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124-640: Mandalay Region is important in Myanmar's economy , accounting for 15% of the national economy. It is under the administration of the Mandalay Region Government . The history of Mandalay Region is the same as that of much of Upper Myanmar except that for much of Burmese history, the political power emanated out of royal capitals located in Mandalay Region. The country's present capital, Naypyidaw , and most former royal capitals of

248-466: A barrier to monsoon winds, trapping moisture in the province. This gives the alpine flora in particular what one source has called a "lushness found nowhere else". This topographic range combined with a tropical moisture sustains extremely high biodiversity and high degrees of endemism , probably the richest botanically in the world's temperate regions. Perhaps 17,000 species of higher plants, of which an estimated 2,500 are endemic, can be found in

372-513: A deep hatred of Muslims after an incident in which he was stripped naked and nearly lynched by a mob of Muslims. He ordered several Muslim rebels to be slowly sliced to death . Tariq Ali wrote about the real incident in one of his novels and claimed the Muslims who had nearly lynched Shuxing'a were not Hui but belonged to another ethnicity. Nevertheless, the Manchu official blamed all Muslims for

496-563: A domestic bank. Another important clarification in the investment law is the dropping of foreign ownership restrictions in joint ventures, except in restricted sectors, such as mining, where FDI will be capped at 80 per cent. Myanmar is famed for its production of Golden South Sea Pearls. In recent years, the countries has auctioned its production in Hong Kong, first organized by Belpearl company in 2013 to critical acclaim and premium prices due to strong Chinese demand. Notable pearls include

620-653: A giant forest-dwelling bovine , the Indochinese tiger and the Asian elephant . Other extremely rare species are the Yunnan box turtle and the Yunnan snub-nosed monkey . It is feared that the Yunnan lar gibbon , another moribund species, has already gone extinct. Yunnan province has 11 national and regional nature reserves. In total, the covered protected area in China is about 510,000 hectares. The freshwater fish fauna

744-459: A major policy of reforms including anti- corruption , currency exchange rate regulation, foreign investment laws and taxation . Foreign investments increased from US$ 300 million in 2009–10 to a US$ 20 billion in 2010–11 by about 6567%. Large inflow of capital results in stronger Burmese currency, kyat by about 25%. In response, the government relaxed import restrictions and abolished export taxes. Despite current currency problems, Burmese economy

868-602: A new kingdom called Dachanghe . Nanzhao, a once-powerful empire, disappeared. In 928, Yang Ganzhen (楊干貞) usurped the Dachanghe king and established Zhao Shanzheng, a qingpingguan as emperor of Datianxing (大天興). In 929, Yang Qianzhen abolished Zhao Shanzheng and established himself as Emperor of Dayining (大義寧). In 937, Duan Siping overthrew the Dayining Kingdom and established the Dali Kingdom . The kingdom

992-525: A report indicating that the COVID-19 pandemic and the 2021 Myanmar coup d'état in February 2021 could reverse economic gains made over the last sixteen years. Myanmar's economy has been in economic crisis since the coup d’état in 2021. Since at least 2022, Myanmar is undergoing an ailing economy; the ruling military junta plans to shore up the worsening state of its balance of payments . When

1116-600: A series of rulers: the Mongols (1287-c.1303), Myinsaing (1298–1313), Pinya (1313–1364), and Sagaing (1315–1364). In 1364, Ava kingdom led by Burmanized Shan kings reunified all of central Myanmar. Central Myanmar was under Ava's control until 1527, and under the Shans of Monhyin (1527–1555). Burmese literature and culture came into its own during this era. Central Myanmar was part of the Taungoo kingdom from 1555 to 1752. Parts of

1240-467: A substantial part of Mandalay Region's economy, as it contains many historical sites including Mandalay , Amarapura , Bagan , Pyin U Lwin , Mount Popa , and Ava . Hardwoods such as teak and thanaka are also harvested. Educational opportunities in Myanmar are extremely limited outside the main cities of Yangon and Mandalay. According to official statistics, over 1 million students were enrolled in

1364-452: A two-day workshop on the economy. The workshop concluded that skyrocketing inflation was impeding economic growth. "Basic commodity prices have increased from 30% to 60% since the military regime promoted a pay rise for government workers in April 2006," said Soe Win, the moderator of the workshop. "Inflation is also correlated with corruption." Myint Thein, an NLD spokesperson, added: "Inflation

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1488-604: A variety of livestock, including cattle, horses, sheep, goats, pigs and dogs. Anthropologists have determined that these people were related to the people now known as the Tai . They lived in tribal congregations, sometimes led by exiled Chinese. During the Three Kingdoms , the territory of present-day Yunnan, western Guizhou and southern Sichuan was collectively called Nanzhong . The dissolution of Chinese central authority led to increased autonomy for Yunnan and more power for

1612-684: A wide range of flora and fauna, and the province has been called a natural zoological and botanical garden. Bordering Chinese provincial-level divisions are Tibet , Sichuan , Guizhou and Guangxi . Starting from the east and working clockwise, bordering countries are Vietnam ( Hà Giang , Lào Cai , Lai Châu and Điện Biên provinces), Laos ( Phongsaly , Oudomxay and Luang Namtha provinces), Myanmar (states of Shan and Kachin ). The main border crossings are: There are several major lakes in Yunnan. The province has nine lakes with areas of over 30 km (12 sq mi). They include: Yunnan

1736-513: Is China's fourth least developed province based on disposable income per capita in 2014. Yunnan is situated in a mountainous area, with high elevations in the Northwest and low elevations in the Southeast. Most of the population lives in the eastern part of the province. In the west, the altitude can vary from the mountain peaks to river valleys as much as 3,000 m (9,800 ft). Yunnan

1860-523: Is a superficial explanation of the literal meaning. Another common theory is that the name means "south of Yun Range " ( 云岭之南 ) However, this has been disproven because the name "Yunling Mountains" first appeared in Tang dynasty (618–907) literature, but the name "Yunnan" first appeared during the Han dynasty (202 BC – 220 AD). Modern research gives more conjectures. You Zhong said "Yunnan" means "south of

1984-541: Is an inland province in Southwestern China . The province spans approximately 394,000 km (152,000 sq mi) and has a population of 47.2 million (as of 2020). The capital of the province is Kunming . The province borders the Chinese provinces of Guizhou , Sichuan , autonomous regions of Guangxi and Tibet , as well as Southeast Asian countries Myanmar (Burma), Vietnam , and Laos . Yunnan

2108-795: Is expected to grow by about 8.8% in 2011. After the completion of 58-billion dollar Dawei deep seaport, Burma is expected be at the hub of trade connecting Southeast Asia and the South China Sea, via the Andaman Sea, to the Indian Ocean receiving goods from countries in the Middle East, Europe and Africa, and spurring growth in the ASEAN region. In 2012, the Asian Development Bank formally began re-engaging with

2232-414: Is highly diverse with about 620 species, including more than 580 natives (the remaining are introduced ). This equals almost 40% of the freshwater fish species in China. Of the Yunnan natives, more than 250 are endemic to the province and many of these are threatened. Several species that are restricted to single lakes (notably Dian , Erhai , Fuxian and Yilong ) are likely already are extinct. By far,

2356-765: Is home to Myanmar's largest bhikkhu community. The majority of monks belong to the Thudhamma Nikaya (92.3%), followed by Shwegyin Nikaya (7.1%), with the remainder of monks belonging to other small monastic orders . 8,174 thilashin were registered in Mandalay Region, comprising 13.5% of Myanmar’s total thilashin community. Agriculture is the primary economical source of livelihood. Primary crops grown within Mandalay Region are rice, wheat, maize, peanut, sesame, cotton, legumes, tobacco, chili, and vegetables. Industry, including alcoholic breweries, textile factories, sugar mills, and gem mines also exists. Tourism now forms

2480-458: Is hot at the valley bottoms, but there are freezing winds at the mountaintops. The terrain is largely mountainous, especially in the north and west. A series of high mountain chains spreads across the province. There is a distinct canyon region to the west and a plateau region to the east. Yunnan's major rivers flow through the deep valleys between the mountains. The average elevation is 1,980 m (6,500 ft). The mountains are highest in

2604-817: Is led by Chief Minister . The Government Office is located in Aungmyaythazan Township. In 2011, the State and Region Hluttaws were introduced in the new system. Each State and Region has a State Hluttaw or Regional Hluttaw made up of elected civilian members and unelected representatives of the Armed Forces. The number of seats in each State or Region Hluttaw depends on the number of townships (each township constituency has two MPs), as well as ethnic representatives. The Mandalay Region Hluttaw have 57 elected members (include one ethnic affairs minister) and 19 military representatives. Under

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2728-514: Is rich in natural resources and has the largest diversity of plant life in China. Of the approximately 30,000 species of higher plants in China, Yunnan has perhaps 17,000 or more. Yunnan's reserves of aluminium , lead , zinc and tin are the largest in China, and there are also major reserves of copper and nickel . Historically, the southwestern Silk Road to Bhitargarh in Bangladesh passed through modern Yunnan. Parts of Yunnan formed

2852-665: Is the critical source of the current economic crisis." In recent years, China and India attempted to strengthen ties with Myanmar for mutual benefit. The European Union and some nations including the United States and Canada imposed investment and trade sanctions on Burma. The United States banned all imports from Burma, though this restriction was since lifted. Foreign investment comes primarily from China, Singapore, South Korea, India, and Thailand. In 2011, when new President Thein Sein 's government came to power, Burma embarked on

2976-569: Is the greatest among the countries of the Greater Mekong Subregion. Wind energy, biogas and biomass have limited potential and are weakly developed. Financing geothermal projects in Myanmar use an estimated break even power cost of 5.3–8.6 U.S cents/kWh or in Myanmar Kyat 53–86K per kWh. This pegs a non-fluctuating $ 1=1000K, which is a main concern for power project funding. The main drawback with depreciation pressures, in

3100-640: Is the largest producer of methamphetamines in the world, with the majority of ya ba found in Thailand produced in Burma, particularly in the Golden Triangle and Northeastern Shan State , which borders Thailand, Laos and China. Burmese-produced ya ba is typically trafficked to Thailand via Laos , before being transported through the northeastern Thai region of Isan . In 2010, Burma trafficked 1 billion tablets to neighbouring Thailand. In 2009,

3224-774: Is the source of two rivers, the Xi River (there known as the Nanpan and Hongshui ) and the Yuan River . The Hongshui is a principal source stream of the Xi River. Rising as the Nanpan in eastern Yunnan province, it flows south and east to form part of the boundary between Guizhou province and Guangxi autonomous region. Flowing for 345 km (214 mi), it unites with the Yu River at Guiping to form what eventually becomes

3348-663: The 2014 Myanmar census , Buddhists make up 95.7% of Mandalay Region's population, forming the largest religious community there. Minority religious communities include Christians (1.1%), Muslims (3%), and Hindus (0.2%) who collectively comprise the remainder of Mandalay Region's population. According to the State Sangha Maha Nayaka Committee ’s 2016 statistics, 99,964 Buddhist monks were registered in Mandalay Region, comprising 18.7% of Myanmar's total Sangha membership, which includes both novice samanera and fully ordained bhikkhu. Mandalay Region

3472-673: The Bai -ruled Dali Kingdom (937–1253). After the Mongol conquest of the region in the 13th century, Yunnan was conquered and ruled by the Ming dynasty . From the Yuan dynasty onward, the area was part of a central-government sponsored population movement towards the southwestern frontier, with two major waves of migrants arriving from Han -majority areas in northern and southeast China. As with other parts of China's southwest, Japanese occupation in

3596-747: The Dian Kingdom during the 3rd and 2nd centuries BC. The Han dynasty conquered the Dian Kingdom in the late 2nd century BC, establishing the Yizhou Commandery in its place. During the chaos of the Three Kingdoms period , imperial Chinese authority in Yunnan weakened, and much of the region came under the control of the Cuanman . The area was later ruled by the Sino-Tibetan -speaking kingdom of Nanzhao from (738–937), followed by

3720-648: The First Mongol invasion of Burma in the 1270s and 1280s. With the fall of the Yuan dynasty in 1368, the Ming dynasty destroyed the Yuan loyalists led by Basalawarmi and the remnants of the House of Duan in the Ming conquest of Yunnan by the early 1380s. The Ming installed Mu Ying and his family as hereditary aristocrats in Yunnan. During the Ming and Qing dynasties, large areas of Yunnan were administered under

3844-542: The International Rice Research Institute ( IRRI ), 52 modern rice varieties were released in the country between 1966 and 1997, helping increase national rice production to 14 million tons in 1987 and to 19 million tons in 1996. By 1988, modern varieties were planted on half of the country's rice fields, including 98% of the irrigated areas. In 2011, Myanmar's total milled rice production accounted for 10.60 million tons, an increase from

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3968-521: The Khmer peoples of Zhenla . Generally speaking, Nanzhao was then the most powerful kingdom in mainland Southeast Asia, and played an extremely active role in multistate interactions. In 859, Nanzhao captured Bozhou , and this event exacerbated the Nanzhao-Tang clashes. When the Tang governor of Annam took Bozhou back in the following year, Nanzhao, with the help of native peoples, occupied Hanoi as

4092-515: The University of Computer Studies, Mandalay are among the most selective universities in Myanmar. Other highly selective schools are Myanmar Aerospace Engineering University and military academies in Pyinoolwin : Defence Services Academy and Defence Services Technological Academy . The general state of health care in Myanmar is poor. The military government spends between 0.5% to 3% of

4216-490: The Xi River . The province is drained by six major river systems: Yunnan is China's most diverse province, biologically as well as culturally. The province contains snow-capped mountains and true tropical environments, thus supporting an unusually full spectrum of species and vegetation types. The Yunnan camellia ( Camellia reticulata ) is the provincial emblem. During summer, the Great Plateau of Tibet acts as

4340-522: The crackdown on pro-democracy protests in Myanmar , human rights organisations, gem dealers, and US First Lady Laura Bush called for a boycott of a Myanmar gem auction held twice yearly, arguing that the sale of the stones profited the dictatorial regime in that country. Debbie Stothard of the Alternative ASEAN Network on Burma stated that mining operators used drugs on employees to improve productivity, with needles shared, raising

4464-436: The kyat fell by a third of its pre-coup value, the central bank then sold $ 600 million worth of foreign reserves (10% of the entire country's total) to prop up the kyat. By April 2022, reserves dwindled, foreign investment fell and remittances plummeted. This led the junta to impose capital controls and import restrictions which led to shortages of diabetes and cancer medicines. In a first ever countrywide study in 2013,

4588-466: The native chieftain system . Under the Qing dynasty a war with Burma also occurred in the 1760s due to the attempted consolidation of borderlands under local chiefs by both China and Burma. Yunnan was a destination for Han Chinese during Yuan rule. Migrants moved into the area during Ming and Qing rule. During the Ming dynasty, 3 million Han Chinese mostly from Nanjing (the original Nanjing population

4712-557: The "Five Foot Way" – was extended south to around present day Qujing , in eastern Yunnan. In 109 BC, the Han dynasty conquered Dian during its southern expeditions . Under orders from Emperor Wu , General Guo Chang  [ zh ] ( 郭昌 ) was sent south to Yunnan, eventually establishing the Yizhou commandery . By this time, agricultural technology in Yunnan had improved markedly. The local people used bronze tools, plows and kept

4836-641: The 1,000 mile journey to Kunming , capital of Yunnan in China's mountainous southwest. It was here that the National Southwest Associated University (commonly known as Lianda University) was established. For eight years, staff, professors and students had to survive and operate in makeshift quarters that were subject to sporadic bombing campaigns by the Japanese. There were dire shortages of food, equipment, books, clothing and other essential needs, but they managed to conduct

4960-499: The 1.8 per cent back in 2010. In northern Burma, opium bans have ended a century old tradition of growing poppy . Between 20,000 and 30,000 ex-poppy farmers left the Kokang region as a result of the ban in 2002. Rubber plantations are being promoted in areas of high elevation like Mong Mao . Sugar is grown in the lowlands such as Mong Pawk District. The lack of an educated workforce skilled in modern technology contributes to

5084-1008: The 19th century by scientists of the French National Museum of Natural History , Paris, in connection with permanent settlements of missionaries of the Missions étrangères de Paris in north-west Yunnan, among them noticeably Jean-André Soulié and Felix Biet . From 1916 to 1917, Roy Chapman Andrews and Yvette Borup Andrews led the Asiatic Zoological Expedition of the American Museum of Natural History through much of western and southern Yunnan, as well as other provinces of China. The book, Camps and Trails in China , records their experiences. Other notable explorers include Heinrich Handel-Mazzetti ; George Forrest ; Joseph Francis Charles Rock , who from 1922 to 1949 spent most of his time studying

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5208-666: The 3rd century BC, the central area of Yunnan around present day Kunming was known as Dian . The Chu general Zhuang Qiao  [ zh ] ( 庄蹻 ) entered the region from the upper Yangtze River and set himself up as "King of Dian". He and his followers brought into Yunnan an influx of Chinese influence, the start of a long history of migration and cultural expansion. In 221 BC, Qin Shi Huang unified China and extended his authority south. Commanderies and counties were established in Yunnan. An existing road in Sichuan  –

5332-551: The Bamar population. A large community of Indians also reside in Mandalay. A dwindling community of Anglo-Burmese still exists in both Pyinoolwin and Mandalay. A number of Shan people live along the eastern border of the region. Burmese is the primary language of the division. However, Mandarin Chinese is increasingly spoken in Mandalay and the northern gem mining town of Mogok . Religion in Mandalay (2015) According to

5456-491: The Burmese economy, including the banking, airline, hotel and infrastructure industries. Their investment in infrastructure have allowed them to make more profits, facilitate drug trafficking and money laundering. The share of informal economy in Myanmar is one of the largest in the world that feeds into trade in illegal drugs. Myanmar has rich solar power and hydropower potential. The country's technical solar power potential

5580-565: The Burmese nation— Bagan , Ava , Amarapura , Mandalay —are all located here. The Tibeto-Burman speaking Pyu were the first historical people to dominate the Dry Zone in central Myanmar that includes Mandalay Region as early as the 1st century AD. By the early 9th century, the Pyu were decimated in a series of wars with the Nanzhao kingdom from Yunnan. The Burmans, who had been migrating into

5704-482: The Chinese authorities seized over 40 million tablets that had been illegally trafficked from Burma. Ethnic militias and rebel groups (in particular the United Wa State Army ) are responsible for much of this production; however, the Burmese military units are believed to be heavily involved in the trafficking of the drugs. Burma is also the second largest supplier of opium (following Afghanistan ) in

5828-475: The Cuan clan ruled eastern Yunnan for over four hundred years. International trade flowed through Yunnan. An ancient overland pre- Tang trade route from Yunnan Province passed through Irrawaddy in Burma to reach Bengal . Yunnan was inhabited by so-called barbarians not fully under the control of the Tang government and the route, though ancient, was not used much in pre-Tang times, and Chinese attempts to control

5952-560: The Dali plain, resulting in only another slaughter. By the end of the eighth century, Tang was no longer a major threat to Nanzhao. Nanzhao's expansion lasted for several decades. In 829, Nanzhao suddenly plundered Sichuan and entered Chengdu . When it retreated, hundreds of Sichuan people, including skilled artisans, were taken to Yunnan. In 832, the Nanzhao army captured the capital of the Pyu kingdom in modern upper Burma . Nanzhao also attacked

6076-520: The Indian immigrants formed a majority of the population. The Burmese under British rule felt helpless, and reacted with a "racism that combined feelings of superiority and fear". Crude oil production, an indigenous industry of Yenangyaung , was taken over by the British and put under Burmah Oil monopoly. British Burma began exporting crude oil in 1853. It produced 75% of the world's teak. The wealth

6200-556: The Japanese. Myanmar was bombed extensively by the Allies. After independence, the country was in ruins with its major infrastructure completely destroyed. With the loss of India, Burma lost relevance and obtained independence from the British. After a parliamentary government was formed in 1948, Prime Minister U Nu embarked upon a policy of nationalisation and the state was declared the owner of all land. The government tried to implement an eight-year plan partly financed by injecting money into

6324-424: The Lufeng Formation and the Lunan Group (Lumeiyi, Xiaotun, and Caijiacong formations). In this area is the noted Stone Forest or Shilin, eroded vertical pinnacles of limestone (Maokou Formation). In the eastern part the rivers generally run eastwards. The western half is characterized by mountain ranges and rivers running north and south. Yunnan has a generally mild climate with pleasant and fair weather because of

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6448-483: The Mandalay Region High Court there are eight district courts, Mandalay, Pyin Oo Lwin, Kyaukse, Meithtila, Myingyan, Nyaung Oo, Yamethin and Dakina (for Union Territory). There are 35 township courts including the townships of Union Territory and 5 special courts. The majority of the population in Mandalay Region are Bamar (Burmans). In the Mandalay metropolitan area, however, a large community of Chinese , most of whom are recent immigrants from Yunnan , now nearly rival

6572-407: The Myanmar government found that 37 per cent of the population were unemployed and 26 per cent lived in poverty. The current state of the Burmese economy has also had a significant impact on the people of Burma , as economic hardship results in extreme delays of marriage and family building. The average age of marriage in Burma is 27.5 for men, 26.4 for women, almost unparalleled in the region, with

6696-440: The Nanzhao forces were driven away. But Tang China had lost its ability to attack Nanzhao. While Nanzhao was being defeated in Annam, it still occasionally attacked Sichuan. In 869, Shilong ( 世隆 ), the eighth king and the first empire of Nanzhao, invaded Sichuan. In 874, Nanzhao attacked Sichuan again. In 902, Zheng Maisi, the Qingpingguan ( 清平官 ,"Prime Minister") of Nanzhao, murdered the infant king of Nanzhao, and established

6820-427: The New Dawn of Myanmar, a 19mm round golden pearl which sold to an anonymous buyer for undisclosed price. Since 1992, the government has encouraged tourism. Until 2008, fewer than 750,000 tourists entered the country annually, but there has been substantial growth over the past years. In 2012, 1.06 million tourists visited the country, and 1.8 million are expected to visit by the end of 2013. Yunnan Yunnan

6944-438: The Tang army moved to Bozhou. When the Tang forces returned, Nanzhao troops retreated from Hanoi but attacked and plundered Yongzhou . In the winter of 862, Nanzhao, allying with local groups, led an army of over 50,000 men to invade Annam again. It is reported that the Tang forces lost over 150,000 soldiers (either killed or captured by Nanzhao) in the two Annam battles. The autumn of 866 saw Tang victory in Hanoi and soon all of

7068-473: The biggest earner; 90% of the world's rubies come from the country, whose red stones are prized for their purity and hue . Thailand buys the majority of the country's gems . Burma's " Valley of Rubies ", the mountainous Mogok area, 200 km (120 mi) north of Mandalay , is noted for its rare pigeon's blood rubies and blue sapphires . Burma's gemstone industry is a cornerstone of the Burmese economy with exports topping $ 1 billion. In 2007, following

7192-524: The common name of this area. Therefore, the Yuan dynasty created the Yunnan Province after it occupied the Dali Kingdom . Han dynasty literature did not record the etymology of "Yunnan", and there are many theories about its origin. One common theory states that the name means "south of colorful clouds" ( 彩云之南 ; cǎiyún zhī nán ). Some annals in the Ming dynasty , for example Dian Lüe ( 滇略 ) and Yunnan General Annals ( 云南通志 ), support this. However, modern historian Tan Qixiang states that this theory

7316-417: The continuing war of the government with specific ethnic groups, etc.) do not interfere. As of October 2017, less than 10% of Myanmar's population has a bank account. As of 2016–17 approximately 98 percent of the population has smartphones and mobile money schemes are being implemented without the use of banks similar to African countries. On April 30, 2021, the United Nations Development Programme published

7440-496: The country including in Yangon . About 30 percent of the country's population does not have access to electricity, with 70 per cent of people living in rural areas. The civilian government has indicated that electricity will be imported from Laos to fulfil demand. Other industries include agricultural goods, textiles, wood products, construction materials, gems, metals, oil and natural gas. The private sector dominates agriculture , light industry , and transport activities, while

7564-558: The country's GDP on health care, consistently ranking among the lowest in the world. Although health care is nominally free, in reality patients have to pay for medicine and treatment even in public clinics and hospitals. Public hospitals lack many of the basic facilities and equipment. The following is a summary of the public health system in the division, in the fiscal year 2002–2003. In 2005, Mandalay Region's public health care system had slightly over 1,000 doctors and about 2,000 nurses working in 44 hospitals and 44 health clinics. Over 30 of

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7688-482: The country's economic problems. Lately, the Myanmar lacks adequate infrastructure. Goods travel primarily across Thai and China borders and through the main port in Yangon. Railroads are old and dilapidated, with few repairs since their construction under British rule in the late nineteenth century. Presently China and Japan are providing aid to upgrade rail transport. Highways are normally paved, except in remote border regions. Energy shortages are common throughout

7812-434: The country, to finance infrastructure and development projects in the country. The $ 512 million loan is the first issued by the ADB to Myanmar in 30 years and will target banking services, ultimately leading to other major investments in road, energy, irrigation and education projects. In March 2012, a draft foreign investment law emerged, the first in more than 2 decades. This law oversees the unprecedented liberalisation of

7936-534: The current FX market. Between June 2012 and October 2015, the Myanmar Kyat depreciated by approximately 35%, from 850 down to 1300 against the US Dollar. Local businesses with foreign denominated loans from abroad suddenly found themselves rushing for a strategy to mitigate currency risks. Myanmar's current lack of available currency hedging solutions presents a real challenge for geothermal project financing. Myanmar's economy depends heavily on sales of precious stones such as sapphires , pearls and jade . Rubies are

8060-483: The division's 4,467 primary and secondary schools in 2005. Of the total, the vast majority, about 4,000, were primary schools. Only about 13% of primary school students make it to high school. The region has some of the best institutions of higher education in Myanmar. As medical, engineering and computer studies are the most sought after in Myanmar, the University of Medicine, Mandalay , the University of Dental Medicine, Mandalay , Mandalay Technological University , and

8184-433: The domestic foreign exchange trading market and reduce economic distortions. The dual exchange rate system allows for the government and state-owned enterprises to divert funds and revenues, while also giving the government more control over the local economy and making it possible to temporarily subdue inflation. Inflation averaged 30.1% between 2005 and 2007. In April 2007, the National League for Democracy organised

8308-404: The economic strain that additional children place on family income, and has resulted in the prevalence of illegal abortions in the country, as well as use of other forms of birth control . The 2012 foreign investment law draft, included a proposal to transform the Myanmar Investment Commission from a government-appointed body into an independent board. This could bring greater transparency to

8432-450: The economy which caused some inflation. After a parliamentary government was formed in 1948, Prime Minister U Nu embarked upon a policy of nationalisation . He attempted to make Burma a welfare state by adopting central planning measures. By the 1950s, rice exports had decreased by two-thirds and mineral exports by over 96%. Plans were implemented in setting up light consumer industries by private sector. The 1962 Burmese coup d'état

8556-552: The economy. It for example stipulates that foreigners no longer require a local partner to start a business in the country and can legally lease land. The draft law also stipulates that Burmese citizens must constitute at least 25% of the firm's skilled workforce, and with subsequent training, up to 50–75%. On 28 January 2013, the government of Myanmar announced deals with international lenders to cancel or refinance nearly $ 6 billion of its debt, almost 60 per cent of what it owes to foreign lenders. Japan wrote off US$ 3 Billion, nations in

8680-400: The exception of developed countries like Singapore . Burma also has a low fertility rate of 2.07 children per woman (2010), especially as compared to other Southeast Asian countries of similar economic standing, like Cambodia (3.18) and Laos (4.41), representing a significant decline from 4.7 in 1983, despite the absence of a national population policy. This is at least partly attributed to

8804-416: The flora, peoples and languages of southwest China, mainly in Yunnan; and Peter Goullart , a White Russian who studied Naxi culture and lived in Lijiang from 1940 to 1949. Yunnan is the most southwestern province in China, with the Tropic of Cancer running through its southern part. The province has an area of 394,100 km (152,200 sq mi), 4.1% of the nation's total. The northern part of

8928-494: The free market, and opened up the country to a large-scale immigration with Rangoon exceeding New York City as the greatest immigration port in the world in the 1920s. Historian Thant Myint-U states, "This was out of a total population of only 13 million; it was equivalent to the United Kingdom today taking 2 million people a year." By then, in most of the largest cities in Burma, Rangoon , Akyab , Bassein and Moulmein ,

9052-485: The government controls energy , heavy industry , and military industries. The garment industry is a major job creator in the Yangon area, with around 200,000 workers employed in total in mid-2015. The Myanmar Government has introduced minimum wage of MMK 4,800 (US$ 3.18) per day for the garment workers from March 2018. The Myanmar garments sector has seen significant influx of foreign direct investment , if measured by

9176-625: The group of Paris Club wrote off US$ 2.2 Billion and Norway wrote off US$ 534 Million. Myanmar's inward foreign direct investment has steadily increased since its reform. The country approved US$ 4.4 billion worth of investment projects between January and November 2014. According to one report released on 30 May 2013, by the McKinsey Global Institute, Burma's future looks bright, with its economy expected to quadruple by 2030 if it invests in more high-tech industries. This however does assume that other factors (such as drug trade,

9300-429: The hospitals had less than 100 beds. Since almost all of large public hospitals and private hospitals, and doctors are located in Mandalay, these low numbers for a division with 7.7 million are actually even worse in the rest of the division, though these figures are believed to have improved by the advent of Naypyidaw as the nation's capital in 2006 although the level of improvement remains unreported. The well-to-do bypass

9424-427: The incident. A British officer testified that the Muslims did not rebel for religious reasons and that the Chinese were tolerant of different religions and were unlikely to have caused the revolt by interfering with the practice of Islam. Loyalist Muslim forces helped Qing forces crush the rebel Muslims. The Qing armies massacred only Muslims who had rebelled or supported the rebels and spared Muslims who took no part in

9548-616: The local tribal structures. In AD 225, the famed statesman Zhuge Liang led three columns into Yunnan to pacify the tribes. His seven captures of Meng Huo , a local magnate, is mythologized in the Romance of the Three Kingdoms . In the 4th century, northern China was largely overrun by nomadic tribes from the north. In the 320s, the Cuan ( 爨 ) clan migrated into Yunnan. Cuan Chen ( 爨琛 ) named himself king and held authority from Lake Dian , then known as Kunchuan . Henceforth

9672-477: The main trade route between China and India since 100 BC. The Mon Kingdom of lower Burma served as important trading centre in the Bay of Bengal . The majority of the population was involved in rice production and other forms of agriculture . Burma used silver as a medium of exchange. All land was technically owned by the Burmese monarch. Exports, along with oil wells, gem mining and teak production were controlled by

9796-481: The mining industry-). Many regions (such as the Golden Triangle) remain off-limits for foreigners, and in some of these regions, the government is at war with the country's ethnic minorities and the opposition. The major agricultural product is rice which covers about 60% of the country's total cultivated land area. Rice accounts for 97% of total food grain production by weight. Through collaboration with

9920-523: The ministry according to a statement issued by the ministry on 11 February. While many sanctions placed on the former regime were eased or lifted in 2012, the US has left restrictions on importing rubies and jade from Myanmar intact. According to recent amendments to the new Myanmar foreign investment law, there is no longer a minimum capital requirement for investments, except in mining ventures, which require substantial proof of capital and must be documented through

10044-521: The monarch. Burma was vitally involved in the Indian Ocean trade. Logged teak was a prized export that was used in European shipbuilding because of its durability, and became the focal point of Burmese exports from the 1700s to the 1800s. Under the monarchy, the economy of Myanmar had been one of redistribution, a concept embedded in local society, religion, and politics ( Dāna ). The state set

10168-497: The most corrupt country in the world, tied with Somalia . The national currency is the kyat . Burma currently has a dual exchange rate system similar to Cuba . The market rate was around two hundred times below the government-set rate in 2006. In 2011, the Burmese government enlisted the aid of the International Monetary Fund to evaluate options to reform the current exchange rate system, to stabilise

10292-423: The most diverse order in Yunnan are Cypriniformes , both in total species number and number of endemics. The unique Sinopyrophorus bioluminescent beetles were described from Yunnan in 2019. Yunnan has been designated: A main source of wealth lies in its vast mineral resources ; indeed, mining is the leading industry in Yunnan. Yunnan has proven deposits of 86 kinds of minerals in 2,700 places. Some 13% of

10416-568: The mountain (referring to the Cang Mountain ) with clouds". Wu Guangfan said "Yunnan" might be a Loloish or Bai name. The Yuanmou Man , a Homo erectus fossil unearthed by railway engineers in the 1960s, has been determined to be the oldest-known hominid fossil in China. By the Neolithic period, there were human settlements in the area of Lake Dian . These people used stone tools and constructed simple wooden structures. Around

10540-429: The north during World War II forced another migration of Han people into the region. These two waves of migration contributed to Yunnan being one of the most ethnically diverse provinces of China, with ethnic minorities accounting for about 34 percent of its total population. Major ethnic groups include Yi , Bai , Hani , Zhuang , Dai , and Miao . Yunnan has also been identified as the birthplace of tea , and as

10664-809: The north where they reach more than 5,000 m (16,000 ft); in the south they rise no higher than 3,000 m (9,800 ft). The highest point in the north is the Kawagebo Peak in Deqin County on the Diqing Plateau , which is about 6,740 m (22,110 ft); and the lowest is in the Red River Valley in Hekou County , near the Vietnamese border, with an elevation of 76.4 m (251 ft). The eastern half of

10788-712: The number of entries rather than their value. In March 2012, six of Thailand's largest garment manufacturers announced that they would move production to Myanmar, principally to the Yangon area, citing lower labour costs. In mid-2015, about 55% of officially registered garment firms in Myanmar were known to be fully or partly foreign-owned, with about 25% of the foreign firms from China and 17% from Hong Kong. Foreign-linked firms supply almost all garment exports, and these have risen rapidly in recent years, especially since EU sanctions were lifted in 2012. Myanmar exported $ 1.6 billion worth of garments and textiles in 2016. Burma (Myanmar)

10912-756: The plateau are the Lower Permian Maokou Formation, characterized by thick limestone deposits, the Lower Permian Qixia Formation, characterised by dolomitic limestones and dolomites , the Upper Permian basalts of the Ermeishan Formation (formerly Omeishan plateau basalts), and the red sandstones , mudstones , siltstones , and conglomerates of the Mesozoic – Paleogene , including

11036-436: The political system to restore peace and achieve national unity and moving quickly to an economic and social reform program. Current economic statistics were a huge decline from the economic statistics of Myanmar in the fiscal year of 2020, in which Myanmar’s nominal GDP was $ 81.26 billion and its purchasing power adjusted GDP was $ 279.14 billion. Myanmar has faced an economic crisis since the 2021 coup d'état . Burma has been

11160-420: The prices of the most important commodities. Agrarian self-sufficiency was vital, while trade was only of secondary importance. Under the British administration, the people of Burma were at the bottom of social hierarchy, with Europeans at the top, Indians, Chinese, and Christianized minorities in the middle, and Buddhist Burmese at the bottom. Integrated into the world economy by force, economic growth in Burma

11284-503: The private sector, allowed some foreign investment, and received much needed foreign exchange. The economy was rated in 2009 as the least free in Asia (tied with North Korea ). All basic market institutions are suppressed. Private enterprises were often co-owned or indirectly owned by state. The corruption watchdog organisation Transparency International in its 2007 Corruption Perceptions Index released on 26 September 2007 ranked Burma

11408-399: The process of issuing investment licenses, according to the proposed reforms drafted by experts and senior officials. However, even with this draft, it will still remain a question on whether corruption in the government can be addressed (links have been shown between certain key individuals inside the government and the drug trade, as well as many industries that use forced labour -for example

11532-531: The proved deposits of minerals are the largest of their kind in China, and two-thirds of the deposits are among the largest of their kind in the Yangtze River valley and in south China. Yunnan ranks first in the country in deposits of zinc , lead , tin , cadmium , indium , thallium and crocidolite . Other deposits include iron , coal , copper , gold , mercury , silver , antimony and sulfur . More than 150 kinds of minerals have been discovered in

11656-594: The province forms part of the Yunnan–Guizhou Plateau . The province borders Guangxi and Guizhou in the east, Sichuan in the north, and the Tibet Autonomous Region in the northwest. It shares a border of 4,060 km (2,520 mi) with Myanmar ( Kachin and Shan States ) in the west, Laos ( Luang Namtha , Oudomxay , and Phongsaly Provinces ) in the south and Vietnam ( Hà Giang , Lào Cai , Lai Châu , and Điện Biên Provinces ) in

11780-647: The province is a limestone plateau with karst scenery and unnavigable rivers flowing through deep mountain gorges; the western half is characterised by mountain ranges and rivers running north and south. These include the Nu Jiang ( Salween ), the Lancang ( Mekong ), and the Jinsha ( Yangtze ), which flow in close proximity in the Three Parallel Rivers protected area. The rugged, vertical terrain produces

11904-563: The province's location on south-facing mountain slopes, receiving the influence of both the Pacific and Indian oceans, and although the growing period is long, the rugged terrain provides little arable land . See Agriculture in Yunnan . Under the Köppen climate classification , much of the province lies within the subtropical highland (Köppen Cwb ) or humid subtropical zone ( Cwa ), with cool to warm winters, and temperate summers, except in

12028-573: The province. It assumed strategic significance, particularly as the Burma Road from Lashio , in Burma to Kunming was a fought over supply line of vital importance to China's war effort. University faculty and students in the east had originally decamped to Changsha , capital of Hunan . But as Japanese forces were gaining more territory they eventually bombed Changsha in February 1938. The 800 faculty and students who were left had to flee and made

12152-588: The province. The potential value of the proven deposits in Yunnan is 3 trillion yuan , 40% of which come from fuel minerals, 7.3% from metallic minerals and 52.7% from nonmetallic minerals. Yunnan has sufficient rainfall and many rivers and lakes. The annual water flow originating in the province is 200 cubic kilometres, three times that of the Yellow River . The rivers flowing into the province from outside add 160 cubic kilometres, which means there are more than ten thousand cubic metres of water for each person in

12276-484: The province. The province is said to have "as much flowering plant diversity as the rest of the Northern Hemisphere put together". Yunnan has less than 4% of the land of China, yet the province harbors around 42.6% of all protected plant species and 72.5% of all protected wild animals in the country, of which 15% are strictly endemic to Yunnan. Yunnan is home to, most notably, the southeast Asian gaur ,

12400-628: The province. This is four times the average in the country. The rich water resources offer abundant hydro-energy. China is constructing a series of dams on the Mekong to develop it as a waterway and source of power; the first was completed at Manwan in 1993. Yunnan consists of sixteen prefecture-level divisions : eight prefecture-level cities and eight autonomous prefectures : These 16 prefecture-level divisions are in turn subdivided into 129 county-level divisions (17 districts , 18 county-level cities , 65 counties , and 29 autonomous counties ). At

12524-519: The public health system and go to private clinics in Mandalay or Yangon in order to receive quicker medical attention and high-quality service. The wealthy routinely go abroad (usually Bangkok or Singapore ) for treatment. Economy of Myanmar The economy of Myanmar is the seventh largest in Southeast Asia . After the return of civilian rule in 2011 , the new government launched large-scale reforms , focused initially on

12648-707: The region fell briefly to the Mons of Pegu (Bago) (1752–1753). Konbaung dynasty ruled the region until December 1885 when it lost all of Upper Myanmar in the Third Anglo-Burmese War . The British administration organized seven divisions in Upper Myanmar: Mandalay, Meiktila, Minbu, Sagaing, and the Federated Shan States (North and South). Mandalay Division included what is now Kachin State . Circa 1940, Meiktila Division

12772-487: The region from Yunnan in the 9th century, founded a city of their own, Pagan, in 849. The Pagan dynasty gradually came to dominate the central zone over the next two centuries, and by the late 11th century, all of present-day Myanmar. The Burmese language and script came to prominence with royal patronage of Pagan kings. After the fall of Pagan to the Mongols in 1287, parts of central Myanmar came to be controlled by

12896-471: The region of origin of the plant genus Cannabis . The name "Yunnan" first referred to a place when the Han dynasty created Yunnan County near modern Xiangyun . During the Tang dynasty , Emperor Xuanzong gave Piluoge , the chief of Nanzhao , the title of "King of Yunnan", because Nanzhao originated from Yunnan county. Gradually the king of Yunnan controlled more and more territory, and "Yunnan" became

13020-520: The regional commander of Jiannan (present-day Sichuan ), led a Tang campaign against Nanzhao. The king of Nanzhao, Geluofeng, regarded the previous incident as a personal affair and wrote to Xianyu to seek peace. However, Xianyu Zhongtong detained the Nanzhao envoys and turned down the appeal. Confronted with Tang armies, Nanzhao immediately turned its allegiance to the Tibetan Empire . The Tubo and Nanzhao agreed to be "fraternal states"; Geluofeng

13144-486: The risk of HIV infection. Richard W. Hughes , a Bangkok-based gemologist makes the point that for every ruby sold through the junta, another gem that supports subsistence mining is smuggled over the Thai border. The Chinese have also been the chief driving force behind Burma's gem mining industry and jade exports. The industry is completely under Chinese hands at every level, from the financiers, concession operators, all

13268-462: The route were disrupted by the rise of Nanzhao . Yunnan was settled by several local tribes, clans, and cultures before the 8th century. Around Lake Erhai , namely, the Dali area, there emerged six zhao : Mengzi ( 蒙巂 ), Yuexi ( 越析 ), Langqiong ( 浪穹 ), Dengdan ( 邆赕 ), Shilling ( 施浪 ), and Mengshe ( 蒙舍 ). Zhao ( 诏 ) was an indigenous non-Chinese language term meaning "king" or "kingdom." Among

13392-473: The running of a modern university . Over those eight years of war (1937–1945), Lianda became famous nationwide for having and producing many, if not most, of China's most prominent academics, scholars, scientists and intellectuals. Both of China's only Nobel laureates in physics Yang Chen-Ning & Tsung-Dao Lee studied at Lianda in Kunming. Thousands of plant, insect and mammal species were described in

13516-475: The six regimes Mengshe was located south of the other five; therefore given the new, larger context, it was called Nanzhao (Southern Kingdom). By the 730s Nanzhao had succeeded in bringing the Erhai Lake–area under its authority. In 738, the western Yunnan was united by Piluoge , the fourth king of Nanzhao, who was confirmed by the imperial court of the Tang dynasty as king of Yunnan. Ruling from Dali ,

13640-702: The southeast. For practical purposes, all of Yunnan province falls within the Zomia region of Asia. Yunnan is at the far eastern edge of the Himalayan uplift , and was pushed up in the Pleistocene , primarily in the Middle Pleistocene , although the uplift continues into the present. The eastern part of the province is a limestone plateau with karst topography and unnavigable rivers flowing through deep mountain gorges. The main surface formations of

13764-473: The thirteen kings of Nanzhao ruled over more than two centuries and played a vital role in the dynamic relationship between the Tang dynasty and the Tibetan Empire as a buffer state . By the 750s, Nanzhao had conquered Yunnan and became a potential rival to Tang China. The following period saw several conflicts between Tang China and Nanzhao. In 750, Nanzhao attacked and captured Yaozhou, the largest Tang settlement in Yunnan. In 751, Xianyu Zhongtong ( 鮮于仲通 ),

13888-479: The truly tropical south, where temperatures regularly exceed 30 °C (86 °F) in the warmer half of the year. In general , January average temperatures range from 8 to 17 °C (46 to 63 °F); July averages vary from 21 to 27 °C (70 to 81 °F). Average annual rainfall ranges from 600 to 2,300 mm (24 to 91 in), with over half the rain occurring between June and August. The plateau region has moderate temperatures. The western canyon region

14012-589: The uprising. In 1894, George Ernest Morrison , an Australian correspondent for The Times , traveled from Beijing to British-occupied Burma via Yunnan. His book, An Australian in China , details his experiences. The 1905 Tibetan Rebellion in which Tibetan Buddhist Lamas attacked and killed French Catholic missionaries spread to Yunnan. Yunnan was transformed by the events of the Second Sino-Japanese War , which caused many east coast refugees and industrial establishments to relocate to

14136-621: The way to the retail merchants that own scores of newly opened gem markets. One Chinese-owned jeweller reportedly controls 100 gem mines and produces over 2,000 kilograms of raw rubies annually. Since the privatization of the gem industry during the 1990s, Burmese jewelers and entrepreneurs of Chinese ancestry have transformed Burma's gem industry into new retail jewelry shops, selling coveted pieces of expensive jewelry to customers mainly hailing from Hong Kong and Taiwan. The permits for new gem mines in Mogoke, Mineshu and Nanyar state will be issued by

14260-537: The world, with 95% of opium grown in Shan State . Illegal narcotics have generated $ 1 to US$ 2 billion in exports annually, with estimates of 40% of the country's foreign exchange coming from drugs. Efforts to eradicate opium cultivation have pushed many ethnic rebel groups, including the United Wa State Army and the Kokang to diversify into methamphetamine production. Prior to the 1980s, heroin

14384-634: Was conquered by the Mongol Empire in 1253 after Dali King Duan Xingzhi defected to the Mongols. The Duans incorporated into the Mongol dominion as Maharajas of the new province. The Mongolian prince sent to administer the region with them was killed. In 1273, Kublai Khan reformed the province and appointed the semu Ajall Shams al-Din Omar as its governor. The Yunnan Province during the Yuan dynasty included significant portions of Upper Burma after

14508-483: Was driven by the extractive industries and cash crop agriculture, and the country had the second-highest GDP per capita in Southeast Asia. However, much of the wealth was concentrated in the hands of Europeans. The country became the world's largest exporter of rice, mainly to European markets, while other colonies like India suffered mass starvation. The British followed the ideologies of Social Darwinism and

14632-542: Was followed by an economic scheme called the Burmese Way to Socialism , a plan to nationalise all industries, with the exception of agriculture. The catastrophic program turned Burma into one of the world's most impoverished countries. Burma was classified as a least developed country by the United Nations in 1987. After 1988, the regime retreated from a command economy . It permitted modest expansion of

14756-505: Was formed as Union Territory under the direct administration of president. So Mandalay Region remains 28 townships organized into eleven districts. During the ruling of junta, the region peace and development committee is the administrative body of Mandalay Region. In 2011, the new government form was introduced, and the Mandalay Region Government became the main administrative body of the region. The government

14880-432: Was given the titles zanpuzhong ("younger brother"). The Nanzhao-Tubo alliance ensured a disastrous defeat for Xianyu's expedition, with the Tang general's army of 80,000 men being reduced to a quarter of its original size. Tang China did not give up after one failure. In 753, another expedition was prepared, but this was also defeated by Nanzhao. In 754, the Tang organized an army of more than 100,000 troops that advanced to

15004-481: Was however, mainly concentrated in the hands of Europeans. In the 1930s, agricultural production fell dramatically as international rice prices declined and did not recover for several decades. During the Japanese invasion of Burma in World War II, the British followed a scorched earth policy. They destroyed the major government buildings, oil wells and mines for tungsten, tin, lead and silver to keep them from

15128-588: Was later largely replaced by Wu-speakers), and some from Shanxi and Hebei, settled in Yunnan. Although largely forgotten, the bloody Panthay Rebellion of the Muslim Hui people and other local minorities against the Manchu rulers of the Qing dynasty caused the deaths of up to a million people in Yunnan. The Manchu official Shuxing'a started an anti-Muslim massacre, which led to the rebellion. Shuxing'a developed

15252-626: Was merged with Mandalay Division. Much of Upper Myanmar, including Mandalay Division, was under the Japanese rule during World War II between May 1942 and March 1945. When the country gained independence from the United Kingdom in January 1948, the Myikyina and Bhamo districts were carved out to form Kachin State. Before 2010, Mandalay Region consists of 8 districts. Later the Pyinmana district

15376-471: Was typically transported from Burma to Thailand, before being trafficked by sea to Hong Kong , which was and still remains the major transit point at which heroin enters the international market . Now, drug trafficking has shifted to southern China (from Yunnan , Guizhou , Guangxi , Guangdong ) because of a growing market for drugs in China, before reaching Hong Kong. The prominence of major drug traffickers have allowed them to penetrate other sectors of

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