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135-580: The Ramsey Glacier was discovered by the United States Antarctic Service (USAS) on Flight C of February 29 – March 1, 1940. It was named by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names (US-ACAN), on the recommendation of Rear Admiral Richard E. Byrd , for Admiral DeWitt Clinton Ramsey , United States Navy , Vice Chief of Naval Operations during U.S. Navy Operation Highjump , 1946–47. The Ramsey Glacier originates in

270-580: A " Special Relationship " with the United Kingdom and strong ties with Canada , Australia , New Zealand , the Philippines , Japan , South Korea , Israel , and several European Union countries ( France , Italy , Germany , Spain , and Poland ). The U.S. works closely with its NATO allies on military and national security issues, and with countries in the Americas through

405-542: A coordinated, continent-wide military effort. Finally, deteriorating relations between the British military establishment and the colonists, relations that were already less than positive, set the stage for further distrust and dislike of British troops. Following their victory in the French and Indian War, Britain began to assert greater control over local colonial affairs, resulting in colonial political resistance ; one of

540-534: A decentralized government that operated until 1789. After the British surrender at the siege of Yorktown in 1781 American sovereignty was internationally recognized by the Treaty of Paris (1783), through which the U.S. gained territory stretching west to the Mississippi River, north to present-day Canada, and south to Spanish Florida . The Northwest Ordinance (1787) established the precedent by which

675-753: A federal capital district, Washington, D.C. The 48 contiguous states border Canada to the north and Mexico to the south, with the states of Alaska to the northwest and the archipelagic Hawaii in the Pacific Ocean . The United States also asserts sovereignty over five major island territories and various uninhabited islands . The country has the world's third-largest land area , largest exclusive economic zone , and third-largest population , exceeding 334 million. Its three largest metropolitan areas are New York , Los Angeles , and Chicago , and its three most populous states are California , Texas , and Florida . Paleo-Indians migrated across

810-407: A few prominent industrialists , largely by their formation of trusts and monopolies to prevent competition. Tycoons led the nation's expansion in the railroad , petroleum , and steel industries. The United States emerged as a pioneer of the automotive industry . These changes were accompanied by significant increases in economic inequality , slum conditions , and social unrest , creating

945-666: A global reach. The U.S. is a founding member of the World Bank , Organization of American States , NATO , and the United Nations , as well as a permanent member of the UN Security Council . The first documented use of the phrase "United States of America" is a letter from January 2, 1776. Stephen Moylan , a Continental Army aide to General George Washington , wrote to Joseph Reed , Washington's aide-de-camp , seeking to go "with full and ample powers from

1080-603: A hostile environment requires specialized systems to keep scientists and support staff safe and equipment operational. The Antarctic Program uses a variety of aircraft to transport people and cargo to and from Antarctica, as well as throughout the continent. McMurdo Station maintains two landing strips on the adjacent McMurdo Ice Shelf: Williams Airfield for ski-equipped planes, and Phoenix Airfield for wheeled planes. U.S. Air Force C-17 cargo planes and unique New York Air National Guard ski-equipped LC-130s ferry people and cargo between Christchurch, New Zealand and McMurdo Station. During

1215-499: A period called "Mainbody," with fewer flights during the winter months (March – September). South Pole Station is located at the geographic South Pole, on the polar plateau, at an elevation of 2,835 m (9,300 ft) above sea level. The station sits on an ice sheet that is 2,700 m (8,858 ft) thick and drifts with the ice at about 10 m (33 ft) a year toward the Weddell Sea . The mean annual temperature

1350-598: A period of heightened, overt racism following Reconstruction, a time often called the nadir of American race relations . A series of Supreme Court decisions, including Plessy v. Ferguson , emptied the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments of their force, allowing Jim Crow laws in the South to remain unchecked, sundown towns in the Midwest, and segregation in communities across the country , which would be reinforced by

1485-488: A prominent leader in the early 1960s. The Great Society plan of President Lyndon Johnson 's administration resulted in groundbreaking and broad-reaching laws, policies and a constitutional amendment to counteract some of the worst effects of lingering institutional racism . The counterculture movement in the U.S. brought significant social changes, including the liberalization of attitudes toward recreational drug use and sexuality . It also encouraged open defiance of

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1620-526: A sense of manifest destiny . The Missouri Compromise attempted to balance the desire of northern states to prevent the expansion of slavery into new territories with that of southern states to extend it, admitting Missouri as a slave state and Maine as a free state. It further prohibited slavery in all other lands of the Louisiana Purchase north of the 36°30′ parallel . As Americans expanded further into land inhabited by Native Americans,

1755-614: A sense of American identity as well. Men who otherwise never left their own colony now traveled across the continent to fight alongside men from decidedly different backgrounds but who were no less "American". British officers trained American officers for battle, most notably George Washington ; these officers would lend their skills and expertise to the colonists' cause during the American Revolutionary War to come. In addition, colonial legislatures and officials found it necessary to cooperate intensively in pursuit of

1890-420: A small fleet of helicopters, under contract, at McMurdo Station to transport people and cargo around the immediate area of the station. Helicopters also carry scientific survey equipment and reconnoiter landing and scientific sites. Occasionally some of the helicopters will be temporarily set up at larger field camps to enable transport around an otherwise inaccessible region. The current helicopter support contract

2025-606: A third of the station's electricity in a cooperative agreement with ANZ. Field camps have been increasingly using solar power, taking advantage of the 24 hours of daylight during the Antarctic summer. United States The United States of America ( USA ), commonly known as the United States ( U.S. ) or America , is a country primarily located in North America . It is a federal union of 50 states and

2160-464: A year). Juvenile correctional facilities are operated by local or state governments and serve as longer-term placements for any minor adjudicated as delinquent and ordered by a judge to be confined. As of January 2023, the United States has the sixth-highest per capita incarceration rate in the world—531 people per 100,000 inhabitants—and the largest prison and jail population in

2295-638: Is 12 knots (22 km/h; 14 mph), but winds have exceeded 100 knots (190 km/h; 120 mph). McMurdo Sound is a historic area. In 1841, James Clark Ross brought his ships HMS Erebus and HMS Terror into the Sound, farther south than anyone had ever gone, before sailing eastward along a great wall of ice. He and his crew were the first humans to see the island and the ice shelf that both now bear his name. In 1902, Robert F. Scott wintered HMS Discovery in Winter Quarters Bay, adjacent to

2430-745: Is a modern, multi-disciplinary research vessel containing six laboratories with a combined space of 353.5 m (3,805 sq ft). It can accommodate 39 scientists and ASC personnel and operates throughout the Southern Ocean. ASRV Laurence M. Gould is 70 m (230 ft) long and is capable of breaking one foot (0.30 m) of first-year ice while maintaining continuous forward progress. Lawrence M. Gould has berthing space to accommodate 28 scientists and ASC personnel. There are an additional nine bunks for passengers transiting to Palmer Station. Lawrence M. Gould transports personnel and cargo to and from Palmer Station and supports research in

2565-476: Is about 44 in the summer and 20 or more in winter. Unlike the South Pole and McMurdo stations, Palmer usually receives transportation year-round and does not generally have a period of winter isolation. RVIB Nathaniel B. Palmer is 94 m (308 ft) long and is able to break three feet (0.91 m) of ice at a continuous forward speed of three knots (5.6 km/h; 3.5 mph). Nathanial B. Palmer

2700-591: Is believed to be the first widespread culture in the Americas. Over time, indigenous North American cultures grew increasingly sophisticated, and some, such as the Mississippian culture , developed agriculture , architecture , and complex societies . In the post-archaic period , the Mississippian cultures were located in the midwestern , eastern , and southern regions, and the Algonquian in

2835-402: Is for ski-equipped aircraft only. McMurdo also has a heliport to support helicopter operations. Approximately 90% of USAP participants live in or pass through McMurdo Station. The austral winter population ranges from 150 to 200, with the summer population varying between 800 and 1,000. The station has routine weekly flights to and from New Zealand during the austral summer (October – February),

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2970-455: Is held by Air Center Helicopters. Tractor-pulled convoys or “traverses” are used to transport large quantities of fuel and cargo across large distances. Every year three traverses carrying more than 100,000 gallons of fuel drive the 1,600 km (990 mi) from McMurdo Station to Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station to deliver fuel for the next year. Other "science traverses" transport heavy science equipment to field sites hundreds of miles from

3105-498: Is known as the presidential system , in contrast to the parliamentary system , where the executive is part of the legislative body. Many countries around the world imitated this aspect of the 1789 Constitution of the United States , especially in the Americas. The Constitution is silent on political parties. However, they developed independently in the 18th century with the Federalist and Anti-Federalist parties. Since then,

3240-438: Is now the United States experienced conflicts with Native Americans, they also engaged in trade, exchanging European tools for food and animal pelts. Relations ranged from close cooperation to warfare and massacres. The colonial authorities often pursued policies that forced Native Americans to adopt European lifestyles, including conversion to Christianity. Along the eastern seaboard, settlers trafficked African slaves through

3375-552: Is the federal agency charged with addressing most environmental-related issues . The idea of wilderness has shaped the management of public lands since 1964, with the Wilderness Act . The Endangered Species Act of 1973 provides a way to protect threatened and endangered species and their habitats. The United States Fish and Wildlife Service implements and enforces the Act. In 2024, the U.S. ranked 34th among 180 countries in

3510-405: Is the primary cause of snow accumulation around buildings. Average wind speed is 10.8 knots. The original station was built in 1956-1957 and is buried beneath the ice. A second station, located under a geodesic dome, was completed in 1975. The Dome was dismantled in 2009-10 and removed from the continent. The current station was dedicated on January 12, 2008. The winter population is around 45, and

3645-544: Is –49 °C (–56 °F). Average monthly temperatures range from –28 °C (–18 °F) in the summer to –60 °C (–76 °F) in winter. The record high of – 12.3 °C (9.9 °F) was recorded in December 2011, and the record low of –82.8 °C (–117 °F) was recorded in June 1982. The site has very low humidity, and precipitation is only about 20 cm of snow (8 cm water equivalent) per year. Drifting

3780-603: The Allies of World War I , helping to turn the tide against the Central Powers . In 1920, a constitutional amendment granted nationwide women's suffrage . During the 1920s and '30s, radio for mass communication and the invention of early television transformed communications nationwide. The Wall Street Crash of 1929 triggered the Great Depression , which President Franklin D. Roosevelt responded to with

3915-631: The Antarctic Treaty , which was signed in 1959. Since then, Treaty nations have agreed to several addenda, including the 1991 Environmental Protocol to the Antarctic Treaty which establishes rules and procedures specifically designed to protect the Antarctic environment. The Protocol was ratified and went into effect in 1998. The U.S. Antarctic Program operates three year-round research stations and two research vessels. Additional temporary field camps are constructed and operated during

4050-553: The Atlantic slave trade . The original Thirteen Colonies that would later found the United States were administered as possessions of Great Britain , and had local governments with elections open to most white male property owners . The colonial population grew rapidly, eclipsing Native American populations; by the 1770s, the natural increase of the population was such that only a small minority of Americans had been born overseas. The colonies' distance from Britain allowed for

4185-817: The Bering land bridge more than 12,000 years ago, and formed various civilizations and societies . British colonization led to the first settlement of the Thirteen Colonies in Virginia in 1607. Clashes with the British Crown over taxation and political representation sparked the American Revolution , with the Second Continental Congress formally declaring independence on July 4, 1776. Following its victory in

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4320-645: The Bush Mountains below McIntyre Promontory. It flows northwest, then north past Fulgham Ridge, where it is joined from the left (west) by Bowin Glacier. It continues north between Reid Spur to the east and Sullivan Ridge to the west. Muck Glacier joins from the west after Sullivan Ridge. Muck Glacier is fed from the northwest by Shanklin Glacier. Ramsey Glacier continues north through the Queen Maud Mountains , and receives Millington Glacier from

4455-549: The Environmental Performance Index . The country joined the Paris Agreement on climate change in 2016 and has many other environmental commitments. The United States is a federal republic of 50 states and a separate federal capital district, Washington, D.C. It also asserts sovereignty over five unincorporated territories and several uninhabited island possessions . The U.S. is

4590-500: The Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) and the U.S. Marshals Service have national jurisdiction and specialized duties, such as protecting civil rights , national security and enforcing U.S. federal courts ' rulings and federal laws. State courts conduct most civil and criminal trials, and federal courts handle designated crimes and appeals of state court decisions . There is no unified "criminal justice system" in

4725-720: The Great Lakes , Mississippi River and Gulf of Mexico . British colonization of the East Coast began with the Virginia Colony (1607) and Plymouth Colony (1620). The Mayflower Compact and the Fundamental Orders of Connecticut established precedents for representative self-governance and constitutionalism that would develop throughout the American colonies. While European settlers in what

4860-719: The Great Lakes region and along the Eastern Seaboard , while the Hohokam culture and Ancestral Puebloans inhabited the southwest . Native population estimates of what is now the United States before the arrival of European immigrants range from around 500,000 to nearly 10 million. Christopher Columbus began exploring the Caribbean for Spain in 1492, leading to Spanish-speaking settlements and missions from Puerto Rico and Florida to New Mexico and California . France established its own settlements along

4995-524: The House of Representatives , a lower house based on population; and the Senate , an upper house based on equal representation for each state. Federalism provides substantial autonomy to the 50 states, while the country's political culture promotes liberty , equality , individualism , personal autonomy , and limited government . One of the world's most developed countries , the United States has had

5130-592: The International Geophysical Year (IGY, 1957–58). The IGY was an intensive, multi-national, multi-disciplinary, global research effort designed to study a wide range of geophysical processes. Much of that effort took place in Antarctica and was crucial in establishing Antarctica as a continent for peace and science. The international coordination that resulted from the IGY ultimately lead to

5265-596: The Midwest . At the same time, about one million French Canadians migrated from Quebec to New England . During the Great Migration , millions of African Americans left the rural South for urban areas in the North. Alaska was purchased from Russia in 1867. The Compromise of 1877 effectively ended Reconstruction and white supremacists took local control of Southern politics . African Americans endured

5400-688: The National Park Service and other agencies. About 28% of the country's land is publicly owned and federally managed, primarily in the Western States . Most of this land is protected , though some is leased for commercial use, and less than one percent is used for military purposes. Environmental issues in the United States include debates on non-renewable resources and nuclear energy , air and water pollution , biodiversity , logging and deforestation , and climate change . The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)

5535-596: The New Deal , a series of sweeping programs and public works projects combined with financial reforms and regulations . All were intended to protect against future economic depressions. Initially neutral during World War II , the U.S. began supplying war materiel to the Allies of World War II in March 1941 and entered the war in December after the Empire of Japan 's attack on Pearl Harbor . The U.S. developed

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5670-778: The Organization of American States and the United States–Mexico–Canada Free Trade Agreement . In South America, Colombia is traditionally considered to be the closest ally of the United States. The U.S. exercises full international defense authority and responsibility for Micronesia , the Marshall Islands , and Palau through the Compact of Free Association . It has increasingly conducted strategic cooperation with India , but its ties with China have steadily deteriorated. Since 2014,

5805-648: The Pentium microprocessor in accordance with Moore's law , rechargeable lithium-ion batteries , the first gene therapy trial, and cloning either emerged in the U.S. or were improved upon there. The Human Genome Project was formally launched in 1990, while Nasdaq became the first stock market in the United States to trade online in 1998. In the Gulf War of 1991, an American-led international coalition of states expelled an Iraqi invasion force that had occupied neighboring Kuwait . The September 11 attacks on

5940-547: The South Shetland Islands and westward along the Antarctic Peninsula . Expeditions sponsored by several nations approached the Antarctic continent early in the 19th century. Among the leaders was Charles Wilkes , a U.S. Navy lieutenant who commanded an expedition in 1839–40 that was the first to prove the existence of the continent. His expedition mapped about 2,400 km (1,500 mi) of

6075-534: The Soviet Union's collapse and the end of the Cold War in 1991, the U.S. emerged as the world's sole superpower , wielding significant geopolitical influence globally . The U.S. national government is a presidential constitutional federal republic and liberal democracy with three separate branches : legislative , executive , and judicial . It has a bicameral national legislature composed of

6210-591: The Spanish–American War . (The Philippines was granted full independence from the U.S. on July 4, 1946, following World War II. Puerto Rico and Guam have remained U.S. territories.) American Samoa was acquired by the United States in 1900 after the Second Samoan Civil War . The U.S. Virgin Islands were purchased from Denmark in 1917. The United States entered World War I alongside

6345-591: The United States Antarctic Service or USAS ) is an organization of the United States government which has a presence in the Antarctica continent. Founded in 1959, the USAP manages all U.S. scientific research and related logistics in Antarctica as well as aboard ships in the Southern Ocean . The United States established the U.S. Antarctic Research Program (USARP) in 1959—the name was later changed to

6480-700: The cotton gin made the institution increasingly profitable for Southern elites . This sectional conflict regarding slavery culminated in the American Civil War (1861–1865). Eleven slave states seceded and formed the Confederate States of America , while the other states remained in the Union . War broke out in April 1861 after the Confederates bombarded Fort Sumter . After

6615-537: The fall of communism and the collapse of the Soviet Union , which marked the end of the Cold War and left the United States as the world's sole superpower . The 1990s saw the longest recorded economic expansion in American history , a dramatic decline in U.S. crime rates , and advances in technology . Throughout this decade, technological innovations such as the World Wide Web , the evolution of

6750-445: The largest nominal GDP since about 1890 and accounted for over 15% of the global economy in 2023. It possesses by far the largest amount of wealth of any country and has the highest disposable household income per capita among OECD countries. The U.S. ranks among the world's highest in economic competitiveness , productivity , innovation , human rights , and higher education . Its hard power and cultural influence have

6885-733: The 1775 Battles of Lexington and Concord , igniting the American Revolutionary War . At the Second Continental Congress , the colonies appointed George Washington commander-in-chief of the Continental Army , and created a committee that named Thomas Jefferson to draft the Declaration of Independence . Two days after passing the Lee Resolution to create an independent nation the Declaration

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7020-408: The 1775–1783 Revolutionary War , the country continued to expand westward across North America , resulting in the dispossession of native inhabitants . As more states were admitted , a North–South division over slavery led to the secession of the Confederate States of America , which fought states remaining in the Union in the 1861–1865 American Civil War . With the victory and preservation of

7155-466: The 2010s, political polarization in the country increased between liberal and conservative factions. This polarization was capitalized upon in the January 2021 Capitol attack , when a mob of insurrectionists entered the U.S. Capitol and sought to prevent the peaceful transfer of power in an attempted self-coup d'état . The United States is the world's third-largest country by total area behind Russia and Canada. The 48 contiguous states and

7290-426: The American West have an alpine climate . The climate is arid in the Southwest, Mediterranean in coastal California , and oceanic in coastal Oregon , Washington , and southern Alaska . Most of Alaska is subarctic or polar . Hawaii , the southern tip of Florida and U.S. territories in the Caribbean and Pacific are tropical . States bordering the Gulf of Mexico are prone to hurricanes, and most of

7425-420: The Antarctic Peninsula region, is named after Nathaniel B. Palmer, the American sailor who pioneered the exploration of the Peninsula in 1820. The station is located on Anvers Island at 64°46' S, 64°03’ W and consists of two major buildings and several small ones. There is no airfield. Located just north of the Antarctic Circle, the climate is milder than that of the other U.S. Antarctic stations. Temperatures in

7560-527: The Antarctic Peninsula region. Every season the Program establishes several dozen field camps to house researchers and support staff around the continent. These range in size from just two or three people in small pitched tents, to large camps of up to 60 people in temporary shelters, to permanent, hard-walled structures that teams return to year after year. The Astrophysics and Geospace Sciences Program sponsors research areas that either use Antarctica as an observing platform or contribute to an understanding of

7695-450: The Antarctic coastline in the Indian and Australian quadrants. In 1928–1930 and 1933–1935, Admiral Richard E. Byrd led two privately sponsored expeditions, one that included the first flight over the South Pole in 1929, sparking U.S. interest in Antarctica. The U.S. Antarctic Service Expedition (1939–1940), under the leadership of the U.S. Navy, maintained bases at Marguerite Bay and Bay of Whales . Operation Highjump in 1946–1947

7830-446: The Antarctic continent and surrounding Southern Ocean. The Artists and Writers Program supports participants whose work requires them to be in the Antarctic to complete their project, in particular projects that increase understanding and appreciation of the Antarctic and of human activities on the southernmost continent. PolarTREC (Teachers and Researchers Exploring and Collaborating) is an NSF-funded program that brings teachers from

7965-420: The Declaration of Independence on July 4, 1776. The term "United States" and the initialism "U.S.", used as nouns or as adjectives in English, are common short names for the country. The initialism "USA", a noun, is also common. "United States" and "U.S." are the established terms throughout the U.S. federal government , with prescribed rules. In English, the term "America" rarely refers to topics unrelated to

8100-404: The District of Columbia occupy a combined area of 3,119,885 square miles (8,080,470 km ). The coastal plain of the Atlantic seaboard gives way to inland forests and rolling hills in the Piedmont plateau region. The Appalachian Mountains and the Adirondack massif separate the East Coast from the Great Lakes and the grasslands of the Midwest . The Mississippi River System ,

8235-458: The Elder concluded that major military resources needed to be devoted to North America to win the war against France. For the first time, the continent became one of the main theaters of what could be termed a " world war ". The British colonies' position as an integral part of the British Empire became more apparent during the war, with British military and civilian officials becoming a more significant presence in American life. The war increased

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8370-638: The Four Ramps, runs along the west side of the Ramsey Glacier to the south of the confluence with the Muck Glacier. 84°54′S 177°25′E  /  84.900°S 177.417°E  / -84.900; 177.417 . A narrow ice-free ridge, 4 nautical miles (7.4 km; 4.6 mi) long, forming the southeast side of Bowin Glacier. Named by US-ACAN for Aviation Boatswain's Mate Donald R. Fulgham, United States Navy, Antarctic Support Activity, who participated in United States Navy OpDFrz, 1964. 84°57′S 179°40′E  /  84.950°S 179.667°E  / -84.950; 179.667 . A promontory having

8505-521: The Hughes Range, flowing southeast from Mount Waterman to enter Muck Glacier at a point 5 nautical miles (9.3 km; 5.8 mi) west of Ramsey Glacier. Named by US-ACAN for CWO David M. Shanklin, USA, of the United States Army Aviation Detachment which supported the Texas Tech Shackleton Glacier Expedition, 1964-65. 84°32′S 178°00′E  /  84.533°S 178.000°E  / -84.533; 178.000 . A narrow tributary glacier, 10 nautical miles (19 km; 12 mi) long, flowing from

8640-465: The January 1863 Emancipation Proclamation , many freed slaves joined the Union army . The war began to turn in the Union's favor following the 1863 Siege of Vicksburg and Battle of Gettysburg , and the Confederacy surrendered in 1865 after the Union's victory in the Battle of Appomattox Court House . The Reconstruction era followed the war. After the assassination of President Abraham Lincoln , Reconstruction Amendments were passed to protect

8775-447: The Queen Maud Mountains. It flows generally northward from Husky Heights , and then eastward around the north end of Sullivan Ridge to enter Ramsey Glacier. Named by US-ACAN for Maj. James B. Muck, USA, of the U.S. Army Aviation Detachment which supported the Texas Tech Shackleton Glacier Expedition to this area, 1964-65. 84°37′S 176°40′E  /  84.617°S 176.667°E  / -84.617; 176.667 . A glacier in

8910-476: The Rocky Mountains, the Yellowstone Caldera , is the continent's largest volcanic feature. In 2021, the United States had 8% of global permanent meadows and pastures and 10% of cropland. With its large size and geographic variety, the United States includes most climate types. East of the 100th meridian , the climate ranges from humid continental in the north to humid subtropical in the south. The western Great Plains are semi-arid . Many mountainous areas of

9045-485: The Terra Bus” and the large Kress are used to transport large numbers of people to and from the airfields over the ice roads of McMurdo Station. Passenger vans with wide tires are also used to transport people around McMurdo Station and Amundsen-Scott South Pole station as well. McMurdo Station also has a small fleet of pickup trucks. Each station uses diesel fuel to generate electricity. At McMurdo Station, wind turbines installed by Antarctic New Zealand in 2010 supply about

9180-399: The U.S. Antarctic Program. The report states that policies in the 1982 memorandum continue to be appropriate at the current funding level and that present U.S. policy and practice with respect to the U.S. Antarctic Program are well justified. The first Americans to work in the Antarctic were sealers and whalers who discovered many sub-Antarctic islands. They were first to explore parts of

9315-415: The U.S. Antarctic Program—immediately following the success of the International Geophysical Year (IGY). Today, the National Science Foundation (NSF) has a Presidential Mandate to manage the United States Antarctic Program, through which it operates three year-round research stations and two research vessels, coordinates all U.S. science on the southernmost continent , and works with other federal agencies,

9450-517: The U.S. Army Aviation Detachment which participated in exploring this area with the Texas Tech Shackleton Glacier Expedition, 1964-65. 84°47′S 177°05′E  /  84.783°S 177.083°E  / -84.783; 177.083 . A massive ridge, 15 nautical miles (28 km; 17 mi) long, displaying a steep, irregular east slope overlooking Ramsey Glacier and a low gradient, ice-covered west slope overlooking Muck Glacier. The ridge extends generally north from Husky Heights and terminates at

9585-451: The U.S. has become a key ally of Ukraine ; it has also provided the country with significant military equipment and other support in response to Russia's 2022 invasion . The president is the commander-in-chief of the United States Armed Forces and appoints its leaders, the secretary of defense and the Joint Chiefs of Staff . The Department of Defense , which is headquartered at the Pentagon near Washington, D.C., administers five of

9720-563: The U.S. military, and civilian contractors, to provide the necessary logistical support for the science. The U.S. is a signatory to the Antarctic Treaty and the conduct of science is the principal expression of U.S. interest in the Antarctic. In October 1970 President Richard Nixon stated U.S. policy for Antarctica to be: To maintain the Antarctic Treaty and ensure that this continent will continue to be used only for peaceful purposes and shall not become an area or object of international discord; to foster cooperative scientific research for

9855-661: The U.S. territories." Despite disparate systems of confinement, four main institutions dominate: federal prisons , state prisons , local jails, and juvenile correctional facilities . Federal prisons are run by the Federal Bureau of Prisons and hold people who have been convicted of federal crimes, including pretrial detainees. State prisons, run by the official department of correction of each state, hold sentenced people serving prison time (usually longer than one year) for felony offenses. Local jails are county or municipal facilities that incarcerate defendants prior to trial; they also hold those serving short sentences (typically under

9990-507: The USAS on Flight C of February 29–March 1, 1940, and surveyed by A.P. Crary in 1957-58. Named by Crary for Frank Layman, mechanic of the U.S. Ross Ice Shelf Traverse Party (1957-58) and Victoria Land Traverse Party (1958-59). 84°50′S 178°58′E  /  84.833°S 178.967°E  / -84.833; 178.967 . A mountain, 2,390 metres (7,840 ft) high, located 3 nautical miles (5.6 km; 3.5 mi) west of Layman Peak at

10125-464: The United States and the peaceful transfer of power , respectively. The Louisiana Purchase of 1803 from France nearly doubled the territory of the United States. Lingering issues with Britain remained , leading to the War of 1812 , which was fought to a draw. Spain ceded Florida and its Gulf Coast territory in 1819. In the late 18th century, American settlers began to expand westward , many with

10260-714: The United States entered the Cold War, where geopolitical tensions between the U.S. and the Soviet Union led the two countries to dominate world affairs . The U.S. utilized the policy of containment to limit the USSR's sphere of influence, and prevailed in the Space Race , which culminated with the first crewed Moon landing in 1969. Domestically, the U.S. experienced economic growth , urbanization , and population growth following World War II . The civil rights movement emerged, with Martin Luther King Jr. becoming

10395-666: The United States has operated as a de facto two-party system , though the parties in that system have been different at different times. The two main national parties are presently the Democratic and the Republican . The former is perceived as relatively liberal in its political platform while the latter is perceived as relatively conservative . In the American federal system , sovereign powers are shared between two levels of elected government: national and state. People in

10530-593: The United States in 2001 by the pan-Islamist militant organization al-Qaeda led to the war on terror , and subsequent military interventions in Afghanistan and Iraq . The cultural impact of the attacks was profound and long-lasting. The U.S. housing bubble culminated in 2007 with the Great Recession , the largest economic contraction since the Great Depression. Coming to a head in

10665-597: The United States of America to Spain" to seek assistance in the Revolutionary War effort. The first known public usage is an anonymous essay published in the Williamsburg newspaper, The Virginia Gazette , on April 6, 1776. By June 1776, the "United States of America" appeared in the Articles of Confederation and the Declaration of Independence . The Second Continental Congress adopted

10800-535: The United States to the polar regions to spend three to six weeks participating in hands-on field research experiences. Managed by the Arctic Research Consortium of the United States (ARCUS), the goal is to invigorate polar science education and understanding by bringing educators and polar researchers together. Antarctica is the most remote region of the world, with no native inhabitants or infrastructure and nearly no vegetation. Working in such

10935-601: The United States, slavery was abolished nationally . By 1900, the country had established itself as a great power , a status solidified after its involvement in World War I . After Japan 's attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941, the U.S. entered World War II . Its aftermath left the U.S. and the Soviet Union as the world's two superpowers and led to the Cold War , during which both countries struggled for ideological dominance and international influence . Following

11070-541: The United States, despite the usage of "the Americas " as the totality of North and South America. "The States" is an established colloquial shortening of the name, used particularly from abroad; "stateside" is the corresponding adjective or adverb. The first inhabitants of North America migrated from Siberia across the Bering land bridge about 12,000 years ago; the Clovis culture , which appeared around 11,000 BC,

11205-624: The United States, except Iran , North Korea , and Bhutan . Though Taiwan does not have formal diplomatic relations with the U.S., it maintains close unofficial relations. The United States regularly supplies Taiwan with military equipment to deter potential Chinese aggression. Its geopolitical attention also turned to the Indo-Pacific when the United States joined the Quadrilateral Security Dialogue with Australia, India, and Japan. The United States has

11340-509: The United States. The American prison system is largely heterogenous, with thousands of relatively independent systems operating across federal, state, local, and tribal levels. In 2023, "these systems [held] almost 2 million people in 1,566 state prisons, 98 federal prisons, 3,116 local jails, 1,323 juvenile correctional facilities, 181 immigration detention facilities, and 80 Indian country jails, as well as in military prisons , civil commitment centers, state psychiatric hospitals, and prisons in

11475-409: The austral summer. McMurdo Station (77°51' S, 166°40' E), the largest U.S. station in Antarctica, is situated on barren volcanic hills at the southern tip of Ross Island, about 3,827 km (2,378 mi) south of Christchurch, New Zealand and 1,350 km (840 mi) north of the South Pole. The station sits on the eastern shore of McMurdo Sound, the southernmost body of seasonally open water in

11610-508: The confluence of Muck and Ramsey Glaciers. Discovered and photographed by United States Navy Operation Highjump (1946-47) and named by US-ACAN for Walter A. Sullivan of the New York Times staff, who has written extensively on Antarctic research and exploration. 84°42′S 177°35′E  /  84.700°S 177.583°E  / -84.700; 177.583 . A group of four small rock spurs, roughly parallel and projecting through

11745-457: The contiguous United States are in the State of California, about 84 miles (135 km) apart. At an elevation of 20,310 feet (6,190.5 m), Alaska's Denali is the highest peak in the country and continent. Active volcanoes are common throughout Alaska's Alexander and Aleutian Islands , and Hawaii consists of volcanic islands. The supervolcano underlying Yellowstone National Park in

11880-556: The country's GDP. The U.S. has 42% of the world's nuclear weapons —the second-largest share after Russia. The United States has the third-largest combined armed forces in the world, behind the Chinese People's Liberation Army and Indian Armed Forces . The military operates about 800 bases and facilities abroad, and maintains deployments greater than 100 active duty personnel in 25 foreign countries. State defense forces (SDFs) are military units that operate under

12015-469: The country's territory would expand with the admission of new states , rather than the expansion of existing states. The U.S. Constitution was drafted at the 1787 Constitutional Convention to overcome the limitations of the Articles. It went into effect in 1789, creating a federal republic governed by three separate branches that together ensured a system of checks and balances . George Washington

12150-713: The development of self-governance, and the First Great Awakening , a series of Christian revivals , fueled colonial interest in religious liberty . For a century, the American colonists had been providing their own troops and materiel in conflicts with indigenous peoples allied with Britain's colonial rivals , especially France, and the Americans had begun to develop a sense of self-defense and self-reliance separate from Britain. The French and Indian War (1754–1763) took on new significance for all North American colonists after Parliament under William Pitt

12285-464: The east side of Ramsey Glacier. Named by US-ACAN for Frederick A. Bellows, USN, Radioman at McMurdo Station, 1964. 84°46′S 178°30′E  /  84.767°S 178.500°E  / -84.767; 178.500 . A spur, 5 nautical miles (9.3 km; 5.8 mi) long, descending north along the east side of Ramsey Glacier from an unnamed prominence 3 miles (4.8 km) northwest of Mount Bellows. Named by US-ACAN for CWO James S. Reid, member of

12420-612: The eastern slopes of Hughes Range into Ramsey Glacier, northward of Mount Valinski . Named by US-ACAN for Lt. Cdr. Richard E. Millington, USN, medical officer with USN OpDFrz, 1963 and 1964. 84°25′S 179°50′W  /  84.417°S 179.833°W  / -84.417; -179.833 . A glacier, 12 nautical miles (22 km; 14 mi) long, flowing north from the Queen Maud Mountains, between Mount Young and O'Leary Peak , to join Ramsey Glacier at

12555-726: The edge of the Ross Ice Shelf. Named by US-ACAN for Cdr. J.L. Erickson, USN, commanding officer of the USS Staten Island during USN OpDFrz 1965. The head of the glacier in the Bush Mountains forms between the Fulgham Ridge and McIntyre Promontory. To the northeast are Layman Peak, Mount Bellows and the Reid Spur, which runs along the east side of the Ramsey Glacier. The Sullivan Ridge, terminating in

12690-580: The environment for labor unions to begin to flourish . This period eventually ended with the advent of the Progressive Era , which was characterized by significant reforms. Pro-American elements in Hawaii overthrew the Hawaiian monarchy ; the islands were annexed in 1898. That same year, Puerto Rico , the Philippines , and Guam were ceded to the U.S. by Spain after the latter's defeat in

12825-541: The federal government often applied policies of Indian removal or assimilation . The Trail of Tears (1830–1850) was a U.S. government policy that forcibly removed and displaced most Native Americans living east of the Mississippi River to lands far to the west. These and earlier organized displacements prompted a long series of American Indian Wars west of the Mississippi. The Republic of Texas

12960-606: The first nuclear weapons and used them against the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945, ending the war. The United States was one of the " Four Policemen " who met to plan the post-war world , alongside the United Kingdom , Soviet Union , and China . The U.S. emerged relatively unscathed from the war, with even greater economic power and international political influence . After World War II,

13095-542: The great peninsula jutting out of the Antarctic mainland toward South America. Among them was Nathaniel Palmer , who was among the first to see Antarctica, while on board the Hero in 1820, though historians have not settled the question of who discovered Antarctica. James Eights , a geologist from Albany, New York, became the first U.S. scientist to work in Antarctica. In 1830, aboard the Annawan , Eights made investigations in

13230-674: The ground plan of a sharp V pointed toward the north, with steep cliffs on either flank, forming a part of the Bush Mountains at the head of Ramsey Glacier. Discovered and photographed by United States Navy Operation Highjump on Flight 8A of Feb. 16, 1947, and named by US-ACAN for Capt. Eugene C. Mclntyre, USMC, copilot on this flight. 84°51′S 179°35′E  /  84.850°S 179.583°E  / -84.850; 179.583 . A peak, 2,560 metres (8,400 ft) high, standing 3 nautical miles (5.6 km; 3.5 mi) east of Mount Bellows and 4 nautical miles (7.4 km; 4.6 mi) north of Mclntyre Promontory. Discovered and photographed by

13365-447: The history and dynamics of the Antarctic ice sheet and its surrounding ice shelves. Studies of the processes controlling the mass balance and dynamics of the ice sheet are also important. The Ocean and Atmospheric Sciences Program aims to advance understanding of the physics and chemistry of both oceanic and lower atmospheric processes, and environments at high southern latitudes, and their links at local, regional and global scales across

13500-463: The integration of Army National Guard units and personnel into the U.S. Army and (since 1947) the U.S. Air Force. There are about 18,000 U.S. police agencies from local to national level in the United States. Law in the United States is mainly enforced by local police departments and sheriff departments in their municipal or county jurisdictions. The state police departments have authority in their respective state , and federal agencies such as

13635-700: The islands near the station. McMurdo Station is resupplied by ship at the end of every summer season. The U.S. Coast Guard heavy icebreaker Polar Star cuts a channel for a cargo ship to pass through and reach the ice pier at the station. A fuel tanker usually follows the cargo vessel to deliver fuel. The Program has a fleet of vehicles to meet a range of needs at each station. A variety of large and small loaders are used to move cargo and other heavy equipment around. Tracked vehicles, including PistenBullys and Hagglunds transport people and equipment over snow and ice covered regions. Smaller snowmobiles are also used for transport across snow and ice-covered areas as well. “Ivan

13770-456: The living resources in the oceans surrounding Antarctica. An April 1996 report, U.S. Antarctic Program , by the President's National Science and Technology Council , directed the establishment of the present Panel and reaffirmed that essential elements of U.S. national and scientific interests are well served by continued involvement in scientific activity in the Antarctic as carried out by

13905-482: The military draft (leading to the end of conscription in 1973) and wide opposition to U.S. intervention in Vietnam (with the U.S. totally withdrawing in 1975). A societal shift in the roles of women was significantly responsible for the large increase in female paid labor participation during the 1970s, and by 1985 the majority of American women aged 16 and older were employed. The late 1980s and early 1990s saw

14040-612: The most attractive to the population are the most vulnerable. The U.S. is one of 17 megadiverse countries containing large numbers of endemic species : about 17,000 species of vascular plants occur in the contiguous United States and Alaska, and over 1,800 species of flowering plants are found in Hawaii, few of which occur on the mainland. The United States is home to 428 mammal species, 784 birds, 311 reptiles, 295 amphibians , and around 91,000 insect species. There are 63 national parks , and hundreds of other federally managed parks, forests, and wilderness areas , managed by

14175-662: The most violent, the California genocide of thousands of Native inhabitants, lasted into the early 1870s, just as additional western territories and states were created. During the colonial period, slavery had been legal in the American colonies , though the practice began to be significantly questioned during the American Revolution. States in the North enacted abolition laws , though support for slavery strengthened in Southern states , as inventions such as

14310-703: The peak of the Antarctic summer, the ice runways aren't able to support the weight of wheeled aircraft and only planes that can take off and land on skis can operate. For transportation across vast distances around the continent, the Program uses a combination of ski-equipped LC-130s and ski-equipped Basler BT-3 and Twin Otter planes through a contract with through Kenn Borek Air, Ltd.. Ski-equipped planes can land on groomed and maintained ski runways like those at Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station and other field camps, or in relatively smooth ungroomed snow. The program maintains

14445-408: The policy of redlining later adopted by the federal Home Owners' Loan Corporation . An explosion of technological advancement accompanied by the exploitation of cheap immigrant labor led to rapid economic expansion during the late 19th and early 20th centuries , allowing the United States to outpace the economies of England, France, and Germany combined. This fostered the amassing of power by

14580-574: The primary colonial grievances was a denial of their rights as Englishmen , particularly the right to representation in the British government that taxed them . To demonstrate their dissatisfaction and resolve, the First Continental Congress met in 1774 and passed the Continental Association , a colonial boycott of British goods that proved effective. The British attempt to then disarm the colonists resulted in

14715-478: The principal expression of national policy and interest." In 1970 and again in 1976 National Security Decision Memoranda (71 and 318) reaffirmed the "importance of maintaining an active and influential U.S. presence in the Antarctic that is 'responsive to U.S. scientific, economic, and political objectives. ' " In February 1982 President Ronald Reagan in White House Memorandum 6646 reaffirmed

14850-465: The prior policy and noted that the presence in Antarctica shall include "the conduct of scientific activities in major disciplines" and "year-round occupation of the South Pole and two coastal stations." On 9 June 1994 Presidential Decision Directive NSC 26 ("United States Policy on the Arctic and Antarctic Regions") stated that U.S. policy toward Antarctica has four fundamental objectives: (1) protecting

14985-401: The relatively unspoiled environment of Antarctica and its associated ecosystems, (2) preserving and pursuing unique opportunities for scientific research to understand Antarctica and global physical and environmental systems, (3) maintaining Antarctica as an area of international cooperation reserved exclusively for peaceful purposes, and (4) assuring the conservation and sustainable management of

15120-515: The rights of African Americans . National infrastructure, including transcontinental telegraph and railroads , spurred growth in the American frontier . From 1865 through 1917 an unprecedented stream of immigrants arrived in the United States, including 24.4 million from Europe. Most came through the port of New York City , and New York City and other large cities on the East Coast became home to large Jewish , Irish , and Italian populations, while many Germans and Central Europeans moved to

15255-614: The rocky Great Basin and Chihuahua , Sonoran , and Mojave deserts. In the northwest corner of Arizona , carved by the Colorado River over millions of years, is the Grand Canyon , a steep-sided canyon and popular tourist destination known for its overwhelming visual size and intricate, colorful landscape. The Sierra Nevada and Cascade mountain ranges run close to the Pacific coast . The lowest and highest points in

15390-464: The role played by the Antarctic upper atmosphere in global environmental processes. The Organisms and Ecosystems Program supports research at all levels of biological organization, from molecular, cellular and organismal to communities and ecosystems. The Earth Sciences Program provides insights into Antarctica's geologic history and lead to increased understanding of processes shaping it today. The Glaciology Program supports research concerned with

15525-573: The six service branches, which are made up of the U.S. Army , Marine Corps , Navy , Air Force , and Space Force . The Coast Guard is administered by the Department of Homeland Security in peacetime and can be transferred to the Department of the Navy in wartime. The United States spent $ 916 billion on its military in 2023, which is by far the largest amount of any country , making up 37% of global military spending and accounting for 3.4% of

15660-497: The snow surface, forming the northeast part of Sullivan Ridge on the west side of Ramsey Glacier. Discovered and photographed by United States Navy Operation Highjump (1946–47) and given this descriptive name by US-ACAN. United States Antarctic Service The United States Antarctic Program (or USAP ; formerly known as the United States Antarctic Research Program or USARP and

15795-545: The sole authority of a state government. SDFs are authorized by state and federal law but are under the command of the state's governor . They are distinct from the state's National Guard units in that they cannot become federalized entities. A state's National Guard personnel, however, may be federalized under the National Defense Act Amendments of 1933 , which created the Guard and provides for

15930-404: The solution of worldwide and regional problems, including environmental monitoring and prediction and assessment of resources; and to protect the Antarctic environment and develop appropriate measures to ensure the equitable and wise use of living and non-living resources… Science has provided a successful basis for international accord, and the Antarctic is the only continent where science serves as

16065-543: The states are also represented by local elected governments , which are administrative divisions of the states. States are subdivided into counties or county equivalents , and further divided into municipalities . The District of Columbia is a federal district containing the U.S. capital, Washington, D.C. . The federal district is an administrative division of the federal government. Federally recognized tribes govern 326 Indian reservations . The United States has an established structure of foreign relations, and it has

16200-608: The station. The program maintains two research vessels, RVIB Nathaniel B. Palmer and ASRV Laurence M. Gould . The ships are used to both transport people and supplies between Palmer Station on the Antarctic Peninsula, and the port at Punta Arenas, Chile, and to embark on longer science-focused voyages to understand the Southern Ocean or visit other remote areas of the continent. Smaller boats at Palmer Station, including inflatable rafts and larger rigid-hulled inflatable boats, are used to transport scientists around

16335-428: The station. Both of Scott's (1901–1904 and 1910–1913) and Ernest Shackleton's (1907–1909 and 1914–1916) expeditions used the area as a base to deploy sledging parties for both scientific exploration and attempts to reach the South Pole. The huts these expeditions built still stand today at Hut Point, Cape Evans, and Cape Royds. The original station was constructed in 1955–1956. With many additions and modernizations over

16470-510: The structure and responsibilities of the national federal government and its relationship with the individual states. The U.S. Constitution is the world's oldest national constitution still in effect (from March 4, 1789). Composed of three branches, all headquartered in Washington, D.C., the federal government is the national government of the United States. It is regulated by a strong system of checks and balances . The three-branch system

16605-589: The summer population averages 150. Most Antarctic Program personnel and cargo reach the South Pole from McMurdo Station via LC-130 ski-equipped aircraft, whereas most fuel is transported via surface traverse from McMurdo Station. The short austral summer, when most activity occurs, is from late October through mid-February. The station is isolated for the rest of the year. Research at the South Pole includes astronomy, astrophysics, aeronomy , auroral and geospace studies, meteorology, geomagnetism, seismology, earth-tide measurements, and glaciology. Palmer Station , on

16740-423: The summer range from just below freezing to above 4 °C (40 °F). Winter temperatures range from 0 °C (32 °F) to -10 °C (14 °F). Palmer Station is often windy and wet, with both snow and rain. The water equivalent in snow and rain averages 81 cm (32 in) per year. Wildlife is abundant near the station, which makes it superbly located for ecosystem research. The station population

16875-657: The west before entering the Ross Ice Shelf. It is joined from the right (east) by Erickson Glacier at its mouth. 84°53′S 177°20′E  /  84.883°S 177.333°E  / -84.883; 177.333 . A tributary glacier, 5 nautical miles (9.3 km; 5.8 mi) long, flowing northeast between Sullivan Ridge and Fulgham Ridge to enter Ramsey Glacier. Named by US-ACAN for Commissaryman C.F. Bowin, United States Navy, Operation Deep Freeze (OpDFrz), 1965 and 1966. 84°39′S 177°30′E  /  84.650°S 177.500°E  / -84.650; 177.500 . A glacier between Campbell Cliffs and Sullivan Ridge in

17010-582: The world's fourth-longest river system , runs predominantly north–south through the heart of the country. The flat and fertile prairie of the Great Plains stretches to the west, interrupted by a highland region in the southeast. The Rocky Mountains , west of the Great Plains, extend north to south across the country, peaking at over 14,000 feet (4,300 m) in Colorado . Farther west are

17145-583: The world's second-largest diplomatic corps as of 2024 . It is a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council , and home to the United Nations headquarters . The United States is a member of the G7 , G20 , and OECD intergovernmental organizations. Almost all countries have embassies and many have consulates (official representatives) in the country. Likewise, nearly all countries host formal diplomatic missions with

17280-444: The world's oldest surviving federation, and its presidential system of national government has been adopted, in whole or in part, by many newly independent states worldwide following their decolonization . It is a liberal representative democracy "in which majority rule is tempered by minority rights protected by law ". The Constitution of the United States serves as the country's supreme legal document , also establishing

17415-553: The world's tornadoes occur in the country , mainly in Tornado Alley . Overall, the United States receives more high-impact extreme weather incidents than any other country. Extreme weather became more frequent in the U.S. in the 21st century, with three times the number of reported heat waves as in the 1960s. In the American Southwest , droughts became more persistent and more severe. The regions considered as

17550-488: The world. Mount Erebus , a 3,794-meter (12,448 ft) high active volcano, towers over Ross Island. On the west side of the Sound, the Royal Society Range and Mount Discovery , an extinct volcano, provide spectacular vistas. The mean annual temperature is −18 °C (0 °F). Temperatures may reach as high as 8 °C (46 °F) in summer and −50 °C (−58 °F) in winter. The average wind speed

17685-511: The years, today's station is the primary logistics facility for airborne and overland resupply of inland stations and field science projects. The station is also the waste management center for much of the USAP. McMurdo has two airfields. Phoenix Airfield, located about 18 km (11 mi) from McMurdo on the McMurdo Ice Shelf, accommodates wheeled aircraft. Williams Field Skiway, located about 15 km (9.3 mi) from McMurdo

17820-575: Was annexed in 1845, and the 1846 Oregon Treaty led to U.S. control of the present-day American Northwest . Victory in the Mexican–American War resulted in the 1848 Mexican Cession of California, Nevada, Utah, and much of present-day Colorado and the American Southwest . The California gold rush of 1848–1849 spurred a huge migration of white settlers to the Pacific coast, leading to even more confrontations with Native populations. One of

17955-759: Was adopted on July 4, 1776. The political values of the American Revolution included liberty , inalienable individual rights ; and the sovereignty of the people ; supporting republicanism and rejecting monarchy , aristocracy , and all hereditary political power; civic virtue ; and vilification of political corruption . The Founding Fathers of the United States , who included Washington, Jefferson, John Adams , Benjamin Franklin , Alexander Hamilton , John Jay , James Madison , Thomas Paine , and many others, were inspired by Greco-Roman , Renaissance , and Enlightenment philosophies and ideas. The Articles of Confederation were ratified in 1781 and established

18090-583: Was elected the country's first president under the Constitution, and the Bill of Rights was adopted in 1791 to allay skeptics' concerns about the power of the more centralized government. His resignation as commander-in-chief after the Revolutionary War and his later refusal to run for a third term as the country's first president established a precedent for the supremacy of civil authority in

18225-540: Was the largest single expedition ever to explore Antarctica, involving 13 naval vessels, numerous airplanes and more than 4,700 men. The next year, the Navy's Operation Windmill used helicopters to complete some of the work begun during Highjump. In 1956–57 the U.S. Navy, during Operation Deep Freeze I, and in conjunction with research teams funded by the National Science Foundation, established seven research stations in Antarctica to prepare for

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