155-489: A mantra ( Pali : mantra ) or mantram ( Devanagari : मन्त्रम्) is a sacred utterance, a numinous sound, a syllable, word or phonemes , or group of words (most often in an Indo-Iranian language like Sanskrit or Avestan ) believed by practitioners to have religious, magical or spiritual powers. Some mantras have a syntactic structure and a literal meaning, while others do not. ꣽ, ॐ (Aum, Om) serves as an important mantra in various Indian religions . Specifically, it
310-415: A Middle Indo-Aryan language , is different from Classical Sanskrit more with regard to its dialectal base than the time of its origin. A number of its morphological and lexical features show that it is not a direct continuation of Ṛgvedic Sanskrit. Instead it descends from one or more dialects that were, despite many similarities, different from Ṛgvedic . The Theravada commentaries refer to
465-515: A before doubled consonants: The vowels ⟨i⟩ and ⟨u⟩ are lengthened in the flexional endings including: -īhi, -ūhi and -īsu A sound called anusvāra (Skt.; Pali: niggahīta ), represented by the letter ṁ (ISO 15919) or ṃ (ALA-LC) in romanization, and by a raised dot in most traditional alphabets, originally marked the fact that the preceding vowel was nasalized. That is, aṁ , iṁ and uṁ represented [ã] , [ĩ] and [ũ] . In many traditional pronunciations, however,
620-531: A lingua franca or common language of culture among people who used differing dialects in North India, used at the time of the Buddha and employed by him. Another scholar states that at that time it was "a refined and elegant vernacular of all Aryan-speaking people". Modern scholarship has not arrived at a consensus on the issue; there are a variety of conflicting theories with supporters and detractors. After
775-664: A continuation of a language spoken in the area of Magadha in the time of the Buddha. Nearly every word in Pāḷi has cognates in the other Middle Indo-Aryan languages, the Prakrits . The relationship to Vedic Sanskrit is less direct and more complicated; the Prakrits were descended from Old Indo-Aryan vernaculars . Historically, influence between Pali and Sanskrit has been felt in both directions. The Pali language's resemblance to Sanskrit
930-552: A degraded form of Pali, But Masefield states that further examination of a very considerable corpus of texts will probably show that this is an internally consistent Pali dialect. The reason for the changes is that some combinations of characters are difficult to write in those scripts. Masefield further states that upon the third re-introduction of Theravada Buddhism into Sri Lanka (The Siyamese Sect), records in Thailand state that large number of texts were also taken. It seems that when
1085-476: A feat, suggests Staal, that was made possible by the strict mathematical principles used in constructing the mantras. These saman chant mantras are also mostly meaningless, cannot be literally translated as Sanskrit or any Indian language, but nevertheless are beautiful in their resonant themes, variations, inversions, and distribution. They draw the devotee in. Staal is not the first person to view Hindu mantras in this manner. The ancient Hindu Vedic ritualist Kautsa
1240-575: A few loan-words from local languages where Pali was used (e.g. Sri Lankans adding Sinhala words to Pali). These usages differentiate the Pali found in the Suttapiṭaka from later compositions such as the Pali commentaries on the canon and folklore (e.g., commentaries on the Jataka tales ), and comparative study (and dating) of texts on the basis of such loan-words is now a specialized field unto itself. Pali
1395-665: A high degree of mutual intelligibility. Theravada tradition, as recorded in chronicles like the Mahavamsa , states that the Tipitaka was first committed to writing during the first century BCE. This move away from the previous tradition of oral preservation is described as being motivated by threats to the Sangha from famine, war, and the growing influence of the rival tradition of the Abhayagiri Vihara . This account
1550-430: A later period of Hinduism, mantras were recited with a transcendental redemptive goal as intention, such as escape from the cycle of life and rebirth, forgiveness for bad karma, and experiencing a spiritual connection with the god. The function of mantras, in these cases, was to cope with the human condition as a whole. According to Alper, redemptive spiritual mantras opened the door for mantras where every part need not have
1705-495: A literal meaning, but together their resonance and musical quality assisted the transcendental spiritual process. Overall, explains Alper, using Śivasūtra mantras as an example, Hindu mantras have philosophical themes and are metaphorical with social dimension and meaning; in other words, they are a spiritual language and instrument of thought. According to Staal, Hindu mantras may be spoken aloud, anirukta (not enunciated), upamsu (inaudible), or manasa (not spoken, but recited in
SECTION 10
#17327809241091860-480: A literal meaning. He further notes that even when mantras do not have a literal meaning, they do set a tone and ambiance in the ritual as they are recited, and thus have a straightforward and uncontroversial ritualistic meaning. The sounds may lack literal meaning, but they can have an effect. He compares mantras to bird songs, that have the power to communicate, yet do not have a literal meaning. On that saman category of Hindu mantras, which Staal described as resembling
2015-457: A major center for pilgrimage for all Japanese. The Shingon monk Kakuban (1095–1143) was one Shingon scholar who responded to the rise in Pure Land devotionalism. He studied Shingon along with Tendai and also incorporated Pure Land practice into his Shingon system, as well as promoting an esoteric interpretation of nembutsu and Pure Land. Unlike other Pure Land schools, Kakuban held that
2170-419: A mantra simultaneously with in-breath and out-breath to help develop tranquility and concentration. Mantra meditation is especially popular among lay people. Like other basic concentration exercises, it can be used simply to the mind, or it can be the basis for an insight practice where the mantra becomes the focus of observation of how life unfolds, or an aid in surrendering and letting go." The "Buddho" mantra
2325-409: A new school of esoteric Buddhism centered around Jingo-ji and wrote some key works which outlined the main teachings of Shingon. In 818, Kūkai asked emperor Saga to grant him Mount Kōya ( 高野山 Kōyasan ) , in present-day Wakayama province, so that he could establish a true monastic center away from the disturbances of the capital and this was soon granted. Kūkai and his disciples soon began to build
2480-415: A number of similarities between surviving fragments and Pali morphology. Ardhamagadhi Prakrit was a Middle Indo-Aryan language and a Dramatic Prakrit thought to have been spoken in modern-day Bihar & Eastern Uttar Pradesh and used in some early Buddhist and Jain drama. It was originally thought to be a predecessor of the vernacular Magadhi Prakrit, hence the name (literally "half-Magadhi"). Ardhamāgadhī
2635-476: A result, there is a long history of scholarly disagreement on the meaning of mantras and whether they are instruments of mind, as implied by the etymological origin of the word mantra . One school suggests mantras are mostly meaningless sound constructs, while the other holds them to be mostly meaningful linguistic instruments of mind. Both schools agree that mantras have melody and a well designed mathematical precision in their construction and that their influence on
2790-457: A specific mantra and its associated deity is often a requirement for reciting certain mantras in these traditions. However, in some religious traditions, initiation is not always required for certain mantras, which are open to all. The word mantra is also used in English to refer to something that is said frequently and is deliberately repeated over and over. The earliest mention of mantras
2945-478: A spell or weapon of supernatural power. Zimmer defines mantra as a verbal instrument to produce something in one's mind. Agehananda Bharati defines mantra, in the context of the Tantric school of Hinduism, to be a combination of mixed genuine and quasi-morphemes arranged in conventional patterns, based on codified esoteric traditions, passed on from a guru to a disciple through prescribed initiation. Jan Gonda ,
3100-568: A subject of controversy among scholars. Tantra usage is not unique to Hinduism: it is also found in Buddhism both inside and outside India. Other important Hindu mantras include: Apart from Shiva Sutras , which originated from Shiva's tandava dance, the Shiva Sutras of Vasugupta are a collection of seventy-seven aphorisms that form the foundation of the tradition of spiritual mysticism known as Kashmir Shaivism . They are attributed to
3255-524: A widely cited scholar on Indian mantras, defines mantra as general name for the verses, formulas or sequence of words in prose which contain praise, are believed to have religious, magical or spiritual efficiency, which are meditated upon, recited, muttered or sung in a ritual, and which are collected in the methodically arranged ancient texts of Hinduism. By comparing the Old Indic Vedic and Old Iranian Avestan traditions, Gonda concludes that in
SECTION 20
#17327809241093410-480: Is japa , the meditative repetition of a mantra, usually with the aid of a mala (prayer beads). Mantras serve a central role in the Indian tantric traditions , which developed elaborate yogic methods which make use of mantras. In tantric religions (often called "mantra paths", Sanskrit : Mantranāya or Mantramarga ), mantric methods are considered to be the most effective path. Ritual initiation ( abhiseka ) into
3565-483: Is an example of a seed syllable mantra ( bijamantra ). It is believed to be the first sound in Hinduism and as the sonic essence of the absolute divine reality. Longer mantras are phrases with several syllables, names and words. These phrases may have spiritual interpretations such as a name of a deity, a longing for truth, reality, light, immortality, peace, love, knowledge, and action. Examples of longer mantras include
3720-518: Is claimed to purify the mind and spirit. Kirtan is a more musical form of mantric practice. It is a common method in the bhakti traditions , such as Gaudiya Vaishnavism . Kirtan includes call and response forms of chanting accompanied by various Indian instruments (such as the tabla , mrdanga and harmonium ), and it may also include dancing and theatrical performance. Kirtan is also common in Sikhism . Tantric Tantric Hindu traditions see
3875-577: Is currently relatively little known, particularly in the Thai tradition, with many manuscripts never catalogued or published. Paiśācī is a largely unattested literary language of classical India that is mentioned in Prakrit and Sanskrit grammars of antiquity. It is found grouped with the Prakrit languages, with which it shares some linguistic similarities, but was not considered a spoken language by
4030-587: Is designated as a classical language by the Government of India . The word 'Pali' is used as a name for the language of the Theravada canon. The word seems to have its origins in commentarial traditions, wherein the Pāli (in the sense of the line of original text quoted) was distinguished from the commentary or vernacular translation that followed it in the manuscript. K. R. Norman suggests that its emergence
4185-612: Is found in the Vedas of ancient India and the Avesta of ancient Iran . Both Sanskrit mántra and the equivalent Avestan mąθra go back to the common Proto-Indo-Iranian *mantram , consisting of the Indo-European *men "to think" and the instrumental suffix *trom . Due to the linguistic and functional similarities, they must go back to the common Indo-Iranian period , commonly dated to around 2000 BCE. Scholars consider
4340-536: Is frequently chanted in a ritual context. The secular literature of Pali historical chronicles, medical texts, and inscriptions is also of great historical importance. The great centres of Pali learning remain in Sri Lanka and other Theravada nations of Southeast Asia: Myanmar , Thailand , Laos and Cambodia . Since the 19th century, various societies for the revival of Pali studies in India have promoted awareness of
4495-502: Is generally accepted by scholars, though there are indications that Pali had already begun to be recorded in writing by this date. By this point in its history, scholars consider it likely that Pali had already undergone some initial assimilation with Sanskrit , such as the conversion of the Middle-Indic bahmana to the more familiar Sanskrit brāhmana that contemporary brahmans used to identify themselves. In Sri Lanka, Pali
4650-402: Is more general: a word or phrase that is often repeated and expresses a particularly strong belief. For instance, a football team can choose individual words as their own "mantra." Louis Renou has defined mantra as a thought. Mantras are structured formulae of thoughts, claims Silburn . Farquhar concludes that mantras are a religious thought, prayer, sacred utterance, but also believed to be
4805-445: Is no single, standard spelling of the term, and all four possible spellings can be found in textbooks. R. C. Childers translates the word as "series" and states that the language "bears the epithet in consequence of the perfection of its grammatical structure". There is persistent confusion as to the relation of Pāḷi to the vernacular spoken in the ancient kingdom of Magadha , which was located in modern-day Bihar . Beginning in
Mantra - Misplaced Pages Continue
4960-677: Is often exaggerated by comparing it to later Sanskrit compositions—which were written centuries after Sanskrit ceased to be a living language, and are influenced by developments in Middle Indic , including the direct borrowing of a portion of the Middle Indic lexicon; whereas, a good deal of later Pali technical terminology has been borrowed from the vocabulary of equivalent disciplines in Sanskrit, either directly or with certain phonological adaptations. Post-canonical Pali also possesses
5115-936: Is one of the major schools of Buddhism in Japan and one of the few surviving Vajrayana lineages in East Asian Buddhism . It is sometimes also called Japanese Esoteric Buddhism, or Eastern Esotericism ( Dōngmì , 東密). The word shingon is the Japanese reading of the Chinese word 真言 ( zhēnyán ), which is the translation of the Sanskrit word mantra . The Zhēnyán lineage was founded in China (c. 7th–8th centuries) by Indian vajrācāryas (esoteric masters) like Śubhakarasiṃha , Vajrabodhi and Amoghavajra . These esoteric teachings would later flourish in Japan under
5270-525: Is recited or chanted during a ritual. Staal presents a non-linguistic view of mantras. He suggests that verse mantras are metered and harmonized to mathematical precision (for example, in the viharanam technique), which resonate, but a lot of them are a hodgepodge of meaningless constructs such as are found in folk music around the world. Staal cautions that there are many mantras that can be translated and do have spiritual meaning and philosophical themes central to Hinduism, but that does not mean all mantras have
5425-936: Is that literature in Paiśācī is fragmentary and extremely rare but may once have been common. The 13th-century Tibetan historian Buton Rinchen Drub wrote that the early Buddhist schools were separated by choice of sacred language : the Mahāsāṃghikas used Prakrit, the Sarvāstivādins used Sanskrit, the Sthaviravādins used Paiśācī, and the Saṃmitīya used Apabhraṃśa . This observation has led some scholars to theorize connections between Pali and Paiśācī; Sten Konow concluded that it may have been an Indo-Aryan language spoken by Dravidian people in South India, and Alfred Master noted
5580-461: Is the possibility of "becoming Buddha in this very embodied existence" (sokushin jōbutsu) , even for the most depraved persons. All beings thus have the potential to become Buddhas through their own effort and through the power / grace ( adhisthana ) of the Buddha. Kūkai thus rejected the idea we lived in an age of Dharma decline and that therefore one had to be reborn in a pure land to attain enlightenment. This also informs his positive view of
5735-493: Is the premise that before existence and beyond existence is only One reality, Brahman, and the first manifestation of Brahman expressed as Om. For this reason, Om is considered as a foundational idea and reminder, and thus is prefixed and suffixed to all Hindu prayers . While some mantras may invoke individual gods or principles, fundamental mantras such as Shanti Mantra , the Gayatri Mantra and others ultimately focus on
5890-719: Is the tantric phase of Mantrayana . In this tantric phase, mantras are at the very center of the path to Buddhahood, acting as a part of the supreme method of meditation and spiritual practice. One popular bija (seed) mantra in Mahayana Buddhism is the Sanskrit letter A (see A in Buddhism ). This seed mantra was equated with Mahayana doctrines like Prajñaparamita (the Perfection of Wisdom), emptiness and non-arising . This seed mantra remains in use in Shingon , Dzogchen and Rinzai Zen. Mahayana Buddhism also adopted
6045-517: Is thought to have entered into a period of decline ending around the 4th or 5th century (as Sanskrit rose in prominence, and simultaneously, as Buddhism's adherents became a smaller portion of the subcontinent), but ultimately survived. The work of Buddhaghosa was largely responsible for its reemergence as an important scholarly language in Buddhist thought. The Visuddhimagga , and the other commentaries that Buddhaghosa compiled, codified and condensed
6200-515: Is to solemnize and ratify rituals. Each mantra, in Vedic rituals, is coupled with an act. According to Apastamba Srauta Sutra , each ritual act is accompanied by one mantra, unless the Sutra explicitly marks that one act corresponds to several mantras. According to Gonda, and others, there is a connection and rationale between a Vedic mantra and each Vedic ritual act that accompanies it. In these cases,
6355-659: Is used extensively in Shingon as part of daily recitation and ritual practice. The full Sanskrit title is Mahāsukhavajra-amoghasamaya-sūtra (Ch. Dale jingang bukong zhenshi sanmohe jing , Sutra of the Vow of Fulfilling the Great Perpetual Enjoyment and Benefiting All Sentient Beings Without Exception ). Another important source for the Shingon school is the Awakening of Faith and a commentary on it called
Mantra - Misplaced Pages Continue
6510-785: Is usually divided into canonical and non-canonical or extra-canonical texts. Canonical texts include the whole of the Pali Canon or Tipitaka . With the exception of three books placed in the Khuddaka Nikaya by only the Burmese tradition, these texts (consisting of the five Nikayas of the Sutta Pitaka , the Vinaya Pitaka , and the books of the Abhidhamma Pitaka ) are traditionally accepted as containing
6665-444: Is what matters to the devotee. A mantra creates a feeling in the practicing person. It has an emotive numinous effect, it mesmerizes, it defies expression, and it creates sensations that are by definition private and at the heart of all religions and spiritual phenomena. Traditional During the early Vedic period , Vedic poets became fascinated by the inspirational power of poems, metered verses, and music. They referred to them with
6820-737: Is widespread in the Thai Forest Tradition and was taught by Ajahn Chah and his students. Another popular mantra in Thai Buddhism is Samma-Araham , referring to the Buddha who has 'perfectly' ( samma ) attained 'perfection in the Buddhist sense' ( araham ), used in Dhammakaya meditation . In the Tantric Theravada tradition of Southeast Asia, mantras are central to their method of meditation. Popular mantras in this tradition include Namo Buddhaya ("Homage to
6975-467: Is “the original ground dharmakāya .” (薄伽梵即毘盧遮那本地法身, at Taisho no. 1796:39.580). According to Hakeda, Kūkai identified the Dharmakaya with "the eternal Dharma, the uncreated, imperishable, beginningless, and endless Truth". This ultimate reality does not exist independently of all things, but is immanent in them. Dainichi is worshipped as the supreme Buddha and also appears as the central figure of
7130-722: The Mahāvairocana Sūtra ( 大日経 , Dainichi-kyō ) , the Vajraśekhara Sūtra ( 金剛頂経 , Kongōchō-kyō ) , and the Susiddhikara Sūtra ( 蘇悉地経 , Soshitsuji-kyō ) . Important Mahayana sutras in Shingon include the Lotus Sutra , the Brahmajāla Sūtra and Heart Sutra . Kūkai wrote commentaries on all three. Shingon derives form the early period of Indian Vajrayana (then known as Mantrayana,
7285-586: The Mangala Sutta , Ratana Sutta , and the Metta Sutta . According to the American Buddhist teacher Jack Kornfield : The use of mantra or the repetition of certain phrases in Pali is a highly common form of meditation in the Theravada tradition. Simple mantras use repetition of the Buddha's name, "Buddho", [as "Buddho" is actually a title rather than a name] or use the "Dhamma", or
7440-712: The Ratana Sutta for apotropaic reasons. Even at this early stage, there was an idea that these spells were somehow connected with the Dharma in a deep sense. Conze argues that in Mahayana sutras like the White Lotus Sutra , and the Lankavatara Sutra , mantras become more important for spiritual reasons and their power increases. For Conze, the final phase of the development of Buddhist mantras
7595-436: The Buddha's Teaching . It was a popular Buddhist verse and was used as a mantra. This mantra is found inscribed on numerous ancient Buddhist statues, chaityas , and images. The Sanskrit version of this mantra is: ye dharmā hetuprabhavā hetuṃ teṣāṃ tathāgato hyavadat, teṣāṃ ca yo nirodha evaṃvādī mahāśramaṇaḥ The phrase can be translated as follows: Of those phenomena which arise from causes: Those causes have been taught by
7750-487: The Five Wisdom Buddhas . Hakeda also writes that in Shingon, Dainichi is "at the center of a multitude of Buddhas, bodhisattvas, and powers; He is the source of enlightenment and the unity underlying all variety. To attain enlightenment means to realize Mahāvairocana, the implication being that Mahāvairocana is originally within man." According to Kūkai, the Buddha's light illuminates and pervades all, like
7905-750: The Gayatri Mantra , the Hare Krishna mantra , Om Namah Shivaya , the Mani mantra , the Mantra of Light , the Namokar Mantra , and the Mūl Mantar . Mantras without any actual linguistic meaning are still considered to be musically uplifting and spiritually meaningful. The use, structure, function, importance, and types of mantras vary according to the school and philosophy of Jainism , Buddhism , Hinduism , Zoroastrianism , and Sikhism . A common practice
SECTION 50
#17327809241098060-732: The Mahāsāṃghika branch became influential in Central and East India . Akira Hirakawa and Paul Groner also associate Pali with Western India and the Sthavira nikāya, citing the Saurashtran inscriptions, which are linguistically closest to the Pali language. Although Sanskrit was said in the Brahmanical tradition to be the unchanging language spoken by the gods in which each word had an inherent significance, such views for any language
8215-783: The Milindapanha ) may have been composed in India before being transmitted to Sri Lanka, but the surviving versions of the texts are those preserved by the Mahavihara in Ceylon and shared with monasteries in Theravada Southeast Asia. The earliest inscriptions in Pali found in mainland Southeast Asia are from the first millennium CE, some possibly dating to as early as the 4th century. Inscriptions are found in what are now Burma, Laos, Thailand and Cambodia and may have spread from southern India rather than Sri Lanka. By
8370-445: The Om mantra, which is found incorporated into various Mahayana Buddhist mantras (like the popular Om Mani Padme Hum ). Pali Pāli ( / ˈ p ɑː l i / ), also known as Pali-Magadhi , is a classical Middle Indo-Aryan language on the Indian subcontinent . It is widely studied because it is the language of the Buddhist Pāli Canon or Tipiṭaka as well as the sacred language of Theravāda Buddhism . Pali
8525-400: The On the Interpretation of Mahāyāna ( Shi Moheyan lun 釈摩訶衍論, Japanese: Shakumakaen-ron , Taisho no. 1668), which was traditionally attributed to Nagarjuna (though it is likely an East Asian composition). Finally, the works of Kūkai are key sources in Shingon Buddhism, including his various commentaries on the key esoteric texts of Shingon as well as original works like his magnum opus,
8680-418: The Pali Canon and non-canonical texts, and include several examples of the Ye dhamma hetu verse. The oldest surviving Pali manuscript was discovered in Nepal dating to the 9th century. It is in the form of four palm-leaf folios, using a transitional script deriving from the Gupta script to scribe a fragment of the Cullavagga . The oldest known manuscripts from Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia date to
8835-446: The Tathāgata ( Buddha ), and their cessation too - thus proclaims the Great Ascetic. Early Buddhist texts also contain various apotropaic chants which have similar functions to Vedic mantras. These are called parittas in Pali (Sanskrit: paritrana ) and mean "protection, safeguard". They are still chanted in Theravada Buddhism to this day as a way to heal, protect from danger and bless. Some of these are short Buddhist texts, like
8990-429: The Tendai school. During the late Heian, Pure Land Buddhism was becoming very popular and Shingon was also influenced by this popular devotional trend. Mount Kōya soon became the center for groups of wandering holy men called Kōya Hijiri , who merged Pure Land practices focused on Amida Buddha with devotion to Kūkai and were also involved in raising funds for the rebuilding of many temples. Kōya-san soon became
9145-433: The nembutsu along with the popularization and use of the Mantra of Light . During the Heian period, the adoption of Shinto deities into Buddhism became popular, something that became known as Shinbutsu-shūgō (神仏習合, "syncretism of kami and buddhas"). This movement saw local Japanese deities as manifestations of the Buddhas. For example Amaterasu was seen as an emanation of Vairocana in Shingon. This emanation theory
9300-417: The ritual repertoire of Japanese Zen , including Soto Zen (through the figure of Keizan ). Shingon Buddhism also influenced broader Japanese culture , including medieval Japanese aesthetics, art , and craftsmanship . Shingon Buddhism was founded in the Heian period (794–1185) by a Japanese Buddhist monk named Kūkai (774–835 CE) who traveled to China in 804 to study Esoteric Buddhist practices in
9455-448: The "Sangha", the community, as mantra words. Other used mantras are directed toward developing loving kindness. Some mantras direct attention to the process of change by repeating the Pali phrase that means "everything changes", while other mantras are used to develop equanimity with phrases that would be translated, "let go". "In contemporary Theravada practice, mantra practice is often combined with breathing meditation, so that one recites
SECTION 60
#17327809241099610-426: The "three mysteries" (Jp: sanmi 三密) of mudra , mantra and mandala . Another influential doctrine introduced by Shingon was the idea that all beings are originally enlightened, a doctrine that was known as hongaku . The Shingon school's teachings and rituals had an influence on other Japanese traditions, especially those of the Tendai school, as well as Shugendo and Shinto . Its teachings also influenced
9765-453: The ' meru ', or ' guru ' bead); the devotee using their fingers to count each bead as they repeat the chosen mantra. Having reached 108 repetitions, if they wish to continue another cycle of mantras, the devotee turns the mala around without crossing the head bead and repeats the cycle. Japa-yajna is claimed to be most effective if the mantra is repeated silently in mind (manasah). According to this school, any shloka from holy Hindu texts like
9920-432: The 11th century, a so-called "Pali renaissance" began in the vicinity of Pagan , gradually spreading to the rest of mainland Southeast Asia as royal dynasties sponsored monastic lineages derived from the Mahavihara of Anuradhapura . This era was also characterized by the adoption of Sanskrit conventions and poetic forms (such as kavya ) that had not been features of earlier Pali literature. This process began as early as
10075-645: The 13th–15th century, with few surviving examples. Very few manuscripts older than 400 years have survived, and complete manuscripts of the four Nikayas are only available in examples from the 17th century and later. Pali was first mentioned in Western literature in Simon de la Loubère 's descriptions of his travels in the kingdom of Siam. An early grammar and dictionary was published by Methodist missionary Benjamin Clough in 1824, and an initial study published by Eugène Burnouf and Christian Lassen in 1826 ( Essai sur le Pali, ou Langue sacrée de la presqu'île au-delà du Gange ). The first modern Pali-English dictionary
10230-493: The 5th century, but intensified early in the second millennium as Pali texts on poetics and composition modeled on Sanskrit forms began to grow in popularity. One milestone of this period was the publication of the Subodhalankara during the 14th century, a work attributed to Sangharakkhita Mahāsāmi and modeled on the Sanskrit Kavyadarsa . Peter Masefield devoted considerable research to a form of Pali known as Indochinese Pali or 'Kham Pali'. Up until now, this has been considered
10385-462: The Buddha") and Araham ("Worthy One"). There are Thai Buddhist amulet katha : that is, mantras to be recited while holding an amulet. The use of mantras became very popular with the rise of Mahayana Buddhism . Many Mahayana sutras contain mantras, bijamantras ("seed" mantras), dharanis and other similar phrases which were chanted or used in meditation. According to Edward Conze , Buddhists initially used mantras as protective spells like
10540-533: The Chinŏn (眞言) and the Jingak Order (眞 覺), both of which are largely based on Shingon teachings. During the 20th century, Shingon Buddhism also spread to the West, especially to the United States (a move led by the Japanese Diaspora ). There are now various temples on the West Coast and Hawaii like Hawaii Shingon Mission (built 1915–1918) and Koyasan Beikoku Betsuin ( Los Angeles , founded 1912). The teachings of Shingon are based on Mahayana texts, and early Buddhist tantras . The key esoteric sources are
10695-453: The Meiji era anti-buddhist persecutions known as haibutsu kishaku (abolish Buddhism and destroy Shākyamuni). Some Shingon temples that were affiliated with Shintō shrines were converted into shrines. Some Shinto monks left the Buddhist priesthood to become Shintō priests, or they returned to secular life. The government enforced the confiscation of temple land and this led to the closure of many Shingon temples. Those who survived had to turn to
10850-429: The One reality. Japa Mantra japa is a practice of repetitively uttering the same mantra for an auspicious number of times, the most popular being 108 , and sometimes just 5, 10, 28 or 1008. Japa is found in personal prayer or meditative efforts of some Hindus, as well during formal puja (group prayers). Japa is assisted by malas (bead necklaces) containing 108 beads and a head bead (sometimes referred to as
11005-450: The Pali language as " Magadhan " or the "language of Magadha". This identification first appears in the commentaries, and may have been an attempt by Buddhists to associate themselves more closely with the Maurya Empire . However, only some of the Buddha's teachings were delivered in the historical territory of Magadha kingdom . Scholars consider it likely that he taught in several closely related dialects of Middle Indo-Aryan, which had
11160-445: The Prakrits." According to K. R. Norman , differences between different texts within the canon suggest that it contains material from more than a single dialect. He also suggests it is likely that the viharas in North India had separate collections of material, preserved in the local dialect. In the early period it is likely that no degree of translation was necessary in communicating this material to other areas. Around
11315-529: The Propagation of Dharma ) or Odaishi-sama ( お大師様 , The Great Master ) , the posthumous name given to him years after his death by Emperor Daigo . Kūkai was born to a family of the aristocratic Saeki clan in Shikoku and received a classical Confucian education at Kyoto's college (daigaku). He converted to Buddhism in his 20s and was inspired to practice asceticism in the mountains and wander
11470-549: The Pure Land exists in this very world and he also taught that Vairocana is Amida. Kakuban, and his faction of priests centered at the Denbō-in ( 伝法院 ) soon came into conflict with the leadership at Kongōbu-ji , the head temple at Mount Kōya . Through his connections with high-ranking nobles in Kyoto, Kakuban was appointed abbot of Mount Kōya. The leadership at Kongōbu-ji opposed him and after several conflicts (some of which involved
11625-687: The Shingon school in 1615, incorporating it into its administrative temple system. Under this new peace, Shingon study was revived in the various temples. Hase-dera became a major center for the broad study of all of Buddhism and also of secular topics. Meanwhile in Kōyasan, the Ji sect hiriji were allowed to return and were incorporated into the Shingon school, though this would lead to conflict later on. During this period, monks like Jōgen and Onkō (1718–1804) focused on studying and promoting Buddhist precepts and monastic discipline. This renewed interest in precepts study
11780-431: The Shingon schools continued to develop, some under the support of elite families or even emperors, like Go-Uda (1267–1324), who entered the priesthood at Tō-ji and helped revitalize the temple as well as Daikaku-ji . Meanwhile, on Kōyasan, Yūkai (1345–1416) was responsible for revitalizing Shingon doctrinal study and also for driving away all of the nembutsu hiriji (now mostly following the Ji sect) who had been living on
11935-658: The Sinhala commentarial tradition that had been preserved and expanded in Sri Lanka since the 3rd century BCE. With only a few possible exceptions, the entire corpus of Pali texts known today is believed to derive from the Anuradhapura Maha Viharaya in Sri Lanka. While literary evidence exists of Theravadins in mainland India surviving into the 13th century, no Pali texts specifically attributable to this tradition have been recovered. Some texts (such as
12090-458: The Sri Lankan tradition and then spread to other Theravada regions, some texts may have other origins. The Milinda Panha may have originated in northern India before being translated from Sanskrit or Gandhari Prakrit . There are also a number of texts that are believed to have been composed in Pali in Sri Lanka, Thailand and Burma but were not widely circulated. This regional Pali literature
12245-406: The Tantric school, with numerous functions. From initiating and emancipating a tantric devotee to worshiping manifested forms of the divine. From enabling heightened sexual energy in the male and the female to acquiring supernormal psychological and spiritual power. From preventing evil influences to exorcizing demons, and many others. These claimed functions and other aspects of the tantric mantra are
12400-526: The Theravada commentaries, Pali was identified with ' Magadhi ', the language of the kingdom of Magadha, and this was taken to also be the language that the Buddha used during his life. In the 19th century, the British Orientalist Robert Caesar Childers argued that the true or geographical name of the Pali language was Magadhi Prakrit , and that because pāḷi means "line, row, series", the early Buddhists extended
12555-541: The UK; incongruously, the citizens of the UK were not nearly so robust in Sanskrit and Prakrit language studies as Germany, Russia, and even Denmark . Even without the inspiration of colonial holdings such as the former British occupation of Sri Lanka and Burma, institutions such as the Danish Royal Library have built up major collections of Pali manuscripts, and major traditions of Pali studies. Pali literature
12710-570: The Vedas, Upanishads , Bhagavad Gita , Yoga Sutra , even the Mahabharata , Ramayana , Durga saptashati or Chandi is a mantra, thus can be part of the japa , repeated to achieve a numinous effect. The Dharmasāstra claims Gāyatri mantra derived from Rig Veda verse 3.62.10, and the Purușasūkta mantra from Rig Veda verse 10.90 are most auspicious mantras for japa at sunrise and sunset; it
12865-610: The Vehicle of Mantras). Unlike Tibetan Buddhism , which focuses on the Anuttarayoga Tantras , which are tantras that arose at a later date of Indian Buddhism , Shingon bases itself on earlier works like the Mahavairocana which generally lack the antinomian uses of sexual yoga , taboo substances and charnel ground imagery found in the later tantras. Nevertheless, the concept of "great bliss" (tairaku) and
13020-664: The anusvāra is pronounced more strongly, like the velar nasal [ŋ] , so that these sounds are pronounced instead [ãŋ] , [ĩŋ] and [ũŋ] . However pronounced, ṁ never follows a long vowel; ā, ī and ū are converted to the corresponding short vowels when ṁ is added to a stem ending in a long vowel, e.g. kathā + ṁ becomes kathaṁ , not *kathāṁ , devī + ṁ becomes deviṁ , not * devīṁ . Shingon New branches: Tantric techniques : Fourfold division: Twofold division: Thought forms and visualisation: Yoga : Shingon ( 真言宗 , Shingon-shū , "True Word / Mantra School")
13175-405: The arias of Bach 's oratorios and other European classics, he notes that these mantras have musical structure, but they almost always are completely different from anything in the syntax of natural languages. Mantras are literally meaningless, yet musically meaningful to Staal. The saman chant mantras were transmitted from one Hindu generation to next verbally for over 1000 years but never written,
13330-575: The auspices of a Buddhist monk named Kūkai ( 空海 , 774–835), who traveled to Tang China and received these esoteric transmissions from a Chinese master named Huiguo (746–805). Kūkai established his tradition at Mount Kōya (in Wakayama Prefecture ), which remains the central pilgrimage center of Shingon Buddhism. The practice of the Shingon school stresses that one is able to attain "buddhahood in this very body" (sokushin jōbutsu) through its practices, especially those which make use of
13485-473: The bite of snakes. Many people in Theravada cultures still believe that taking a vow in Pali has a special significance, and, as one example of the supernatural power assigned to chanting in the language, the recitation of the vows of Aṅgulimāla are believed to alleviate the pain of childbirth in Sri Lanka. In Thailand, the chanting of a portion of the Abhidhammapiṭaka is believed to be beneficial to
13640-664: The burning down of temples of Kakuban's faction), Kakuban's group left the mountain for Mount Negoro to the northwest, where they constructed a new temple complex now known as Negoro-ji ( 根来寺 ) . After the death of Kakuban in 1143, attempts to make peace were unsuccessful and after further conflicts, the Negoro faction (led by Raiyu) founded the new Shingi Shingon School based on Kakuban's teachings. As such, Shingon became divided into two major sub-schools, Kogi Shingon ( 古義真言宗 , Ancient Shingon school ) , and Shingi Shingon ( 新義真言宗 , Reformed Shingon school ) . Over time,
13795-445: The city of Xi'an ( 西安 ), then called Chang-an, at Azure Dragon Temple ( 青龍寺 ) under Huiguo , a student of the Indian esoteric master Amoghavajra . Kūkai returned to Japan with the teachings and scriptures of Chinese Esoteric Buddhism and founded a new tradition of Japanese Buddhism that became immediately influential with the island's elites. Shingon followers usually refer to Kūkai as Kōbō-Daishi ( 弘法大師 , Great Master of
13950-495: The countryside as an ascetic hermit (though he also visited cities to study texts). During this time his main meditation was the mantra of bodhisattva Ākāśagarbha found in the Kokūzō-gumonji no hō ( Ākāśagarbha Memory-Retention Practice , Taisho no.1145). While he was practicing in the mountains, he had a vision of the bodhisattva flying at him. During this early period of intense study, prayer and practice, Kūkai sought
14105-423: The death of the Buddha, Pali may have evolved among Buddhists out of the language of the Buddha as a new artificial language. R. C. Childers, who held to the theory that Pali was Old Magadhi, wrote: "Had Gautama never preached, it is unlikely that Magadhese would have been distinguished from the many other vernaculars of Hindustan, except perhaps by an inherent grace and strength which make it a sort of Tuscan among
14260-441: The early grammarians because it was understood to have been purely a literary language. In works of Sanskrit poetics such as Daṇḍin 's Kavyadarsha , it is also known by the name of Bhūtabhāṣā , an epithet which can be interpreted as 'dead language' (i.e., with no surviving speakers), or bhūta means past and bhāṣā means language i.e. 'a language spoken in the past'. Evidence which lends support to this interpretation
14415-473: The entire work is meaningless. Alper lists numerous mantras that have philosophical themes, moral principles, a call to virtuous life, and even mundane petitions. He suggests that from a set of millions of mantras, the devotee chooses some mantras voluntarily, thus expressing that speaker's intention, and the audience for that mantra is that speaker's chosen spiritual entity. Mantras deploy the language of spiritual expression, they are religious instruments, and that
14570-760: The existing sources specifically document pre-Ashokan Magadhi, the available sources suggest that Pali is not equatable with that language. Modern scholars generally regard Pali to have originated from a western dialect, rather than an eastern one. Pali has some commonalities with both the western Ashokan Edicts at Girnar in Saurashtra , and the Central-Western Prakrit found in the eastern Hathigumpha inscription . These similarities lead scholars to associate Pali with this region of western India. Nonetheless, Pali does retain some eastern features that have been referred to as Māgadhisms . Pāḷi, as
14725-461: The form of udana arises in susumna , and then just as flame arises out of kindled fire and gets dissolved in the sky, so also atma (Self) like a flame having burnt down the fuel of the body, gets absorbed in Shiva. One of the most ancient Buddhist mantras is the famous Pratītyasamutpāda-gāthā , also known as the dependent origination dhāraṇī . This phrase is said to encapsulate the meaning of
14880-535: The function of mantras was to be an instrument of ritual efficacy for the priest, and a tool of instruction for a ritual act for others. Over time, as the Puranas and Epics were composed, the concepts of worship, virtues and spirituality evolved in Hinduism and new schools of Hinduism were founded, each continuing to develop and refine its own mantras. In Hinduism, suggests Alper, the function of mantras shifted from
15035-467: The head temple of Shingon. Mount Kōya experienced a period of decline afterwards, until it recovered in the 11th century through the support of Fujiwara clan nobles like Fujiwara no Michinaga . Shingon Buddhism enjoyed immense popularity during the Heian period ( 平安時代 ), particularly among the nobility, and contributed greatly to the art and literature of the time, influencing other communities such as
15190-535: The highest truth to be found in Buddhism. One day he dreamt of a man telling him to seek out the Mahavairocana Sutra . He was able to obtain a copy in Chinese (and Sanskrit) but large portions of the text were undecipherable to him and thus he decided to go to China to find someone who could explain it to him. In 804, Kūkai set sail on a fleet of four ships to China. The future Tendai founder Saichō
15345-621: The imperial court for permission to establish a new Buddhist school and waited three years for a response in Kyushu . In 809 Kūkai was allowed to reside at a temple near Kyoto known as Takaosanji (now Jingo-ji ). This temple would become his major center of operations near the capital. Kūkai's fortunes rose steadily when Emperor Saga became his patron and Kūkai was appointed as the head of Todai-ji in 810. Kūkai began to give esoteric initiations (abhiseka) at this time, including to elite laymen and to Saicho and his students. He also began to organize
15500-607: The language and its literature, including the Maha Bodhi Society founded by Anagarika Dhammapala . In Europe, the Pali Text Society has been a major force in promoting the study of Pali by Western scholars since its founding in 1881. Based in the United Kingdom, the society publishes romanized Pali editions, along with many English translations of these sources. In 1869, the first Pali Dictionary
15655-454: The language underwent a small degree of Sanskritisation (i.e., MIA bamhana > brahmana, tta > tva in some cases). Bhikkhu Bodhi , summarizing the current state of scholarship, states that the language is "closely related to the language (or, more likely, the various regional dialects) that the Buddha himself spoke". He goes on to write: Scholars regard this language as a hybrid showing features of several Prakrit dialects used around
15810-446: The light of Supreme I-consciousness is a mantra. The divine Supreme I-consciousness is the dynamo of all the mantras. Deha or body has been compared to wood, "mantra" has been compared to arani —a piece of wood used for kindling fire by friction; prana has been compared to fire. Sikha or flame has been compared to atma (Self); ambara or sky has been compared to Shiva. When prana is kindled by means of mantra used as arani, fire in
15965-404: The light of the sun (hence his name). The immanent presence also means that every being already has "original enlightenment" ( hongaku ) within. This is also known as the "enligthened mind" ( bodhicitta ) and the Buddha nature . As Kūkai writes: "Where is the Dharmakaya? It is not far away; it is in our body. The source of wisdom? In our mind; indeed, it is close to us!" Because of this, there
16120-582: The meaning of the term to mean "a series of books", so pāḷibhāsā means "language of the texts". However, modern scholarship has regarded Pali as a mix of several Prakrit languages from around the 3rd century BCE, combined and partially Sanskritized. There is no attested dialect of Middle Indo-Aryan with all the features of Pali. In the modern era, it has been possible to compare Pali with inscriptions known to be in Magadhi Prakrit, as well as other texts and grammars of that language. While none of
16275-426: The mind). In ritual use, mantras are often silent instruments of meditation. For almost every mantra, there are six limbs called Shadanga . These six limbs are: Seer (Rishi), Deity (Devata), Seed (Beeja), Energy (Shakti), Poetic Meter (chanda), and Lock (Kilaka). The most basic mantra is Om , which in Hinduism is known as the "pranava mantra," the source of all mantras. The Hindu philosophy behind this
16430-666: The monastic ordination died out in Sri Lanka, many texts were lost also. Therefore the Sri Lankan Pali canon had been translated first into Indo-Chinese Pali, and then back again into Pali. Despite an expansion of the number and influence of Mahavihara-derived monastics, this resurgence of Pali study resulted in no production of any new surviving literary works in Pali. During this era, correspondences between royal courts in Sri Lanka and mainland Southeast Asia were conducted in Pali, and grammars aimed at speakers of Sinhala, Burmese, and other languages were produced. The emergence of
16585-569: The most ancient layer of the Vedas, and contain numerous mantras, hymns, prayers, and litanies . The Rigveda Samhita contains about 10552 Mantras, classified into ten books called Mandalas . A Sukta is a group of Mantras. Mantras come in many forms, including ṛc (verses from the Rigveda for example) and sāman (musical chants from the Sāmaveda for example). In Hindu tradition, Vedas are sacred scriptures which were revealed (and not composed) by
16740-411: The mountain. He also purged the tradition of all traces of the heterodox Tachikawa school (even burning their texts). The Tachikawa school was known for teaching a mixed form of esotericism which made use of Daoist and sexual practices. During the war torn Sengoku period (1467 to 1615), all the Shingon temples in or near the capital were destroyed or stripped of all lands, while the Shingon centers in
16895-418: The mountains like Kōya and Negoro were forced to raise militaries for self defense, though sometimes they used these forces to attempt to expand the lands holdings of their temples. Mount Negoro, the center of Shingi Shingon, was sacked by the daimyō Toyotomi Hideyoshi ( 豊臣秀吉 ) in 1585. After this show of force, Kōyasan, the last major Shingon temple left standing at this time, submitted to Hideyoshi, and
17050-537: The name of a deity; for example, Durga yields dum and Ganesha yields gam . Bija mantras are prefixed and appended to other mantras, thereby creating complex mantras. In the tantric school, these mantras are believed to have supernatural powers, and they are transmitted by a preceptor to a disciple in an initiation ritual. Tantric mantras found a significant audience and adaptations in medieval India, Southeast Asia and numerous other Asian countries with Buddhism. Majumdar and other scholars suggest mantras are central to
17205-516: The natural language, the root language of all beings. Comparable to Ancient Egyptian , Latin or Hebrew in the mystic traditions of the West , Pali recitations were often thought to have a supernatural power (which could be attributed to their meaning, the character of the reciter, or the qualities of the language itself), and in the early strata of Buddhist literature we can already see Pali dhāraṇī s used as charms, as, for example, against
17360-766: The natural world, as well as of the arts, all of which he saw as manifestations of the Buddha. Dainichi is the ultimate source of all Buddhas and bodhisattvas, and of the entire cosmos. The centrality of Dainichi is seen in the fact that he appears at the centre of both the Diamond Realm and the Womb Realm mandalas. According to Kūkai, Mahāvairocana is also the Universal Principle which underlies all Buddhist teachings. Thus, other Buddhist deities can be thought of as manifestations of Dainichi, each with their own attributes. As Kūkai writes, "the great Self
17515-418: The new monastic complex, which they imagined and modeled on the two mandalas, the womb and vajra. This mountain center soon became the key center for Shingon study and practice. In his later life, Kūkai continued to actively promote the efficacy of Shingon ritual among the elite even while also working to build Kōyasan into a major center. Kūkai eventually achieved control of Tō-ji for the Shingon school, which
17670-532: The number of Shingon followers at ten million and the number of priests at sixteen thousand in around eleven thousand temples (in his 1988 book). In Japan, there are also several new Shingon influenced groups classified as 'New Religions'. Some of these new movements include Shinnyo-en , Agon-shu and Gedatsu-kai. Another recent modern development is the phenomenon of Chinese students reviving Chinese Esoteric Buddhism through studying Japanese Shingon. This “tantric revival movement” (mijiao fuxing yundong 密教復興運動)
17825-476: The oldest texts, mantras were "means of creating, conveying, concentrating and realizing intentional and efficient thought, and of coming into touch or identifying oneself with the essence of the divinity". In some later schools of Hinduism, Gonda suggests a mantra is sakti (power) to the devotee in the form of formulated and expressed thought. Frits Staal , a specialist in the study of Vedic ritual and mantras, clarifies that mantras are not rituals, they are what
17980-590: The oversight of Kōyasan Shingon-shū or Shingon-shu Buzan-ha and minister as Chinese branches of Japanese Shingon, but others have chosen to create independent and distinct schools. Today, these revivalist lineages exist in Hong Kong, Taiwan and Malaysia. Though they draw mainly from Shingon teachings, they have also adopted some Tibetan Buddhist elements. A similar phenomenon has occurred in South Korea , where two recent esoteric schools have been founded,
18135-427: The quotidian to redemptive. In other words, in Vedic times, mantras were recited a practical, quotidian goal as intention, such as requesting a deity's help in the discovery of lost cattle, cure of illness, succeeding in competitive sport or journey away from home. The literal translation of Vedic mantras suggests that the function of mantra, in these cases, was to cope with the uncertainties and dilemmas of daily life. In
18290-401: The recently departed, and this ceremony routinely occupies as much as seven working days. There is nothing in the latter text that relates to this subject, and the origins of the custom are unclear. Pali died out as a literary language in mainland India in the fourteenth century but survived elsewhere until the eighteenth. Today Pali is studied mainly to gain access to Buddhist scriptures, and
18445-442: The reciter and listener is similar to that is observed in people around the world listening to their beloved music that is devoid of words. In Oxford Living Dictionary mantra is defined as a word or sound repeated to aid concentration in meditation. Cambridge Dictionary provides two different definitions. The first refers to Hinduism and Buddhism: a word or sound that is believed to have a special spiritual power. The second definition
18600-514: The regular population for support. During the Meiji period, the government also adopted the "one sect, one leader" rule which forced all Shingon schools to merge under a single leader which was called a "Chōja" (Superintendent). This led to some internal political conflict among the various sub-schools of Shingon, some of which attempted to form their own separate official sects. Some of these eventually succeeded in attaining independence and eventually
18755-400: The root dhi- , which evolved into the dhyana (meditation) of Hinduism , and the language used to start and assist this process manifested as a mantra. By the middle vedic period (1000 BC to 500 BC), mantras were derived from all vedic compositions. They included ṛc (verses from Rigveda for example), sāman (musical chants from the Sāmaveda for example), yajus (a muttered formula from
18910-455: The sage Vasugupta of the 9th century C.E. Sambhavopaya (1-1 to 1–22), Saktopaya (2-1 to 2–10) and Anavopaya (3-1 to 3–45) are the main sub-divisions, three means of achieving God consciousness, of which the main technique of Saktopaya is a mantra. But "mantra" in this context does not mean incantation or muttering of some sacred formula. The word "mantra" is used here in its etymological signification. That which saves one by pondering over
19065-528: The seers ( Rishis ). According to the ancient commentator and linguist, Yaska , these ancient sacred revelations were then passed down through an oral tradition and are considered to be the foundation for the Hindu tradition. Mantras took a center stage in Tantric traditions, which made extensive ritual and meditative use of mantras, and posited that each mantra is a deity in sonic form. One function of mantras
19220-546: The sense of "an exact mantra which reveals the truth of the dharmas", and is the path of mantras. According to Bernfried Schlerath, the concept of sātyas mantras is found in Indo-Iranian Yasna 31.6 and the Rigveda , where it is considered structured thought in conformity with the reality or poetic (religious) formulas associated with inherent fulfillment. There is no generally accepted definition of mantra. As
19375-466: The short variants occur only in closed syllables, the long variants occur only in open syllables. Short and long e and o are therefore not distinct phonemes. e and o are long in an open syllable: at the end of a syllable as in [ne-tum̩] เนตุํ 'to lead' or [so-tum̩] โสตุํ 'to hear'. They are short in a closed syllable: when followed by a consonant with which they make a syllable as in [upek-khā] 'indifference' or [sot-thi] 'safety'. e appears for
19530-571: The subtle nuances of that thought-world. According to A. K. Warder , the Pali language is a Prakrit language used in a region of Western India . Warder associates Pali with the Indian realm ( janapada ) of Avanti , where the Sthavira nikāya was centered. Following the initial split in the Buddhist community , the Sthavira nikāya became influential in Western and South India while
19685-585: The ten volume Jūjū shinron (Treatise on Ten Levels of Mind) and the shorter summary Hizō hōyaku (Precious Key to the Secret Treasury) . In Shingon, the Buddha Mahāvairocana (Sanskrit for "Great Illuminator"), also known as Dainichi Nyorai (大日如来, "Great Sun Tathagata ") is the universal primordial ( honji-shin ) Buddha that is the basis of all phenomena. Śubhakarasiṃha's Darijing shu (大日經疏, J. Dainichikyōsho ) states that Mahāvairocana
19840-479: The term 'Pali' as the name of the language of the Theravada canon also occurred during this era. While Pali is generally recognized as an ancient language, no epigraphical or manuscript evidence has survived from the earliest eras. The earliest samples of Pali discovered are inscriptions believed to date from 5th to 8th century located in mainland Southeast Asia, specifically central Siam and lower Burma . These inscriptions typically consist of short excerpts from
19995-429: The third century BCE, subjected to a partial process of Sanskritization. While the language is not identical to what Buddha himself would have spoken, it belongs to the same broad language family as those he might have used and originates from the same conceptual matrix. This language thus reflects the thought-world that the Buddha inherited from the wider Indian culture into which he was born, so that its words capture
20150-425: The time of Ashoka there had been more linguistic divergence, and an attempt was made to assemble all the material. It is possible that a language quite close to the Pali of the canon emerged as a result of this process as a compromise of the various dialects in which the earliest material had been preserved, and this language functioned as a lingua franca among Eastern Buddhists from then on. Following this period,
20305-555: The transformation of desire (and other defilements) into wisdom is found in Shingon. Another important sutra in Shingon is the Prajñāpāramitānaya-sūtra (Jp. Hannyarishukyō , Taishō vol. 8, no. 243). This is a late "tantric" Prajñaparamita sutra in 150 lines which was translated by Amoghavajra and which contains various verses and seed syllables which encapsulate the Prajñaparamita teaching. The Hannyarishukyō
20460-827: The two Shingon sub-schools also diverged doctrinally on such issues as the attainment of buddhahood through a single mantra and the theory of how the Dharmakāya teaches the Dharma. Following in Kakuban's footsteps, the Koyasan monk Dōhan 道範 (1179–1252) has been seen as a key figure in the promotion of what has been called an “esoteric Pure Land culture”, a Shingon variety of Pure Land Buddhism that became very popular during this period and influenced other figures and schools like Eison of Saidaiji's Shingon Risshu. This esoteric pure land culture included esoteric uses and interpretations of
20615-562: The unified Shingon sect split into various sub-sects again. In March 1941, under the government's religious policy, Shingon schools were forcibly merged to form the 'Dai-Shingon' sect. During the second world war , prayers for the surrender of enemy nations were frequently held at various temples. After the war, both Ko-Gyō and Shin-Gyō schools continued to separate, and some established their own unique doctrines and traditions. There are now around eighteen major Shingon schools with their own headquarter temples (honzan) in Japan. Yamasaki estimated
20770-593: The universe as sound. The supreme (para) brings forth existence through the Word ( shabda ). Creation consists of vibrations at various frequencies and amplitudes giving rise to the phenomena of the world. Buhnemann notes that deity mantras are an essential part of Tantric compendia. The tantric mantras vary in their structure and length. Mala mantras are those mantras which have an enormous number of syllables. In contrast, bija mantras are one-syllabled, typically ending in anusvara (a simple nasal sound). These are derived from
20925-518: The use of Pali as a courtly and literary language. As such, the name of the language has caused some debate among scholars of all ages; the spelling of the name also varies, being found with both long "ā" [ɑː] and short "a" [a] , and also with either a voiced retroflex lateral approximant [ɭ] or non-retroflex [l] "l" sound. Both the long ā and retroflex ḷ are seen in the ISO 15919 / ALA-LC rendering, Pāḷi ; however, to this day there
21080-546: The use of mantras to have begun in India before 1000 BC. By the middle Vedic period (1000 BC to 500 BC) – claims Frits Staal – mantras in Hinduism had developed into a blend of art and science. The Chinese translation is 真言 ; zhenyan ; 'true words', the Japanese on'yomi reading of the Chinese being shingon (which is also used as the proper name for the Shingon sect ). According to Alex Wayman and Ryujun Tajima, "Zhenyan" (or "Shingon") means "true speech", has
21235-446: The words of the Buddha and his immediate disciples by the Theravada tradition. Extra-canonical texts can be divided into several categories: Other types of texts present in Pali literature include works on grammar and poetics, medical texts, astrological and divination texts, cosmologies, and anthologies or collections of material from the canonical literature. While the majority of works in Pali are believed to have originated with
21390-565: The yajurveda for example), and nigada (a loudly spoken yajus). During the Hindu Epics period and after, mantras multiplied in many ways and diversified to meet the needs and passions of various schools of Hinduism. In the Linga Purana , Mantra is listed as one of the 1,008 names of Lord Shiva . Numerous ancient mantras are found in the Saṃhitā portion of the Vedas . The Saṃhitās are
21545-455: Was Shinnen (804–891) and already at this time there was some conflict between Tō-ji and Kōyasan. Some Shingon monks also followed in Kūkai's footsteps and visited China to receive more teachings and texts. Likewise, several Tendai monks also visited China and brought back esoteric teachings, making Tendai esotericism a major competitor to Shingon. Under Kangen (853–925), Tō-ji temple rose to become
21700-567: Was a major temple within the capital. His final request before his death in 832 was to construct a Shingon hall in Imperial palace grounds in order to accommodate the practice of the seven day ritual of chanting the Sutra of Golden Light. His request was eventually granted, a year after his death . After Kūkai, the main Shingon temples were taken over by key disciples like Jitsue, Shinzen, Shinzai, Eon and Shōhō. The main leadership after his death
21855-404: Was based on a misunderstanding of the compound pāli-bhāsa , with pāli being interpreted as the name of a particular language. The name Pali does not appear in the canonical literature, and in commentary literature is sometimes substituted with tanti , meaning a string or lineage. This name seems to have emerged in Sri Lanka early in the second millennium CE during a resurgence in
22010-517: Was called honji suijaku by Buddhists. Major Shingon centers participated in this development, with key deities like Hachiman being worshipped at temples like Tō-ji for example. Also during the Heian period, the syncretic religion of Shugendō started to develop and the influence of Shingon was one major element in its development. Shingon was especially influential on the Tōzan branch of Shugendō. which
22165-477: Was centered on Mount Kinbu. The Kamakura period (1185 to 1333) saw the rise of another new Shingon tradition, the Shingon-risshū school. This new tradition stressed the importance of keeping the monastic Vinaya, along with esoteric practice. It was promoted by figures like Shunjō (1166–1227) and Eison (叡尊 1201–1290) and centered around Saidai-ji . Ninshō carried on the work of this tradition, which
22320-506: Was known for its many public works projects, including building hospitals, hostels for the poor and animal sanctuaries. Also during this period, many followers of the Ji sect founded by Ippen (1234–1289) made Kōya-san their home, joining with the Kōya hiriji groups, and many halls for Amida centered Pure Land practice were built on the mountain. During the Muromachi period (1336 to 1573),
22475-542: Was likely a response to Confucian critiques of Buddhism at the time. Onkō was also a well known scholar of Sanskrit. After the Meiji Restoration (1868), the state forced a separation of Shinto and Buddhism ( shinbutsu bunri ) and abolished the Chokusai Hōe (Imperial Rituals). The Shingon school was significantly affected by these changes (since it was closely connected with many Shinto shrines), as well as by
22630-496: Was mainly propagated by Chinese Buddhists who traveled to Japan to be trained, initiated, and receive dharma transmission as acharyas in the Shingon tradition and who then return home to establish the tradition. Some important figures of this revival include Wang Hongyuan 王弘願 (1876–1937), and Guru Wuguang (悟光上師 (1918–2000), both trained in Shingon and went on to spread Shingon teachings in the Chinese speaking world. Some of these Chinese acharyas have chosen to officially remain under
22785-600: Was not exclusively used to convey the teachings of the Buddha, as can be deduced from the existence of a number of secular texts, such as books of medical science/instruction, in Pali. However, scholarly interest in the language has been focused upon religious and philosophical literature, because of the unique window it opens on one phase in the development of Buddhism . Vowels may be divided in two different ways: Long and short vowels are only contrastive in open syllables; in closed syllables, all vowels are always short. Short and long e and o are in complementary distribution:
22940-421: Was not shared in the early Buddhist traditions, in which words were only conventional and mutable signs. This view of language naturally extended to Pali and may have contributed to its usage (as an approximation or standardization of local Middle Indic dialects) in place of Sanskrit. However, by the time of the compilation of the Pali commentaries (4th or 5th century), Pali was described by the anonymous authors as
23095-668: Was on the same fleet. When Kūkai first met Huiguo (a student of Amoghavajra ) on the fifth month of 805, Huiguo was sixty and on the verge of death. Huiguo exclaimed to Kūkai that he had been waiting for him and immediately initiated him into the esoteric mandalas. In the short space of three months, Huiguo initiated and taught Kūkai everything he knew on the doctrines and practices of esoteric Buddhism. During this time Kūkai also learned Sanskrit from some Indian masters living in China. Kūkai returned to Japan after Huiguo's death in 806. He brought back numerous Buddhist texts, mandalas, ritual items and other books. After returning, Kūkai asked
23250-410: Was one of the earliest scholars to note that mantras are meaningless; their function is phonetic and syntactic, not semantic. Harvey Alper and others present mantras from the linguistic point view. They admit Staal's observation that many mantras do contain bits and pieces of meaningless jargon, but they question what language or text doesn't. The presence of an abracadabra bit does not necessarily imply
23405-576: Was prominently used by Jain scholars and is preserved in the Jain Agamas. Ardhamagadhi Prakrit differs from later Magadhi Prakrit in similar ways to Pali, and was often believed to be connected with Pali on the basis of the belief that Pali recorded the speech of the Buddha in an early Magadhi dialect. Magadhi Prakrit was a Middle Indic language spoken in present-day Bihar, and eastern Uttar Pradesh. Its use later expanded southeast to include some regions of modern-day Bengal, Odisha, and Assam, and it
23560-506: Was published by Robert Childers in 1872 and 1875. Following the foundation of the Pali Text Society , English Pali studies grew rapidly and Childer's dictionary became outdated. Planning for a new dictionary began in the early 1900s, but delays (including the outbreak of World War I) meant that work was not completed until 1925. T. W. Rhys Davids in his book Buddhist India , and Wilhelm Geiger in his book Pāli Literature and Language , suggested that Pali may have originated as
23715-538: Was published using the research of Robert Caesar Childers, one of the founding members of the Pali Text Society. It was the first Pali translated text in English and was published in 1872. Childers' dictionary later received the Volney Prize in 1876. The Pali Text Society was founded in part to compensate for the very low level of funds allocated to Indology in late 19th-century England and the rest of
23870-754: Was spared destruction. During the Edo period (1603–1868), the Shingi Shingon monks from Mount Negoro had escaped and took their lineages elsewere, eventually founding new schools at Hase-dera (the Buzan school) and at Chishaku (the Chisan-ha school). In the Edo period, the Tokugawa Shogunate implemented new religious control measures for the Buddhist community. Tokugawa Ieyasu issued regulations for
24025-431: Was used in some Prakrit dramas to represent vernacular dialogue. Preserved examples of Magadhi Prakrit are from several centuries after the theorized lifetime of the Buddha, and include inscriptions attributed to Asoka Maurya . Differences observed between preserved examples of Magadhi Prakrit and Pali lead scholars to conclude that Pali represented a development of a northwestern dialect of Middle Indic, rather than being
#108891