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110-860: Moses Gaster (17 September 1856 – 5 March 1939) was a Romanian, later British scholar , the Hakham of the Spanish and Portuguese Jewish congregation , London, and a Hebrew and Romanian linguist . Moses Gaster was an active Zionist in Romania as well as in England, where in 1899 he helped establish the English Zionist Federation . Gaster was born in Bucharest into a renowned Jewish Austrian family which had settled in Wallachia at

220-543: A death drive , the source of compulsive repetition, hate, aggression, and neurotic guilt. In his later work, Freud developed a wide-ranging interpretation and critique of religion and culture. Though in overall decline as a diagnostic and clinical practice, psychoanalysis remains influential within psychology , psychiatry , psychotherapy , and across the humanities . It thus continues to generate extensive and highly contested debate concerning its therapeutic efficacy, its scientific status, and whether it advances or hinders

330-461: A "neurasthenia" which he linked to the death of his father in 1896 and which prompted a "self-analysis" of his own dreams and memories of childhood. His explorations of his feelings of hostility to his father and rivalrous jealousy over his mother's affections led him to fundamentally revise his theory of the origin of the neuroses. Based on his early clinical work, Freud postulated that unconscious memories of sexual molestation in early childhood were

440-425: A Christian heresy, Bogomilism . A list of major works follows: Contributions to periodical literature : Scholar In contemporary English usage, the term scholar sometimes is equivalent to the term academic , and describes a university-educated individual who has achieved intellectual mastery of an academic discipline, as instructor and as researcher. Moreover, before the establishment of universities,

550-431: A Master's degree or PhD. In history, independent scholars can be differentiated from popular history hosts for television shows and amateur historians "by the level to which their publications utilize the analytical rigour and academic writing style". In previous centuries, some independent scholars achieved renown, such as Samuel Johnson and Edward Gibbon during the 18th century and Charles Darwin and Karl Marx in

660-429: A body of principles and practices used by scholars to make their claims about the world as valid and trustworthy as possible, and to make them known to the scholarly public. It is the methods that systemically advance the teaching, research, and practice of a given scholarly or academic field of study through rigorous inquiry. Scholarship is creative, can be documented, can be replicated or elaborated, and can be and

770-513: A career in neurology . Freud read William Shakespeare in English; his understanding of human psychology may have been partially derived from Shakespeare's plays. Freud's Jewish origins and his allegiance to his secular Jewish identity were of significant influence in the formation of his intellectual and moral outlook, especially concerning his intellectual non-conformism, as he pointed out in his Autobiographical Study . They would also have

880-499: A commission to translate four essays from John Stuart Mill 's collected works. He graduated with an MD in March 1881. In 1882 Freud began his medical career at Vienna General Hospital . His research work in cerebral anatomy led to the publication in 1884 of an influential paper on the palliative effects of cocaine, and his work on aphasia would form the basis of his first book On Aphasia: A Critical Study , published in 1891. Over

990-432: A critical review of existing theory, Freud gives detailed interpretations of his own and his patients' dreams in terms of wish-fulfillments made subject to the repression and censorship of the "dream-work". He then sets out the theoretical model of mental structure (the unconscious, pre-conscious and conscious) on which this account is based. An abridged version, On Dreams , was published in 1901. In works that would win him

1100-575: A doctor of medicine in 1881 at the University of Vienna . Upon completing his habilitation in 1885, he was appointed a docent in neuropathology and became an affiliated professor in 1902. Freud lived and worked in Vienna having set up his clinical practice there in 1886. Following the German annexation of Austria in March 1938, Freud left Austria to escape Nazi persecution. He died in exile in

1210-450: A gainfully employed partner". To get access to libraries and other research facilities, independent scholars have to seek permission from universities. Writer Megan Kate Nelson's article "Stop Calling Me Independent" says the term "marginalizes unaffiliated scholars" and is unfairly seen as an indicator of "professional failure". Rebecca Bodenheimer says that independent scholars, like herself, attending conferences and who also do not have

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1320-603: A lectureship, 1886 and 1891, in Slavonic literature at the University of Oxford , his lectures being later published as Greco-Slavonic Literature , London, 1886. A few years after, the Romanian government cancelled the decree of expulsion, presented him with the Romanian Ordinul Naţional "Pentru Merit" of the first class (1891), and invited him to return; however, he declined the invitation, and in 1893 became

1430-705: A means of "rearousing [Freud's] affection". Eckstein nonetheless continued her analysis with Freud. She was restored to full mobility and went on to practice psychoanalysis herself. Freud, who had called Fliess "the Kepler of biology", later concluded that a combination of a homoerotic attachment and the residue of his "specifically Jewish mysticism" lay behind his loyalty to his Jewish friend and his consequent overestimation of both his theoretical and clinical work. Their friendship came to an acrimonious end with Fliess angry at Freud's unwillingness to endorse his general theory of sexual periodicity and accusing him of collusion in

1540-604: A more general readership, Freud applied his theories outside the clinical setting in The Psychopathology of Everyday Life (1901) and Jokes and their Relation to the Unconscious (1905). In Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality , published in 1905, Freud elaborates his theory of infantile sexuality, describing its "polymorphous perverse" forms and the functioning of the "drives", to which it gives rise, in

1650-509: A naturalised British citizen. In 1895, at the request of the Romanian government, he wrote a report on the British system of education, which was printed as a "green book" and accepted as a basis of education in Romania . In 1887 Gaster was appointed hakham of the Spanish and Portuguese Congregation in London , in which capacity he presided over the bicentenary of Bevis Marks Synagogue . He

1760-524: A necessary precondition for psychoneuroses (hysteria and obsessional neurosis), a formulation now known as Freud's seduction theory . In the light of his self-analysis, Freud abandoned the theory that every neurosis can be traced back to the effects of infantile sexual abuse, now arguing that infantile sexual scenarios still had a causative function, but it did not matter whether they were real or imagined and that in either case, they became pathogenic only when acting as repressed memories. This transition from

1870-406: A position in a university or other institution. While independent scholars may earn an income from part-time teaching, speaking engagements, or consultant work, the University of British Columbia calls earning an income the biggest challenge of being an independent scholar. Due to challenges of making a living as a scholar without an academic position, "[m]any independent scholars depend on having

1980-650: A recognised authority on their language and literature. He visited Nablus in the Ottoman Beirut Vilayet, the headquarters of the Samaritan community, and induced them to part with manuscripts covering the whole range of their literature. Where he could not secure the originals he had copies made for him by Samaritan priests. Gaster was among the most active leaders of the Zionist movement in England, and even while in Romania he assisted in establishing

2090-638: A regular schedule of biannual Congresses commenced after the end of World War I to coordinate their activities and as a forum for presenting papers on clinical and theoretical topics. Abraham and Eitingon founded the Berlin Psychoanalytic Society in 1910 and then the Berlin Psychoanalytic Institute and the Poliklinik in 1920. The Poliklinik's innovations of free treatment, and child analysis, and

2200-496: A rented room, in a locksmith's house at Schlossergasse 117 when their son Sigmund was born. He was born with a caul , which his mother saw as a positive omen for the boy's future. In 1859, the Freud family left Freiberg. Freud's half-brothers immigrated to Manchester , England, parting him from the "inseparable" playmate of his early childhood, Emanuel's son, John. Jakob Freud took his wife and two children (Freud's sister, Anna,

2310-693: A result of his reading The Interpretation of Dreams , to which he subsequently gave a positive review in the Viennese daily newspaper Neues Wiener Tagblatt . The other three original members whom Freud invited to attend, Alfred Adler , Max Kahane, and Rudolf Reitler, were also physicians and all five were Jewish by birth. Both Kahane and Reitler were childhood friends of Freud who had gone to university with him and kept abreast of Freud's developing ideas by attending his Saturday evening lectures. In 1901, Kahane, who first introduced Stekel to Freud's work, had opened an out-patient psychotherapy institute of which he

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2420-404: A scholar is a person who has a high intellectual ability, is an independent thinker and an independent actor, has ideas that stand apart from others, is persistent in her quest for developing knowledge, is systematic, has unconditional integrity, has intellectual honesty, has some convictions, and stands alone to support these convictions. Scholars may rely on the scholarly method or scholarship,

2530-719: A series of confrontations between their respective viewpoints took place at the meetings of the Viennese Psychoanalytic Society in January and February 1911. In February 1911, Adler, then the president of the society, resigned his position. At this time, Stekel also resigned from his position as vice president of the society. Adler finally left the Freudian group altogether in June 1911 to form his own organization with nine other members who had also resigned from

2640-526: A short Hebrew Bible history. Gaster believed in a scientific study of folklore and did not sympathize with those believing that preserving folklore should mostly serve a political nationalist purpose. His study of Romanian folklore led Gaster to conclusions at odds with those shared by most scholars of his time, who found there traces of pre-Christian beliefs. Gaster argued that nothing found in Romanian folklore pre-dated Christianity, and that what appeared as pre-Christian to other scholars in fact derived from

2750-503: A smoker, eventually developing buccal cancer . Freud suggested to Fliess in 1897 that addictions, including that to tobacco, were substitutes for masturbation , "the one great habit." Freud had greatly admired his philosophy tutor, Franz Brentano , who was known for his theories of perception and introspection. Brentano discussed the possible existence of the unconscious mind in his Psychology from an Empirical Standpoint (1874). Although Brentano denied its existence, his discussion of

2860-533: A somewhat similar sense of prestige in the United States , with an exception that research professors in the U.S. are often non-permanent positions, that must fund their salaries from external sources. This is not the case in most other countries. An independent scholar is anyone who conducts scholarly research outside universities and traditional academia . In 2010, twelve percent of US history scholars were independent. Independent scholars typically have

2970-440: A substantial effect on the content of psychoanalytic ideas, particularly in respect of their common concerns with depth interpretation and "the bounding of desire by law". During the formative period of his work, Freud valued and came to rely on the intellectual and emotional support of his friend Wilhelm Fliess , a Berlin-based ear, nose, and throat specialist whom he had first met in 1887. Both men saw themselves as isolated from

3080-477: A three-year period, Freud worked in various departments of the hospital. His time spent in Theodor Meynert 's psychiatric clinic and as a locum in a local asylum led to an increased interest in clinical work. His substantial body of published research led to his appointment as a university lecturer or docent in neuropathology in 1885, a non-salaried post but one which entitled him to give lectures at

3190-432: A university name on their official name badge, feel like the "independent scholar" term is perceived as a "signal that a scholar is either unwanted by the academy or unwilling to commit to the sacrifices necessary to succeed as an academic". Sigmund Freud Sigmund Freud ( / f r ɔɪ d / FROYD ; German: [ˈziːkmʊnt ˈfrɔʏt] ; born Sigismund Schlomo Freud ; 6 May 1856 – 23 September 1939)

3300-756: Is peer-reviewed through various methods. Scholars have generally been upheld as creditable figures of high social standing, who are engaged in work important to society. In Imperial China , in the period from 206 BC until AD 1912, the intellectuals were the Scholar-officials ("Scholar-gentlemen"), who were civil servants appointed by the Emperor of China to perform the tasks of daily governance. Such civil servants earned academic degrees by means of Imperial examination , and also were skilled calligraphers , and knew Confucian philosophy. Historian Wing-Tsit Chan concludes that: Generally speaking,

3410-472: Is the Canadian Academy of Independent Scholars (in association with Simon Fraser University ). Similar organizations exist around the world. Membership in a professional association generally entails a degree of post-secondary education and established research. When independent scholars participate in academic conferences, they may be referred to as an unaffiliated scholar, since they do not hold

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3520-659: The Internationale Zeitschrift für Psychoanalyse , also edited by Rank. Plans for an international association of psychoanalysts were put in place and these were implemented at the Nuremberg Congress of 1910 where Jung was elected, with Freud's support, as its first president. Freud turned to Brill and Jones to further his ambition to spread the psychoanalytic cause in the English-speaking world. Both were invited to Vienna following

3630-683: The Ben Ezra Synagogue in Old Cairo ); some 350 Hebrew codices and scrolls including prayer-books of many Jewish communities, apocryphal writings, commentaries, treatises, letters, marriage contracts , piyyutim , and thirteen scrolls of the Law; some 350 Samaritan manuscripts, among them manuscripts of the Pentateuch , commentaries and treatises, and liturgical , historical, chronological and astronomical codices, detailed census lists of

3740-649: The British Psychoanalytical Society , serving as its president until 1944. The Institute of Psychoanalysis was established in 1924 and the London Clinic of Psychoanalysis was established in 1926, both under Jones's directorship. The Vienna Ambulatorium (Clinic) was established in 1922 and the Vienna Psychoanalytic Institute was founded in 1924 under the directorship of Helene Deutsch . Ferenczi founded

3850-638: The Galvanic Skin Response , and a lecturer at Zurich University , although still only an assistant to Eugen Bleuler at the Burghölzli Mental Hospital in Zürich. In March 1907, Jung and Ludwig Binswanger , also a Swiss psychiatrist, travelled to Vienna to visit Freud and attend the discussion group. Thereafter, they established a small psychoanalytic group in Zürich. In 1908, reflecting its growing institutional status,

3960-921: The Matura in 1873 with honors. He loved literature and was proficient in German, French, Italian, Spanish, English, Hebrew , Latin and Greek . Freud entered the University of Vienna at age 17. He had planned to study law, but joined the medical faculty at the university, where his studies included philosophy under Franz Brentano , physiology under Ernst Brücke , and zoology under Darwinist professor Carl Claus . In 1876, Freud spent four weeks at Claus's zoological research station in Trieste , dissecting hundreds of eels in an inconclusive search for their male reproductive organs. In 1877, Freud moved to Ernst Brücke's physiology laboratory where he spent six years comparing

4070-625: The New York Psychoanalytic Society the same year. His English translations of Freud's work began to appear from 1909. Some of Freud's followers subsequently withdrew from the International Psychoanalytical Association (IPA) and founded their own schools. From 1909, Adler's views on topics such as neurosis began to differ markedly from those held by Freud. As Adler's position appeared increasingly incompatible with Freudianism,

4180-598: The chungin (the "middle people"), in accordance with the Confucian system. Socially, they constituted the petite bourgeoisie , composed of scholar-bureaucrats (scholars, professionals, and technicians) who administered the dynastic rule of the Joseon dynasty. In his 1847 address, Emmanuel Vogel Gerhart asserted that scholars have an obligation to rigorously continue their studies, so as to remain aware of new knowledge being generated, and to contribute their own insights to

4290-602: The feminist cause. Nonetheless, Freud's work has suffused contemporary Western thought and popular culture. W. H. Auden 's 1940 poetic tribute to Freud describes him as having created "a whole climate of opinion / under whom we conduct our different lives". Sigmund Freud was born to Ashkenazi Jewish parents in the Moravian town of Freiberg , in the Austrian Empire (in Czech Příbor, now Czech Republic ),

4400-643: The literati : the French participants in—sometimes referred to as "citizens" of—the Republic of Letters , which evolved into the salon aimed at edification, education, and cultural refinement. In the United States, a professional association exists for independent scholars: this association is the National Coalition of Independent Scholars . In Canada, the equivalent professional association

4510-412: The 19th century, and Sigmund Freud , Sir Steven Runciman , Robert Davidsohn and Nancy Sandars in the 20th century. There was also a tradition of the man of letters , such as Evelyn Waugh . The term "man of letters" derives from the French term belletrist or homme de lettres but is not synonymous with "an academic". In the 17th and 18th centuries, the term Belletrist(s) came to be applied to

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4620-571: The Berlin Institute's standardisation of psychoanalytic training had a major influence on the wider psychoanalytic movement. In 1927, Ernst Simmel founded the Schloss Tegel Sanatorium on the outskirts of Berlin , the first such establishment to provide psychoanalytic treatment in an institutional framework. Freud organised a fund to help finance its activities and his architect son, Ernst, was commissioned to refurbish

4730-731: The Budapest Psychoanalytic Institute in 1913 and a clinic in 1929. Psychoanalytic societies and institutes were established in Switzerland (1919), France (1926), Italy (1932), the Netherlands (1933), Norway (1933), and in Palestine (Jerusalem, 1933) by Eitingon, who had fled Berlin after Adolf Hitler came to power. The New York Psychoanalytic Institute was founded in 1931. The 1922 Berlin Congress

4840-495: The Congress to advance the impact of Freud's work. A journal, the Jahrbuch für psychoanalytische und psychopathologische Forschungen , was launched in 1909 under the editorship of Jung. This was followed in 1910 by the monthly Zentralblatt für Psychoanalyse edited by Adler and Stekel, in 1911 by Imago , a journal devoted to the application of psychoanalysis to the field of cultural and literary studies edited by Rank and in 1913 by

4950-535: The Congress. There were, as Jones records, "forty-two present, half of whom were or became practising analysts." In addition to Jones and the Viennese and Zürich contingents accompanying Freud and Jung, also present and notable for their subsequent importance in the psychoanalytic movement were Karl Abraham and Max Eitingon from Berlin, Sándor Ferenczi from Budapest and the New York-based Abraham Brill . Important decisions were taken at

5060-661: The Nervous System at Harvard , who invited Freud to his country retreat where they held extensive discussions over a period of four days. Putnam's subsequent public endorsement of Freud's work represented a significant breakthrough for the psychoanalytic cause in the United States. When Putnam and Jones organised the founding of the American Psychoanalytic Association in May 1911 they were elected president and secretary respectively. Brill founded

5170-639: The Protestant 'Confession' to avoid one. A civil ceremony for Bernays and Freud took place on 13 September and a religious ceremony took place the following day, with Freud having been hastily tutored in the Hebrew prayers. The Freuds had six children: Mathilde (b. 1887), Jean-Martin (b. 1889), Oliver (b. 1891), Ernst (b. 1892), Sophie (b. 1893), and Anna (b. 1895). From 1891 until they left Vienna in 1938, Freud and his family lived in an apartment at Berggasse 19 , near Innere Stadt . On 8 December 1897 Freud

5280-567: The Romanian apocrypha , the whole of which he had discovered in manuscript. Gaster was a central figure of Hibbat Zion in Romania and played a central role in the 1882 establishment by Jews from Moineşti of the Samarin (Zamarin) settlement, known since 1884 as Zichron Ya'akov . Having been expelled from Romania by the Ion Brătianu government in 1885 for allegedly "being a member of an irredentist society", he went to England, where he held

5390-622: The Salzburg Congress and a division of labour was agreed with Brill given the translation rights for Freud's works, and Jones, who was to take up a post at the University of Toronto later in the year, tasked with establishing a platform for Freudian ideas in North American academic and medical life. Jones's advocacy prepared the way for Freud's visit to the United States, accompanied by Jung and Ferenczi, in September 1909 at

5500-617: The Samaritans and lists of manuscripts in their possession; and almost 1,500 uncatalogued Arabic fragments on paper from the Synagogue of Ben Ezra. In 1954 the collection was purchased by the John Rylands Library (since 1972 part of the University of Manchester), where it remains. The Rylands Cairo Genizah Project has been in progress for a number of years on the identification of fragments and digitisation of images of

5610-429: The Unconscious ) making it clear that his views were taking a direction quite different from those of Freud. To distinguish his system from psychoanalysis, Jung called it analytical psychology . Anticipating the final breakdown of the relationship between Freud and Jung, Ernest Jones initiated the formation of a Secret Committee of loyalists charged with safeguarding the theoretical coherence and institutional legacy of

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5720-572: The United Kingdom in 1939. In founding psychoanalysis , Freud developed therapeutic techniques such as the use of free association and discovered transference , establishing its central role in the analytic process. Freud's redefinition of sexuality to include its infantile forms led him to formulate the Oedipus complex as the central tenet of psychoanalytical theory. His analysis of dreams as wish-fulfilments provided him with models for

5830-518: The University of Vienna. In 1886 Freud resigned his hospital post and entered private practice specializing in "nervous disorders". The same year he married Martha Bernays , the granddaughter of Isaac Bernays , a chief rabbi in Hamburg. Freud was, as an atheist , dismayed at the requirement in Austria for a Jewish religious ceremony and briefly considered, before dismissing, the prospect of joining

5940-632: The Wednesday group was reconstituted as the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society with Freud as president, a position he relinquished in 1910 in favor of Adler in the hope of neutralizing his increasingly critical standpoint. The first woman member, Margarete Hilferding , joined the Society in 1910 and the following year she was joined by Tatiana Rosenthal and Sabina Spielrein who were both Russian psychiatrists and graduates of

6050-651: The Zürich University medical school. Before the completion of her studies, Spielrein had been a patient of Jung at the Burghölzli and the clinical and personal details of their relationship became the subject of an extensive correspondence between Freud and Jung. Both women would go on to make important contributions to the work of the Russian Psychoanalytic Society founded in 1910. Freud's early followers met together formally for

6160-993: The approach of his friend and collaborator, Josef Breuer , in a type of hypnosis that was different from the French methods he had studied, in that it did not use suggestion. The treatment of one particular patient of Breuer's proved to be transformative for Freud's clinical practice. Described as Anna O. , she was invited to talk about her symptoms while under hypnosis (she would coin the phrase " talking cure "). Her symptoms became reduced in severity as she retrieved memories of traumatic incidents associated with their onset. The inconsistent results of Freud's early clinical work eventually led him to abandon hypnosis, having concluded that more consistent and effective symptom relief could be achieved by encouraging patients to talk freely, without censorship or inhibition, about whatever ideas or memories occurred to them. He called this procedure " free association ". In conjunction with this, Freud found that patients' dreams could be fruitfully analyzed to reveal

6270-439: The beginning of the 19th century. He was the eldest son of Chevalier Abraham Emanuel Gaster, who was the consul of the Netherlands in Bucharest and the grandson of Asriel Gaster, a prosperous merchant and community leader. His mother, Pnina Judith Rubinstein, came from a rabbinical dynasty which included Rabbi Levi Isaac ben Meir. After having taken a degree in his native city (1874), he proceeded to Leipzig , where he received

6380-482: The body of knowledge available to all: The progress of science involves momentous interests. It merits the attention of all sincere lovers of truth. Every ...scholar is under obligations to contribute towards the ever-progressive unfolding of its riches and power. [They]...should combine their energies to bring to view what has eluded the keen vision of those men of noble intellectual stature who have lived and died before them. Many scholars are also professors engaged in

6490-420: The brains of humans with those of other vertebrates such as frogs, lampreys as well as also invertebrates, for example crayfish . His research work on the biology of nervous tissue proved seminal for the subsequent discovery of the neuron in the 1890s. Freud's research work was interrupted in 1879 by the obligation to undertake a year's compulsory military service. The lengthy downtimes enabled him to complete

6600-553: The break finally came in 1926 when Rank resigned from his official posts in the IPA and left Vienna for Paris. His place on the committee was taken by Anna Freud . Rank eventually settled in the United States where his revisions of Freudian theory were to influence a new generation of therapists uncomfortable with the orthodoxies of the IPA. After the founding of the IPA in 1910, an international network of psychoanalytical societies, training institutes, and clinics became well established and

6710-517: The building. It was forced to close in 1931 for economic reasons. The 1910 Moscow Psychoanalytic Society became the Russian Psychoanalytic Society and Institute in 1922. Freud's Russian followers were the first to benefit from translations of his work, the 1904 Russian translation of The Interpretation of Dreams appearing nine years before Brill's English edition. The Russian Institute was unique in receiving state support for its activities, including publication of translations of Freud's works. Support

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6820-404: The clinical analysis of symptom formation and the underlying mechanisms of repression . On this basis, Freud elaborated his theory of the unconscious and went on to develop a model of psychic structure comprising id, ego and super-ego . Freud postulated the existence of libido , sexualised energy with which mental processes and structures are invested and which generates erotic attachments, and

6930-442: The complex structuring of unconscious material and to demonstrate the psychic action of repression which, he had concluded, underlay symptom formation. By 1896 he was using the term " psychoanalysis " to refer to his new clinical method and the theories on which it was based. Freud's development of these new theories took place during a period in which he experienced heart irregularities, disturbing dreams and periods of depression,

7040-575: The death of her fiancé. The close relationship she formed with Freud led to rumours, started by Carl Jung , of an affair. The discovery of a Swiss hotel guest-book entry for 13 August 1898, signed by Freud whilst travelling with his sister-in-law, has been presented as evidence of the affair. Freud began smoking tobacco at age 24; initially a cigarette smoker, he became a cigar smoker. He believed smoking enhanced his capacity to work and that he could exercise self-control in moderating it. Despite health warnings from colleague Wilhelm Fliess , he remained

7150-732: The degree of PhD in 1878 and then to the Jewish Seminary in Breslau , where he gained the Hattarat Hora'ah (rabbinical diploma) in 1881. His history of Romanian popular literature was published in Bucharest in 1883. He was lecturer on the Romanian language and literature at the University of Bucharest (1881–85), inspector-general of schools, and a member of the council for examining teachers in Romania. He also lectured on

7260-437: The enhanced status of "professor ordinarius" in 1920). Despite support from the university, his appointment had been blocked in successive years by the political authorities and it was secured only with the intervention of an influential ex-patient, Baroness Marie Ferstel, who (supposedly) had to bribe the minister of education with a valuable painting. Freud continued with the regular series of lectures on his work which, since

7370-403: The etiology of what was then called the "actual neuroses," primarily neurasthenia and certain physically manifested anxiety symptoms. They maintained an extensive correspondence from which Freud drew on Fliess's speculations on infantile sexuality and bisexuality to elaborate and revise his own ideas. His first attempt at a systematic theory of the mind, his Project for a Scientific Psychology ,

7480-454: The experience of this stay as catalytic in turning him toward the practice of medical psychopathology and away from a less financially promising career in neurology research. Charcot specialized in the study of hysteria and susceptibility to hypnosis, which he frequently demonstrated with patients on stage in front of an audience. Once he had set up in private practice in Vienna in 1886, Freud began using hypnosis in his clinical work. He adopted

7590-413: The first Jewish town in Israel , Zichron Ya'akov . Rising in worldwide Jewish affairs he became vice-president of the First Zionist Congress in Basel , and was a prominent figure in each succeeding congress. Gaster's residence, "Mizpah" 193 Maida Vale in London served as the venue for early talks between prominent Zionists and the Foreign Office in 1917. The first draft of the Balfour Declaration

7700-513: The first of eight children. Both of his parents were from Galicia . His father, Jakob Freud , a wool merchant, had two sons, Emanuel and Philipp, by his first marriage. Jakob's family were Hasidic Jews and, although Jakob himself had moved away from the tradition, he came to be known for his Torah study . He and Freud's mother, Amalia Nathansohn , who was 20 years younger and his third wife, were married by Rabbi Isaac Noah Mannheimer on 29 July 1855. They were struggling financially and living in

7810-447: The first time at the Hotel Bristol, Salzburg on 27 April 1908. This meeting, which was retrospectively deemed to be the first International Psychoanalytic Congress, was convened at the suggestion of Ernest Jones , then a London-based neurologist who had discovered Freud's writings and begun applying psychoanalytic methods in his clinical work. Jones had met Jung at a conference the previous year and they met up again in Zürich to organize

7920-431: The formation of sexual identity. The same year he published Fragment of an Analysis of a Case of Hysteria , which became one of his more famous and controversial case studies . Known as the 'Dora' case study, for Freud it was illustrative of hysteria as a symptom and contributed to his understanding of the importance of transference as a clinical phenomena. In other of his early case studies Freud set out to describe

8030-459: The group. This new formation was initially called Society for Free Psychoanalysis but it was soon renamed the Society for Individual Psychology . In the period after World War I, Adler became increasingly associated with a psychological position he devised called individual psychology . In 1912, Jung published Wandlungen und Symbole der Libido (published in English in 1916 as Psychology of

8140-418: The invitation of Stanley Hall , president of Clark University , Worcester, Massachusetts, where he gave five lectures on psychoanalysis. The event, at which Freud was awarded an Honorary Doctorate, marked the first public recognition of Freud's work and attracted widespread media interest. Freud's audience included the distinguished neurologist and psychiatrist James Jackson Putnam , Professor of Diseases of

8250-464: The mid-1880s as a docent of Vienna University, he had been delivering to small audiences every Saturday evening at the lecture hall of the university's psychiatric clinic. From the autumn of 1902, a number of Viennese physicians who had expressed interest in Freud's work were invited to meet at his apartment every Wednesday afternoon to discuss issues relating to psychology and neuropathology. This group

8360-403: The most formidable intellect among the early Freud circle, was a socialist who in 1898 had written a health manual for the tailoring trade. He was particularly interested in the potential social impact of psychiatry. Max Graf , a Viennese musicologist and father of " Little Hans ", who had first encountered Freud in 1900 and joined the Wednesday group soon after its initial inception, described

8470-433: The most senior rank of a research-focused career in the U.K and northern Europe, and regarded as equal in rank, to a teaching full professorship. Frequently, the job of research professor has permanent employment, like a tenured professor in the U.S., and the position is held by a particularly distinguished scholar. Thus, the title is seen as more prestigious than a teaching full professorship. A research professorship, has

8580-488: The nature of his disastrous role, and in subsequent letters maintained a tactful silence on the matter or else returned to the face-saving topic of Eckstein's hysteria. Freud ultimately, in light of Eckstein's history of adolescent self-cutting and irregular nasal (and menstrual) bleeding, concluded that Fliess was "completely without blame", as Eckstein's post-operative haemorrhages were hysterical "wish-bleedings" linked to "an old wish to be loved in her illness" and triggered as

8690-407: The neglect of others. The whole inner man should be unfolded harmoniously. Gerhart argued that a scholar can not be focused on a single discipline, contending that knowledge of multiple disciplines is necessary to put each into context and to inform the development of each: [T]o be a scholar involves more than mere learning... A genuine scholar possesses something more: he penetrates and understands

8800-468: The plagiarism of his work. After Fliess failed to respond to Freud's offer of collaboration over the publication of his Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality in 1906, their relationship came to an end. In October 1885, Freud went to Paris on a three-month fellowship to study with Jean-Martin Charcot , a renowned neurologist who was conducting scientific research into hypnosis . He was later to recall

8910-406: The prevailing clinical and theoretical mainstream because of their ambitions to develop radical new theories of sexuality. Fliess developed highly eccentric theories of human biorhythms and a nasogenital connection which are today considered pseudoscientific. He shared Freud's views on the importance of certain aspects of sexuality – masturbation , coitus interruptus , and the use of condoms – in

9020-403: The principle and laws of the particular department of human knowledge with which he professes acquaintance. He imbibes the life of Science... [and] his mind is transfused and moulded by its energy and spirit. A 2011 examination outlined the following attributes commonly accorded to scholars as "described by many writers, with some slight variations in the definition": The common themes are that

9130-465: The psychoanalytic movement. Formed in the autumn of 1912, the Committee comprised Freud, Jones, Abraham, Ferenczi, Rank, and Hanns Sachs . Max Eitingon joined the Committee in 1919. Each member pledged himself not to make any public departure from the fundamental tenets of psychoanalytic theory before he had discussed his views with the others. After this development, Jung recognised that his position

9240-506: The record of these scholar-gentlemen has been a worthy one. It was good enough to be praised and imitated in 18th century Europe. Nevertheless, it has given China a tremendous handicap in their transition from government by men to government by law, and personal considerations in Chinese government have been a curse. In Joseon Korea (1392–1910), the intellectuals were the literati , who knew how to read and write, and had been designated, as

9350-409: The ritual and atmosphere of the early meetings of the society: The gatherings followed a definite ritual. First one of the members would present a paper. Then, black coffee and cakes were served; cigars and cigarettes were on the table and were consumed in great quantities. After a social quarter of an hour, the discussion would begin. The last and decisive word was always spoken by Freud himself. There

9460-456: The symptomatology of obsessional neurosis in the case of the Rat man , and phobia in the case of Little Hans . In 1902, Freud, at last, realised his long-standing ambition to be made a university professor. The title "professor extraordinarius" was important to Freud for the recognition and prestige it conferred, there being no salary or teaching duties attached to the post (he would be granted

9570-413: The teaching of others. In a number of countries, the title "Research Professor" refers to a person who is primarily engaged in research, and who has few or no teaching obligations. The title is used in this sense in the United Kingdom, where it is known as Research Professor at some universities, and Professorial Research Fellow at other institutions and in northern Europe. Research Professor is quite often

9680-408: The term scholar identified and described an intellectual person whose primary occupation was professional research. In 1847, minister Emanuel Vogel Gerhart spoke of the role of the scholar in society: [A] scholar [is one] whose whole inward intellectual and moral being has been symmetrically unfolded, disciplined and strengthened under the influence of truth... No one faculty should be drawn out to

9790-635: The texts. The 'Gaster Collection,' a number of mainly Karaite and Yemenite manuscripts were purchased from the library of Dr. Moses Gaster in 1927, and are currently housed at the British Library . An important early Hebrew codex called the First Gaster Bible was also acquired by the British Library from his collection. Moses Gaster was the father of Jack and Theodor Gaster and the grandfather of Marghanita Laski . He

9900-609: The theory of infantile sexual trauma as a general explanation of how all neuroses originate to one that presupposes autonomous infantile sexuality provided the basis for Freud's subsequent formulation of the theory of the Oedipus complex . Freud described the evolution of his clinical method and set out his theory of the psychogenetic origins of hysteria, demonstrated in several case histories, in Studies on Hysteria published in 1895 (co-authored with Josef Breuer ). In 1899, he published The Interpretation of Dreams in which, following

10010-491: The time, and also because he was overwhelmed by the "wealth of ideas" he encountered when he read Nietzsche. Freud sometimes would deny the influence of Nietzsche's ideas. One historian quotes Peter L. Rudnytsky, who says that based on Freud's correspondence with his adolescent friend Eduard Silberstein, Freud read Nietzsche's The Birth of Tragedy and probably the first two of the Untimely Meditations when he

10120-549: The tissue of the nose and genitalia were linked, was curable by removal of part of the middle turbinate . Fliess's surgery proved disastrous, resulting in profuse, recurrent nasal bleeding; he had left a half-metre of gauze in Eckstein's nasal cavity whose subsequent removal left her permanently disfigured. At first, though aware of Fliess's culpability and regarding the remedial surgery in horror, Freud could bring himself only to intimate delicately in his correspondence with Fliess

10230-437: The unconscious probably helped introduce Freud to the concept. Freud owned and made use of Charles Darwin 's major evolutionary writings and was also influenced by Eduard von Hartmann 's The Philosophy of the Unconscious (1869). Other texts of importance to Freud were by Fechner and Herbart , with the latter's Psychology as Science arguably considered to be of underrated significance in this respect. Freud also drew on

10340-518: The withdrawal of Adler and Jung from it. The final defection from Freud's inner circle occurred following the publication in 1924 of Rank's The Trauma of Birth which other members of the Committee read as, in effect, abandoning the Oedipus Complex as the central tenet of psychoanalytic theory. Abraham and Jones became increasingly forceful critics of Rank and though he and Freud were reluctant to end their close and long-standing relationship

10450-544: The work of Theodor Lipps , who was one of the main contemporary theorists of the concepts of the unconscious and empathy. Though Freud was reluctant to associate his psychoanalytic insights with prior philosophical theories, attention has been drawn to analogies between his work and that of both Schopenhauer and Nietzsche . In 1908, Freud said that he occasionally read Nietzsche, and was strongly fascinated by his writings, but did not study him, because he found Nietzsche's "intuitive insights" resembled too much his own work at

10560-496: Was abruptly annulled in 1924, when Joseph Stalin came to power, after which psychoanalysis was denounced on ideological grounds. After helping found the American Psychoanalytic Association in 1911, Ernest Jones returned to Britain from Canada in 1913 and founded the London Psychoanalytic Society. In 1919, he dissolved this organisation and, with its core membership purged of Jungian adherents, founded

10670-504: Was also son-in-law to Michael Friedländer and father-in-law to Neville Laski . Gaster's major work, in which he invested ten years of his life, was a Romanian chrestomathy and glossary covering the period from the dawn of Romanian literature down to 1830. Gaster also wrote various text-books for the Jewish community of Romania , made a Romanian translation of the Siddur , and compiled

10780-427: Was an Austrian neurologist and the founder of psychoanalysis , a clinical method for evaluating and treating pathologies seen as originating from conflicts in the psyche , through dialogue between patient and psychoanalyst, and the distinctive theory of mind and human agency derived from it. Freud was born to Galician Jewish parents in the Moravian town of Freiberg , in the Austrian Empire . He qualified as

10890-517: Was born in 1858; a brother, Julius born in 1857, had died in infancy) firstly to Leipzig and then in 1860 to Vienna where four sisters and a brother were born: Rosa (b. 1860), Marie (b. 1861), Adolfine (b. 1862), Paula (b. 1864), Alexander (b. 1866). In 1865, the nine-year-old Freud entered the Leopoldstädter Kommunal-Realgymnasium , a prominent high school. He proved to be an outstanding pupil and graduated from

11000-489: Was called the Wednesday Psychological Society ( Psychologische Mittwochs-Gesellschaft ) and it marked the beginnings of the worldwide psychoanalytic movement. Freud founded this discussion group at the suggestion of the physician Wilhelm Stekel . Stekel had studied medicine; his conversion to psychoanalysis is variously attributed to his successful treatment by Freud for a sexual problem or as

11110-811: Was developed as a metapsychology with Fliess as interlocutor. However, Freud's efforts to build a bridge between neurology and psychology were eventually abandoned after they had reached an impasse, as his letters to Fliess reveal, though some ideas of the Project were to be taken up again in the concluding chapter of The Interpretation of Dreams . Freud had Fliess repeatedly operate on his nose and sinuses to treat "nasal reflex neurosis", and subsequently referred his patient Emma Eckstein to him. According to Freud, her history of symptoms included severe leg pains with consequent restricted mobility, as well as stomach and menstrual pains. These pains were, according to Fliess's theories, caused by habitual masturbation which, as

11220-480: Was initiated into the German Jewish cultural association B'nai B'rith , to which he remained linked for all his life. Freud gave a speech on the interpretation of dreams, which had an enthusiastic reception. It anticipated the book of the same name , which was published for the first time two years later. In 1896, Minna Bernays, Martha Freud's sister, became a permanent member of the Freud household after

11330-598: Was invited to give the Ilchester Lectures at Oxford which were published in 1887 as Ilchester Lectures on Greeko-Slavonic literature . Appointed as principal of Judith Lady Montefiore College , Ramsgate , from 1891 to 1896, he wrote valuable collection of essays accompanying the yearly reports of that institution. He was a member of the councils of the Folklore, Biblical, Archaeological, and Royal Asiatic societies, writing many papers in their interest. He

11440-471: Was moved for safekeeping to cellars in the centre of London. However, water used to quench London fires saturated a large part of the collection, which made some of the items illegible in whole or in part. Fortunately many of them had previously been transliterated into Hebrew typescript. The collection comprised over 10,000 fragments in Hebrew and Judaeo-Arabic from the Cairo Geniza (the genizah of

11550-457: Was seventeen. Freud bought Nietzsche's collected works in 1900; telling Wilhelm Fliess that he hoped to find in Nietzsche's works "the words for much that remains mute in me." Later, he said he had not yet opened them. Freud came to treat Nietzsche's writings, according to Peter Gay, "as texts to be resisted far more than to be studied." His interest in philosophy declined after he decided on

11660-473: Was the atmosphere of the foundation of a religion in that room. Freud himself was its new prophet who made the heretofore prevailing methods of psychological investigation appear superficial. By 1906, the group had grown to sixteen members, including Otto Rank , who was employed as the group's paid secretary. In the same year, Freud began a correspondence with Carl Gustav Jung who was by then already an academically acclaimed researcher into word-association and

11770-634: Was the director in Vienna. In the same year, his medical textbook, Outline of Internal Medicine for Students and Practicing Physicians , was published. In it, he provided an outline of Freud's psychoanalytic method. Kahane broke with Freud and left the Wednesday Psychological Society in 1907 for unknown reasons and in 1923 committed suicide. Reitler was the director of an establishment providing thermal cures in Dorotheergasse which had been founded in 1901. He died prematurely in 1917. Adler, regarded as

11880-610: Was the only ordained rabbi ever to become president of The Folklore Society , in 1907–1908. In 1925, Gaster was appointed one of the six members of the honorary board of trustees (Curatorium) of the Yiddish Scientific Institute ( YIVO ) in Vilnius alongside Simon Dubnow , Albert Einstein , Sigmund Freud , Edward Sapir and Chaim Zhitlowsky . Gaster made a special study of the Samaritans and became

11990-548: Was untenable and resigned as editor of the Jahrbuch and then as president of the IPA in April 1914. The Zürich branch of the IPA withdrew from membership the following July. Later the same year, Freud published a paper entitled " The History of the Psychoanalytic Movement ", the German original being first published in the Jahrbuch , giving his view on the birth and evolution of the psychoanalytic movement and

12100-481: Was written at the Gaster home on 7 February 1917 in the presence of Chaim Weizmann , Nahum Sokolow , Baron Rothschild , Sir Mark Sykes and Herbert Samuel . Other visitors to the Gaster home included Winston Churchill , Vladimir Lenin , and Sigmund Freud . He was a great collector of manuscripts, having over two thousand, mainly Hebrew, Samaritan and Slavonic. At the outbreak of the second World War his collection

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