pezuela
34224-400: Was spurred by the pro-independence fighters who had held out for the past half-decade. José de San Martín and Simón Bolívar inadvertently led a continent-wide pincer movement from southern and northern South America that liberated most of the Spanish American nations on that continent. After securing the independence of Chile in 1818, San Martín concentrated on building a naval fleet in
34410-448: Was ultimately defeated in the Peninsular War . The rejection of this new dynasty created a power vacuum and led to the emergence of liberalism and a desire for liberties throughout the Spanish Empire . At first, some major cities or capitals formed local Juntas on the basis of laws from the Hispanic tradition. The armed conflicts started in 1809, with short-lived juntas established to govern in Chuquisaca , La Paz and Quito opposing
34596-433: Was with the brand. To mark the ear, the llaneros used the so-called fork, with various shapes. One of them was to slit the ear of the cattle in several ways. These caravans, which are very reminiscent of the eastern one, were commanded by the cabrestero, among them and of equal importance, was the cook, the doctor, a physicist, and obviously the different cowboys and baquianos. Unlike cattle in North America or Europe, that of
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