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92-702: The Muzaffarids have been described as Arab, Iranian, and Persian dynasty. They stayed in Khorasan up until the Mongol invasion of that province, at which point they fled to Yazd . Serving under the Il-Khans, they gained prominence when Sharaf al-Din Muzaffar was made governor of Maibud . He was tasked with crushing the robber-bands that were roaming around the country. Sharaf al-Din's son, Mubariz al-Din Muhammad ,

184-467: A hold on Tabriz, despite further attempts by the Muzaffarids to take it. Mubariz al-Din was known as a cruel ruler, and soon afterwards 1358, his son Shah Shoja blinded and imprisoned him. A temporary reconciliation was reached, but it failed to last and he died, again in prison, in 1363. Shah Shoja proved to be a less of a tyrannic figure, but he was constantly fighting with his brothers, causing

276-618: A long period of instability. In 1363 he marched against his first brother Shah Mahmud, who had been given control of Isfahan, although a peace was soon brokered. In the following year however, Shah Mahmud, with the support of his father-in-law Shaikh Uvais of the Jalayirids, invaded Fars and captured Shiraz. Shah Shoja would not be able to reconquer his capital until 1366. Shah Mahmud would continue to play and influential role in Iranian politics, using his marriage alliance to claim Tabriz from

368-739: A mixed Xiongnu-Donghu ancestry for some tribes (e.g. the Khitan ). The Donghu are mentioned by Sima Qian as already existing in Inner Mongolia north of Yan in 699–632 BCE along with the Shanrong . Unofficial Chinese sources such as Yi Zhou Shu ("Lost Book of Zhou") and the Classic of Mountains and Seas project the Donghu's activities back to the Shang dynasty (1600–1046 BCE). However,

460-677: A small army and 200 Kalmyk soldiers defeated 1,700 Soviet soldiers in Durvud province of Kalmykia but the Oirats' state was destroyed by the Soviet Army in 1930. Kalmykian nationalists and Pan-Mongolists attempted to migrate Kalmyks to Mongolia in the 1920s. Mongolia suggested to migrate the Soviet Union's Mongols to Mongolia in the 1920s but Russia refused the suggestion. Stalin deported all Kalmyks to Siberia in 1943 and around half of

552-399: A sovereign state or merge Inner Mongolia with Mongolia. Mongolian is the official national language of Mongolia, where it is spoken by nearly 2.8 million people (2010 estimate), and the official provincial language of China's Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region , where there are at least 4.1 million ethnic Mongols. Across the whole of China, the language is spoken by roughly half of

644-736: A tribe of Shiwei . It resurfaced in the late 11th century during the Khitan -ruled Liao dynasty . After the fall of the Liao in 1125, the Khamag Mongols became a leading tribe on the Mongolian Plateau . However, their wars with the Jurchen -ruled Jin dynasty and the Tatar confederation had weakened them. In the thirteenth century, the word Mongol grew into an umbrella term for a large group of Mongolic-speaking tribes united under

736-591: Is a city in the Central District of Soltaniyeh County , Zanjan province, Iran , serving as capital of both the county and the district. Soltaniyeh, located some 240 kilometres (150 mi) to the north-west of Tehran , was built as the capital of Mongol Ilkhanid rulers of Iran in the 14th century. Its name which refers to the Islamic ruler title sultan translates loosely as "the Regal". Soltaniyeh

828-434: Is now "a deserted, crumbling spread of ruins." At the time of the 2006 National Census, the city's population was 5,864 in 1,649 households, when it was capital of the former Soltaniyeh District of Abhar County . The following census in 2011 counted 7,116 people in 2,013 households. The 2016 census measured the population of the city as 7,638 people in 2,319 households, by which time the district had been separated from

920-1046: Is referred to as the Mongol heartland , especially in history books. The ancestors of the modern-day Mongols are referred to as Proto-Mongols . Broadly defined, the term includes the Mongols proper (also known as the Khalkha Mongols ), Buryats , Oirats , the Kalmyks and the Southern Mongols. The latter comprises the Abaga Mongols , Abaganar , Aohans , Arkhorchin, Asud , Baarins , Chahars , Darkhan ( Shar Darkhad ), Dörvön Khüükhed, Eastern Dorbets , Gorlos Mongols , Ikhmyangan, Jalaids, Jaruud, Kharchins , Khishigten , Khorchins , Khuuchid, Muumyangan, Naimans , Onnigud, Ordos , Sunud, Tumed , Urad and Üzemchins . The designation "Mongol" briefly appeared in 8th century records of Tang China to describe

1012-723: The Dai Khitai in Afghanistan. With the expansion of the Mongol Empire, the Mongolic peoples settled over almost all Eurasia and carried on military campaigns from the Adriatic Sea to Indonesian Java and from Japan to Palestine . They simultaneously became Padishahs of Persia , Emperors of China , and Great Khans of the Mongols, and one ( Al-Adil Kitbugha ) became Sultan of Egypt . The Mongolic peoples of

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1104-625: The Golden Horde established themselves to govern Russia by 1240. By 1279, they conquered the Song dynasty and brought all of China proper under the control of the Yuan dynasty . ... from Chinggis up high down to the common people, all are shaven in the style pojiao . As with small boys in China, they leave three locks, one hanging from the crown of their heads. When it has grown some, they clip it;

1196-844: The Ming dynasty . After the fall of the Yuan dynasty in 1368, the Mongols continued to rule the Northern Yuan in northern China and the Mongolian steppe. However, the Oirads began to challenge the Eastern Mongols under the Borjigin monarchs in the late 14th century and Mongolia was divided into two parts: Western Mongolia ( Oirats ) and Eastern Mongolia ( Khalkha , Inner Mongols , Barga , Buryats ). The earliest written references to

1288-658: The Mongolia-Russia border . Oka Buryats revolted in 1767 and Russia completely conquered the Buryat region in the late 18th century. Russia and Qing were rival empires until the early 20th century, however, both empires carried out united policy against Central Asians. The Qing Empire conquered Upper Mongolia or the Oirat's Khoshut Khanate in the 1720s and 80,000 people were killed. By that period, Upper Mongolian population reached 200,000. The Dzungar Khanate conquered by

1380-597: The Mongolian and Tibetan Affairs Commission , lie dormant. Agin-Buryat Okrug and Ust-Orda Buryat Okrugs merged with Irkutsk Oblast and Chita Oblast in 2008 despite Buryats' resistance. Small scale protests occurred in Inner Mongolia in 2011 . The Inner Mongolian People's Party is a member of the Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization and its leaders are attemptin to establish

1472-809: The Shiwei (a subtribe called the "Shiwei Menggu" is held to be the origin of the Genghisid Mongols). Besides these three Xianbei groups, there were others such as the Murong , Duan and Tuoba . Their culture was nomadic, their religion shamanism or Buddhism and their military strength formidable. There is still no direct evidence that the Rouran spoke Mongolic languages , although most scholars agree that they were Proto-Mongolic. The Khitan, however, had two scripts of their own and many Mongolic words are found in their half-deciphered writings. Geographically,

1564-809: The Shiwei . The Khitans, who were independent after their separation from the Kumo Xi (of Wuhuan origin) in 388, continued as a minor power in Manchuria until one of them, Abaoji (872–926), established the Liao dynasty (916–1125). The destruction of Uyghur Khaganate by the Kirghiz resulted in the end of Turkic dominance in Mongolia. According to historians, Kirghiz were not interested in assimilating newly acquired lands; instead, they controlled local tribes through various manaps (tribal leaders). The Khitans occupied

1656-607: The Soviet–Japanese War of 1945 (Mongolian name: Liberation War of 1945 ). Japan forced Inner Mongolian and Barga people to fight against Mongolians but they surrendered to Mongolians and started to fight against their Japanese and Manchu allies. Marshal Khorloogiin Choibalsan called Inner Mongolians and Xinjiang Oirats to migrate to Mongolia during the war but the Soviet Army blocked Inner Mongolian migrants' way. It

1748-615: The Tuoba Xianbei ruled the southern part of Inner Mongolia and northern China, the Rouran ( Yujiulü Shelun was the first to use the title khagan in 402) ruled eastern Mongolia, western Mongolia, the northern part of Inner Mongolia and northern Mongolia, the Khitan were concentrated in eastern part of Inner Mongolia north of Korea and the Shiwei were located to the north of the Khitan. These tribes and kingdoms were soon overshadowed by

1840-709: The Xiongnu , whose identity is still debated today. Although some scholars maintain that they were proto-Mongols , they were more likely a multi-ethnic group of Mongolic and Turkic tribes . It has been suggested that the language of the Huns was related to the Xiongnu. The Donghu, however, can be much more easily labeled proto-Mongol since the Chinese histories trace only Mongolic tribes and kingdoms ( Xianbei and Wuhuan peoples) from them, although some historical texts claim

1932-520: The Yakuts after their migration to northern Siberia and about 30% of Yakut words have Mongol origin. However, remnants of the Yuan imperial family retreated north to Mongolia in 1368, retaining their language and culture. There were 250,000 Mongols in southern China and many Mongols were massacred by the rebel army. The survivors were trapped in southern China and eventually assimilated. The Dongxiangs , Bonans , Yugur and Monguor people were invaded by

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2024-603: The (97,000–98,000) Kalmyks deported to Siberia died before being allowed to return home in 1957. The government of the Soviet Union forbade teaching the Kalmyk language during the deportation. The Kalmyks' main purpose was to migrate to Mongolia and many Kalmyks joined the German Army. Marshal Khorloogiin Choibalsan attempted to migrate the deportees to Mongolia and he met with them in Siberia during his visit to Russia. Under

2116-508: The 14–16th centuries, however, the Ming dynasty was defeated by the Oirat, Southern Mongol, Eastern Mongol and united Mongol armies. Esen's 30,000 cavalries defeated 500,000 Chinese soldiers in the 1449 Tumu Crisis . Within eighteen months of his defeat of the titular Khan Taisun, in 1453, Esen himself took the title of Great Khan (1454–1455) of the Great Yuan . The Khalkha emerged during

2208-644: The 15th century and this conflict weakened Mongol strength. In 1688, the Western Mongol Dzungar Khanate 's king Galdan Boshugtu attacked Khalkha after murder of his younger brother by Tusheet Khan Chakhundorj (main or Central Khalkha leader) and the Khalkha-Oirat War began. Galdan threatened to kill Chakhundorj and Zanabazar (Javzandamba Khutagt I, spiritual head of Khalkha) but they escaped to Sunud (Inner Mongolia). Many Khalkha nobles and folks fled to Inner Mongolia because of

2300-702: The Bogd Khan regime. Russia encouraged Mongolia to become an autonomous region of China in 1914. Mongolia lost Barga , Dzungaria, Tuva , Upper Mongolia and Inner Mongolia in the 1915 Treaty of Kyakhta . In October 1919, the Republic of China occupied Mongolia after the suspicious deaths of Mongolian patriotic nobles. On 3 February 1921 the White Russian army—led by Baron Ungern and mainly consisting of Mongolian volunteer cavalries, and Buryat and Tatar cossacks —liberated Ulaanbaatar . Baron Ungern's purpose

2392-611: The Bogd Khanate, and the Russian czar, Nicholas II , referred to it as "Mongolian imperialism". Additionally, the United Kingdom urged Russia to abolish Mongolian independence as it was concerned that "if Mongolians gain independence, then Central Asians will revolt". 10,000 Khalkha and Inner Mongolian cavalries (about 3,500 Inner Mongols) defeated 70,000 Chinese soldiers and controlled almost all of Inner Mongolia; however,

2484-758: The Buryat population in Russia died in the 1900s–1950s. 10,000 Buryats of the Buryat-Mongol Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic were massacred by Stalin's order in the 1930s. In 1919 the Buryats established a small theocratic Balagad state in Kizhinginsky District of Russia and it fell in 1926. In 1958, the name "Mongol" was removed from the name of the Buryat-Mongol Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic. On 22 January 1922 Mongolia proposed to migrate

2576-711: The Communists were unable to defeat Japan and Kuomintang . Mongolia and Soviets supported the Uyghur and Kazakh separatist movement during the 1930s and 1940s. By 1945, the Soviets refused to support them after its alliance with the Chinese Communist Party and Mongolia interrupted its relations with the separatists under pressure. Xinjiang Oirat militant groups operated together the Turkic peoples but

2668-587: The Great said: "The headwaters of the Yenisei River must be Russian land". The Russian Empire sent the Kalmyks and Buryats to war to reduce the populations ( World War I and other wars). During the 20th century, Soviet scientists attempted to convince the Kalmyks and Buryats that they're not Mongols during (demongolization policy). 35,000 Buryats were killed during a rebellion in 1927, and around one-third of

2760-673: The Hu (胡) were not mentioned among the non-Shang fang (方 "border-region"; modern term fāngguó 方國 "fang-countries") in the extant oracle bones from the Shang period. The Xianbei formed part of the Donghu confederation, and possibly had in earlier times some independence within the Donghu confederation as well as from the Zhou dynasty. During the Warring States the poem " The Great Summons " ( Chinese : 大招 ; pinyin : Dà zhāo ) in

2852-404: The Jalayirids after Shaikh Uvais died in 1374. He occupied the city but soon gave up after he was struck by illness. He died the next year, allowing Shah Shoja to occupy Isfahan. Shah Shoja then marched on Tabriz himself, but was forced to turn back when internal conditions in Fars deteriorated. His second brother Shah Muzaffar's son, Shah Yahya, rose in revolt in Isfahan. Having to make peace with

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2944-451: The Jalayirids, Shah Shoja offered to marry his son Zain Al-Abidin to a sister of the Jalayirid ruler Husain. The Jalayirids refused the offer and invaded, although Shah Shoja managed to prevent them from getting any further than Sultaniyya . Before dying in 1384, he named his son Zain al-Abidin his successor and his third brother 'Imad ad-Din Ahmad as governor of Kirman. Not satisfied with the arrangement, Shah Yahya advanced against Shiraz, but

3036-425: The Kalmyk Khanate. The Kyrgyzs attacked them near Balkhash Lake . About 100,000–150,000 Kalmyks who settled on the west bank of the Volga River could not cross the river because the river did not freeze in the winter of 1771 and Catherine the Great executed influential nobles of them. After seven months of travel, only one-third (66,073) of the original group reached Dzungaria (Balkhash Lake, western border of

3128-401: The Kalmyks during the Kalmykian Famine but bolshevik Russia refused. 71,000–72,000 (93,000?; around half of the population) Kalmyks died during the Russian famine of 1921–22 . The Kalmyks revolted against the Soviet Union in 1926, 1930 and 1942–1943. In 1913, Nicholas II , tsar of Russia, said: "We need to prevent from Volg Tatars . But the Kalmyks are more dangerous than them because they are

3220-438: The Kazakhs to migrate westwards. In 1687, he besieged the City of Turkistan . Under the leadership of Abul Khair Khan , the Kazakhs won major victories over the Dzungars at the Bulanty River in 1726, and at the Battle of Anrakay in 1729. The Khalkha eventually submitted to Qing rule in 1691 by Zanabazar 's decision, thus bringing all of today's Mongolia under the rule of the Qing dynasty but Khalkha de facto remained under

3312-482: The Law of the Russian Federation of April 26, 1991 "On Rehabilitation of Exiled Peoples," repressions against Kalmyks and other peoples were qualified as acts of genocide. On 3 October 2002 the Ministry of Foreign Affairs announced that Taiwan recognizes Mongolia as an independent country, although no legislative actions were taken to address concerns over its constitutional claims to Mongolia. Offices established to support Taipei's claims over Outer Mongolia, such as

3404-413: The Liao dynasty led by Yelü Dashi fled west through Mongolia after being defeated by the Jurchen -led Jin dynasty and founded the Qara Khitai (Western Liao dynasty) in 1124 while still maintaining control over western Mongolia. In 1218, Genghis Khan incorporated the Qara Khitai after which the Khitan passed into obscurity. Some remnants surfaced as the Qutlugh-Khanid dynasty (1222–1306) in Iran and

3496-446: The Manchus attack in exchange for thousands of taels of silver. By the 1620s, only the Chahars remained under his rule. The Chahar army was defeated in 1625 and 1628 by the Inner Mongol and Manchu armies due to Ligdan's faulty tactics. The Qing forces secured their control over Inner Mongolia by 1635, and the army of the last khan Ligdan moved to battle against Tibetan Gelugpa sect (Yellow Hat sect) forces. The Gelugpa forces supported

3588-431: The Manchus, while Ligdan supported Kagyu sect (Red Hat sect) of Tibetan Buddhism . Ligden died in 1634 on his way to Tibet . By 1636, most Inner Mongolian nobles had submitted to the Qing dynasty founded by the Manchus. Inner Mongolian Tengis noyan revolted against the Qing in the 1640s and the Khalkha battled to protect Sunud. Western Mongol Oirats and Eastern Mongolian Khalkhas vied for domination in Mongolia since

3680-416: The Mongolian army retreated due to lack of weapons in 1914. 400 Mongol soldiers and 3,795 Chinese soldiers died in this war. The Khalkhas, Khovd Oirats, Buryats, Dzungarian Oirats, Upper Mongols , Barga Mongols , most Inner Mongolian and some Tuvan leaders sent statements to support Bogd Khan's call of Mongolian reunification . In reality however, most of them were too prudent or irresolute to attempt joining

3772-421: The Mongols so send them to war to reduce the population". On 23 April 1923 Joseph Stalin , communist leader of Russia, said: "We are carrying out wrong policy on the Kalmyks who related to the Mongols. Our policy is too peaceful". In March 1927, Soviet deported 20,000 Kalmyks to Siberia, the tundra and Karelia .The Kalmyks founded the sovereign Republic of Oirat-Kalmyk on 22 March 1930. The Oirats' state had

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3864-481: The Oirats and Khalkhas before the war. Galdan Boshugtu sent his army to "liberate" Inner Mongolia after defeating the Khalkha's army and called Inner Mongolian nobles to fight for Mongolian independence. Some Inner Mongolian nobles, Tibetans , Kumul Khanate and some Moghulistan 's nobles supported his war against the Manchus, however, Inner Mongolian nobles did not battle against the Qing. There were three khans in Khalkha and Zasagt Khan Shar (Western Khalkha leader)

3956-425: The Oirats did not have the leading role due to their small population. Basmachis or Turkic and Tajik militants fought to liberate Soviet Central Asia until 1942. On February 2, 1913, the Treaty of friendship and alliance between the Government of Mongolia and Tibet was signed. Mongolian agents and Bogd Khan disrupted Soviet secret operations in Tibet to change its regime in the 1920s. On October 27, 1961,

4048-420: The Qing Empire). The Qing Empire transmigrated the Kalmyks to five different areas to prevent their revolt and influential leaders of the Kalmyks died soon (killed by the Manchus). Russia states that Buryatia voluntarily merged with Russia in 1659 due to Mongolian oppression and the Kalmyks voluntarily accepted Russian rule in 1609 but only Georgia voluntarily accepted Russian rule. In the early 20th century,

4140-402: The Qing dynasty in 1755–1758 because of their leaders and military commanders conflicts. Some scholars estimate that about 80% of the Dzungar population were destroyed by a combination of warfare and disease during the Qing conquest of the Dzungar Khanate in 1755–1758. Mark Levene, a historian whose recent research interests focus on genocide , has stated that the extermination of the Dzungars

4232-437: The Sarbadar Muluk as his ally; Muluk was sent to defend Kashan and the Mozaffarid northern front. By March 1393 Timur had advanced down to Shushtar and Dizful, installing a Sarbadar as governor there. He also freed 'Imad-Din Ahmad from imprisonment. Shah Mansur fled Shiraz, but then turned around and met Timur's forces. With an army weakened by desertions, he fought bravely but was forced to retreat. Attempting to reach Shiraz, he

4324-399: The Tsarist government imposed a council on the Kalmyk Khan, thereby diluting his authority, while continuing to expect the Kalmyk Khan to provide cavalry units to fight on behalf of Russia. The Russian Orthodox church , by contrast, pressured Buddhist Kalmyks to adopt Orthodoxy. In January 1771, approximately 200,000 (170,000) Kalmyks began the migration from their pastures on the left bank of

4416-421: The United Nations recognized Mongolian independence and granted the nation full membership in the organization. The powerful states of Russia and China have committed many abuses against Mongols in their homeland, including war crimes and crimes against humanity, sometimes characterized as cultural genocide , with targets among the Mongol language, culture, tradition, history, religion, and ethnic identity. Peter

4508-418: The Volga to Dzungaria, through the territories of their Bashkir and Kazakh enemies. The last Kalmyk khan Ubashi led the migration to restore Mongolian independence. Ubashi Khan sent his 30,000 cavalries to the Russo-Turkish War (1768–74) to gain weapon before the migration. The Empress Catherine the Great ordered the Russian army, Bashkirs and Kazakhs to exterminate all migrants and the Empress abolished

4600-409: The Xiongnu, killing 2000, after having received generous gifts from Emperor Guangwu of Han . The Xianbei reached their peak under Tanshihuai Khan (reigned 156–181) who expanded the vast, but short lived, Xianbei state (93–234). Three prominent groups split from the Xianbei state as recorded by the Chinese histories: the Rouran (claimed by some to be the Pannonian Avars ), the Khitan people and

4692-503: The anthology Verses of Chu mentions small-waisted and long-necked Xianbei women, and possibly also the book Discourses of the States , which states that during the reign of King Cheng of Zhou (reigned 1042–1021 BCE) the Xianbei came to participate at a meeting of Zhou subject-lords at Qiyang (岐阳) (now Qishan County ) but were only allowed to perform the fire ceremony under the supervision of Chu since they were not vassals (诸侯) by enfeoffment and establishment . The Xianbei chieftain

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4784-426: The areas vacated by the Turkic Uyghurs bringing them under their control. The Yenisei Kirghiz state was centered on Khakassia and they were expelled from Mongolia by the Khitans in 924. Beginning in the 10th century, the Khitans, under the leadership of Abaoji , prevailed in several military campaigns against the Tang dynasty ' s border guards, and the Xi , Shiwei and Jurchen nomadic groups. Remnants of

4876-552: The city, but a rebellion in the city killed any goodwill Timur had, resulting in a slaughter of the populace. Zain Al-Abidin fled from Shiraz in an attempt to make it to the Jalayirids in Baghdad, who were enemies of Timur. However, he encountered Shah Yahya's brother Shah Mansur, who imprisoned him. Shiraz soon fell to Timur. Shah Mansur and 'Imad ad-Din Ahmad, along with other Muzaffarid princes, went to Shiraz to declare their loyalty, whereupon Timur restored them to their positions. The conqueror soon after returned to Transoxiana ; Shiraz

4968-400: The country's 5.8 million ethnic Mongols (2005 estimate) However, the exact number of Mongolian speakers in China is unknown, as there is no data available on the language proficiency of that country's citizens. The use of Mongolian in China, specifically in Inner Mongolia, has witnessed periods of decline and revival over the last few hundred years. The language experienced a decline during

5060-432: The county in the establishment of Soltaniyeh County. Soltaniyeh was transferred to the new Central District as the county's capital. The city was established as a Catholic episcopal see on 1 April 1318 for the Archdiocese of Soltania. In 1329, the Latin Diocese of Samarcanda became its suffragan for the Chagatai Khanate , at least until Tamerlane (founder of the Timurids) swept its see Samarkand . The archdiocese

5152-427: The death of Abu Sa'id (Ilkhanid dynasty) , Mubariz al-Din continued to carry out his expansionary policy. In 1339 or 1340 he invaded the province of Kirman and seized it from its Mongol governor, Qutb al-Din b. Nasir. Kutb al-Din was able to retake the province for a short time after receiving aid from the Kartid dynasty of Herat , but Mubariz al-Din permanently gained control of Kirman in late 1340. The city of Bam

5244-432: The field in 1353, Abu Esshaq was forced to take refuge in Shiraz and finally surrender. He managed to escape from Shiraz and fled to Isfahan, but Mubariz al-Din pursued him, took the city and executed the Injuid ruler. Fars and western Iran were now under his control. With the destruction of Injuid authority, the Muzaffarids were the strongest power in central Iran, and Shiraz was made their capital. Mubariz al-Din's strength

5336-435: The government's new policy and Soviets. The government and Soviet soldiers defeated the rebels in October. The Buryats started to migrate to Mongolia in the 1900s due to Russian oppression. Joseph Stalin 's regime stopped the migration in 1930 and started a campaign of ethnic cleansing against newcomers and Mongolians. During the Stalinist repressions in Mongolia , almost all adult Buryat men and 22,000–33,000 Mongols (3–5% of

5428-480: The independence of Outer Mongolia, the Mongolian army controlled Khalkha and Khovd regions (modern day Uvs , Khovd , and Bayan-Ölgii provinces ), but Northern Xinjiang (the Altai and Ili regions of the Qing empire), Upper Mongolia , Barga and Inner Mongolia came under control of the newly formed Republic of China . On February 2, 1913, the Bogd Khanate of Mongolia sent Mongolian cavalries to "liberate" Inner Mongolia from China. Russia refused to sell weapons to

5520-412: The late Qing government encouraged Han Chinese settlement of Mongolian lands under the name of " New Policies " or "New Administration" (xinzheng). As a result, some Mongol leaders, especially those of Outer Mongolia, decided to seek Mongolian independence. After the Xinhai Revolution , the Mongolian Revolution on 30 November 1911 in Outer Mongolia ended an over 200-year rule of the Qing dynasty. With

5612-403: The late Qing period, a revival between 1947 and 1965, a second decline between 1966 and 1976, a second revival between 1977 and 1992, and a third decline between 1995 and 2012. However, in spite of the decline of the Mongolian language in some of Inner Mongolia's urban areas and educational spheres, the ethnic identity of the urbanized Chinese-speaking Mongols is most likely going to survive due to

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5704-415: The plough in Middle Mongol language sources appear towards the end of the 14th c. In 1434, Eastern Mongol Taisun Khan 's (1433–1452) Oirat prime minister Togoon Taish reunited the Mongols after killing Adai Khan in Khorchin . Togoon died in 1439 and his son Esen Taish became ruler of Northern Yuan dynasty. Esen later unified the Mongol tribes. The Ming dynasty attempted to invade the Northern Yuan in

5796-426: The population of Mongolia is only hundred thousands". The proportion of victims in relation to the population of the country is much higher than the corresponding figures of the Great Purge in the Soviet Union. The Manchukuo (1932–1945), puppet state of the Empire of Japan (1868–1947) invaded Barga and some part of Inner Mongolia with Japanese help. The Mongolian army advanced to the Great Wall of China during

5888-586: The presence of urban ethnic communities. The multilingual situation in Inner Mongolia does not appear to obstruct efforts by ethnic Mongols to preserve their language. Although an unknown number of Mongols in China, such as the Tumets, may have completely or partially lost the ability to speak their language, they are still registered as ethnic Mongols and continue to identify themselves as ethnic Mongols. The children of inter-ethnic Mongol-Chinese marriages also claim to be and are registered as ethnic Mongols. Soltaniyeh Soltaniyeh ( Persian : سلطانيه )

5980-407: The present-day Xianbei (鮮卑). Again in Inner Mongolia another closely connected core Mongolic Xianbei region was the Upper Xiajiadian culture (1000–600 BCE) where the Donghu confederation was centered. After the Donghu were defeated by Xiongnu king Modu Chanyu , the Xianbei and Wuhuan survived as the main remnants of the confederation. Tadun Khan of the Wuhuan (died 207 AD) was the ancestor of

6072-402: The principal member of the large family of Mongolic peoples . The Oirats and the Buryats are classified either as distinct ethno-linguistic groups or subgroups of Mongols. The Mongols are bound together by a common heritage and ethnic identity . Their indigenous dialects are collectively known as the Mongolian language . The contiguous geographical area in which the Mongols primarily live

6164-410: The proto-Mongolic Kumo Xi . The Wuhuan are of the direct Donghu royal line and the New Book of Tang says that in 209 BCE, Modu Chanyu defeated the Wuhuan instead of using the word Donghu. The Xianbei, however, were of the lateral Donghu line and had a somewhat separate identity, although they shared the same language with the Wuhuan. In 49 CE the Xianbei ruler Bianhe (Bayan Khan?) raided and defeated

6256-442: The reign of Dayan Khan (1479–1543) as one of the six tumens of the Eastern Mongolic peoples. They quickly became the dominant Mongolic clan in Mongolia proper. He reunited the Mongols again. In 1550, Altan Khan led a Khalkha Mongol raid on Beijing. The Mongols voluntarily reunified during Eastern Mongolian Tümen Zasagt Khan rule (1558–1592) for the last time (the Mongol Empire united all Mongols before this). Eastern Mongolia

6348-416: The rise of the First Turkic Khaganate in 555, the Uyghur Khaganate in 745 and the Yenisei Kirghiz states in 840. The Tuoba were eventually absorbed into China. The Rouran fled west from the Göktürks and either disappeared into obscurity or, as some say, invaded Europe as the Avars under their Khan, Bayan I . Some Rouran under Tatar Khan migrated east, founding the Tatar confederation , who became part of

6440-410: The rule of Genghis Khan . There are several proposals for the ethnonym Mongol's etymology: In various times Mongolic peoples have been equated with the Scythians , the Magog , and the Tungusic peoples . Based on Chinese historical texts the ancestry of the Mongolic peoples can be traced back to the Donghu , a nomadic confederation occupying eastern Mongolia and Manchuria . The Donghu neighboured

6532-399: The rule of Galdan Boshugtu Khaan until 1696. The Mongol-Oirat's Code (a treaty of alliance) against foreign invasion between the Oirats and Khalkhas was signed in 1640, however, the Mongols could not unite against foreign invasions. Chakhundorj fought against Russian invasion of Outer Mongolia until 1688 and stopped Russian invasion of Khövsgöl Province . Zanabazar struggled to bring together

6624-603: The sides of Lake Baikal were separated from Mongolia. In 1689 the Treaty of Nerchinsk established the northern border of Manchuria north of the present line. The Russians retained Trans-Baikalia between Lake Baikal and the Argun River north of Mongolia. The Treaty of Kyakhta (1727) , along with the Treaty of Nerchinsk, regulated the relations between Russian and Qing empires until the mid-nineteenth century, and established

6716-553: The strands lower on both sides they plait to hang down on the shoulders. With the breakup of the empire, the dispersed Mongolic peoples quickly adopted the mostly Turkic cultures surrounding them and were assimilated, forming parts of Afghanistan's Hazaras , Azerbaijanis , Uzbeks , Karakalpaks , Tatars , Bashkirs , Turkmens , Uyghurs , Nogays , Kyrgyzs , Kazakhs , Caucasus peoples , Iranian peoples and Moghuls ; linguistic and cultural Persianization also began to be prominent in these territories. Some Mongols assimilated into

6808-501: The total population; common citizens, monks, Pan-Mongolists, nationalists, patriots, hundreds of military officers, nobles, intellectuals and elite people) were shot dead under Soviet orders. Some authors also offer much higher estimates, up to 100,000 victims. Around the late 1930s the Mongolian People's Republic had an overall population of about 700,000 to 900,000 people. By 1939, Soviet said "We repressed too many people,

6900-767: The war. Few Khalkhas fled to the Buryat region and Russia threatened to exterminate them if they did not submit, but many of them submitted to Galdan Boshugtu. In 1683 Galdan 's armies reached Tashkent and the Syr Darya and crushed two armies of the Kazakhs . After that Galdan subjugated the Black Khirgizs and ravaged the Fergana Valley . From 1685 Galdan's forces aggressively pushed the Kazakhs. While his general Rabtan took Taraz , and his main force forced

6992-483: Was "arguably the eighteenth century genocide par excellence." The Dzungar population reached 600,000 in 1755. About 200,000–250,000 Oirats migrated from western Mongolia to Volga River in 1607 and established the Kalmyk Khanate .The Torghuts were led by their Tayishi, Kho Orluk . Russia was concerned about their attack but the Kalmyks became a Russian ally and a treaty to protect the southern Russian border

7084-586: Was Galdan's ally. Tsetsen Khan (Eastern Khalkha leader) did not engage in this conflict. While Galdan was fighting in Eastern Mongolia, his nephew Tseveenravdan seized the Dzungarian throne in 1689 and this event made Galdan impossible to fight against the Qing Empire. The Russian and Qing Empires supported his action because this coup weakened Western Mongolian strength. Galdan Boshugtu's army

7176-727: Was a part of a Pan-Mongolian plan and few Oirats and Inner Mongols ( Huuchids , Bargas, Tümeds , about 800 Uzemchins ) arrived . Inner Mongolian leaders carried out active policy to merge Inner Mongolia with Mongolia since 1911. They founded the Inner Mongolian Army in 1929 but the Inner Mongolian Army disbanded after ending World War II. The Japanese Empire supported Pan-Mongolism since the 1910s but there have never been active relations between Mongolia and Imperial Japan due to Russian resistance. The nominally independent Inner Mongolian Mengjiang state (1936–1945)

7268-819: Was appointed joint guardian of the ritual torch along with Chu viscount Xiong Yi . These early Xianbei came from the nearby Zhukaigou culture (2200–1500 BCE) in the Ordos Desert , where maternal DNA corresponds to the Mongol Daur people and the Tungusic Evenks . The Zhukaigou Xianbei (part of the Ordos culture of Inner Mongolia and northern Shaanxi ) had trade relations with the Shang. Liu Song dynasty commentator Pei Yin (裴駰), in his Jixie (集解), quoted Eastern Han dynasty scholar Fu Qian (服虔)'s assertion that Shanrong (山戎) and Beidi (北狄) are ancestors of

7360-614: Was besieged and conquered a few years after this. After the conquest of Kirman, Mubariz al-Din became a rival of the neighboring Injuids , who controlled Shiraz and Isfahan . Although the Muzaffarids and Injuids had traditionally been on friendly terms with one another, the Injuid Abu Esshaq 's desire to gain Kirman led him to start a drawn-out conflict with the Muzaffarids in 1347. He unsuccessfully besieged Yazd (1350–1351), after which his fortunes declined rapidly. Defeated on

7452-564: Was brought up at the Il-Khan's court but returned to Maibud upon the death of the Il-Khan Öljeitü . In around 1319 he overthrew the atabeg of Yazd and was subsequently recognized as governor of the city by the central Il-Khan government. Following this he began fighting against the Neguderis, a Mongol tribal group. He managed to face this crisis with a minimum of loss. In the wake of the loss of Il-Khan authority in central Iran following

7544-680: Was captured by forces of prince Shah Rukh and was decapitated. The other Muzaffarid princes then again swore allegiance to Timur. They were received honorably by the conqueror, but on May 22 in Qumisha they were executed. Their bodies were buried inside the kabristan. Only Zain al-Abidin and Sultan Shibli (another son of Shah Shoja) survived the purge; they were sent to Samarkand . Mongol The Mongols are an East Asian ethnic group native to Mongolia , China ( Inner Mongolia and other 11 autonomous territories ), as well as Buryatia and Kalmykia republics of Russia . The Mongols are

7636-455: Was captured in Ray . He was blinded and imprisoned. Shah Mansur then approached Kirman, where Sultan Ahmad and Shah Yahya had gone after the events at Furg. He offered a common alliance against Timur, but was rebuffed and thereafter returned to Shiraz. Timur, who while campaigning elsewhere took note of these events, decided in 1392 that a campaign against Shah Mansur was in order. Shah Mansur gained

7728-409: Was defeated by the outnumbering Qing army in 1696 and he died in 1697. The Mongols who fled to the Buryat region and Inner Mongolia returned after the war. Some Khalkhas mixed with the Buryats. The Buryats fought against Russian invasion since the 1620s and thousands of Buryats were massacred. The Buryat region was formally annexed to Russia by treaties in 1689 and 1727, when the territories on both

7820-487: Was divided into three parts in the 17th century: Outer Mongolia (Khalkha), Inner Mongolia (Inner Mongols) and the Buryat region in southern Siberia . The last Mongol khagan was Ligdan in the early 17th century. He got into conflicts with the Manchus over the looting of Chinese cities, and managed to alienate most Mongol tribes. In 1618, Ligdan signed a treaty with the Ming dynasty to protect their northern border from

7912-513: Was established with support of Japan in 1936; also, some Buryat and Inner Mongol nobles founded a Pan-Mongolist government with the support of Japan in 1919. The Inner Mongols established the short-lived Republic of Inner Mongolia in 1945. Another part of Choibalsan's plan was to merge Inner Mongolia and Dzungaria with Mongolia. By 1945, Chinese communist leader Mao Zedong requested the Soviets to stop Pan-Mongolism because China lost its control over Inner Mongolia and without Inner Mongolian support

8004-604: Was expelled from Isfahan by the city's populace and was forced to flee to Yazd. On his deathbed, Shah Shoja wrote a letter to Timur , who was then campaigning in Azerbaijan, in which he gave his sons' loyalty to the conqueror. When Zain Al-Abidin succeeded his father, he quickly ignored the declaration of loyalty. Timur therefore marched into the Muzaffarid lands. He came to Isfahan, where the governor gave him control of

8096-776: Was given to Shah Yahya. Unfortunately, the Mozaffarids soon began to resume their local feuding. Shah Mansur began by expelling Shah Yahya from Shiraz, whereupon Shah Yahya again fled to Yazd. Shah Mansur then conquered Abarquh , but failed to take Isfahan. Meanwhile, Zain al-Abidin escaped from prison and reached Isfahan. An alliance was then formed between Zain al-Abidin, Shah Yahya and 'Imad ad-Din Ahmad against Shah Mansur. The alliance proved to be unstable, however, and when they met Shah Mansur's army at Furg , Shah Yahya failed to show and 'Imad ad-Din Ahmad quickly retreated. The latter met Shah Mansur again, this time at Fasa , but lost and

8188-520: Was signed between the Kalmyk Khanate and Russia. In 1724 the Kalmyks came under control of Russia. By the early 18th century, there were approximately 300,000–350,000 Kalmyks and 15,000,000 Russians. The Tsardom of Russia gradually chipped away at the autonomy of the Kalmyk Khanate. These policies, for instance, encouraged the establishment of Russian and German settlements on pastures the Kalmyks used to roam and feed their livestock. In addition,

8280-483: Was such that when the khan of the Golden Horde , Jani Beg , sent an offer to make him a vassal, he was able to decline. In fact, he pushed on into Azerbaijan, which Jani Beg had conquered in 1357. He defeated the khan's governor Akhichuq and occupied Tabriz , but realized that he could not hold his position against the Jalayirid troops marching from Baghdad and soon retreated. The Jalayirids would therefore maintain

8372-620: Was to find allies to defeat the Soviet Union . The Statement of Reunification of Mongolia was adopted by Mongolian revolutionaries in 1921. The Soviet, however, considered Mongolia to be Chinese territory in 1924 during a secret meeting with the Republic of China. However, the Soviets officially recognized Mongolian independence in 1945 but carried out various policies (political, economic and cultural) against Mongolia until its fall in 1991 to prevent Pan-Mongolism and other irredentist movements . On 10 April 1932, Mongolians revolted against

8464-542: Was visited by Ruy González de Clavijo , who reported that the city was a hub of silk exportation. In 2005, UNESCO listed Soltaniyeh as one of the World Heritage Sites . The road from Zanjan to Soltaniyeh extends until it reaches to the Katale khor cave. William Dalrymple notes that Öljaitü intended Soltaniyeh to be "the largest and most magnificent city in the world" but that it "died with him" and

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