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123-688: Sir Lewis Bernstein Namier ( / ˈ n eɪ m i ər / ; 27 June 1888 – 19 August 1960) was a British historian of Polish-Jewish background. His best-known works were The Structure of Politics at the Accession of George III (1929), England in the Age of the American Revolution (1930) and the History of Parliament series (begun 1940) he edited later in his life with John Brooke . Namier

246-761: A British subject in 1913, whereupon he anglicised his name. During the First World War , he fought as a private with the 20th Royal Fusiliers in 1914–15 but was discharged owing to poor eyesight. He then held positions with the Propaganda Department (1915–17), the Department of Information (1917–18) and finally with the Political Intelligence Department of the Foreign Office (1918–20). Following

369-541: A "patriot was a traitor – unless he was a patriot for the [ Austrian ] Emperor." However, by the early 20th century – just before the outbreak of World War I and the collapse of Austria-Hungary – out of the three partitions, the Austrian one had the most local autonomy. The local government called the Governorate Commission ( Polish : Komisja Gubernialna ) had considerable influence locally, Polish

492-596: A former patient of Sigmund Freud , Namier was a believer in psychohistory . He also wrote on modern European history, especially diplomatic history and his later books Europe in Decay , In the Nazi Era and Diplomatic Prelude unsparingly condemned the Third Reich and appeasement . In the 1930s, Namier had been active in the anti-appeasement movement and together with his protégé A. J. P. Taylor spoke out against

615-531: A great influence on the rise of Haredi Judaism all over the world, with a continuous influence through its many Hasidic dynasties including those of Chabad , Aleksander , Bobov , Ger , Nadvorna , among others. In 1742 most of Silesia was lost to Prussia . Further disorder and anarchy reigned supreme in Poland during the second half of the 18th century, from the accession to the throne of its last king, Stanislaus II Augustus Poniatowski in 1764. His election

738-783: A great wave of Jewish emigration to the United States. An even bloodier wave of pogroms broke out from 1903 to 1906, at least some of them believed to have been organized by the Tsarist Russian secret police, the Okhrana . They included the Białystok pogrom of 1906 in the Grodno Governorate of Russian Poland, in which at least 75 Jews were murdered by marauding soldiers and many more Jews were wounded. According to Jewish survivors, ethnic Poles did not participate in

861-477: A historiographical revolution in understanding the 18th century. "What Namier's minutely detailed studies revealed was the fact that politics in 1760 consisted mainly in the jockeying for position and influence by individuals within the political elite" rather than ideas such as liberty or democracy, or rivalry with foreign kings, or social effects of industrial and technological change. "Spending many years himself, off and on, in psychoanalysis, [Namier] believed that

984-561: A large number of Jewish books, mainly of a religious character. The growth of Talmudic scholarship in Poland was coincident with the greater prosperity of the Polish Jews; and because of their communal autonomy educational development was wholly one-sided and along Talmudic lines. Exceptions are recorded, however, where Jewish youth sought secular instruction in the European universities. The learned rabbis became not merely expounders of

1107-452: A legend had a Jewish lover named Esterka from Opoczno was especially friendly to the Jews, and his reign is regarded as an era of great prosperity for Polish Jewry, and was nicknamed by his contemporaries "King of the serfs and Jews." Under penalty of death , he prohibited the kidnapping of Jewish children for the purpose of enforced Christian baptism . He inflicted heavy punishment for

1230-510: A more rational basis. The progressive elements in Polish society recognized the urgency of popular education as the first step toward reform. The famous Komisja Edukacji Narodowej ("Commission of National Education"), the first ministry of education in the world, was established in 1773 and founded numerous new schools and remodeled the old ones. One of the members of the commission, kanclerz Andrzej Zamoyski , along with others, demanded that

1353-577: A number of cities within the Pale. Settlers from outside the pale were forced to move to small towns, thus fostering the rise of the shtetls . Although the Jews were accorded slightly more rights with the Emancipation reform of 1861 by Alexander II , they were still restricted to the Pale of Settlement and subject to restrictions on ownership and profession. The existing status quo was shattered with

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1476-574: A part of the German Empire ). When Poland regained independence in the aftermath of World War I , it was still the center of the European Jewish world, with one of the world's largest Jewish communities of over 3 million. Antisemitism was a growing problem throughout Europe in those years, from both the political establishment and the general population. Throughout the interwar period , Poland supported Jewish emigration from Poland and

1599-587: A series of false "Messianic" movements, most famously as Sabbatianism was succeeded by Frankism . In this time of mysticism and overly formal Rabbinism came the teachings of Israel ben Eliezer, known as the Baal Shem Tov , or BeShT , (1698–1760), which had a profound effect on the Jews of Eastern Europe and Poland in particular. His disciples taught and encouraged the new fervent brand of Judaism based on Kabbalah known as Hasidism . The rise of Hasidic Judaism within Poland's borders and beyond had

1722-514: A stake, extended to mean the area enclosed by a fence or boundary. With its large Catholic and Jewish populations, the Pale was acquired by the Russian Empire (which was a majority Russian Orthodox ) in a series of military conquests and diplomatic maneuvers between 1791 and 1835, and lasted until the fall of the Russian Empire in 1917. It comprised about 20% of the territory of European Russia and mostly corresponded to historical borders of

1845-580: A Żydowska (Jewish) street in Kraków in 1304. The tolerant situation was gradually altered by the Roman Catholic Church on the one hand, and by the neighboring German states on the other. There were, however, among the reigning princes some determined protectors of the Jewish inhabitants, who considered the presence of the latter most desirable as far as the economic development of the country

1968-591: Is several times larger. The first Jews to visit Polish territory were traders, while permanent settlement began during the Crusades . Travelling along trade routes leading east to Kyiv and Bukhara , Jewish merchants, known as Radhanites , crossed Silesia . One of them, a diplomat and merchant from the Moorish town of Tortosa in Spanish Al-Andalus , known by his Arabic name, Ibrahim ibn Yaqub ,

2091-735: The Austro-Hungarian Empire ) during the First Partition included the Polish Duchy of Zator and Duchy of Oświęcim , as well as part of Lesser Poland with the counties of Kraków, Sandomierz and Galicia, less the city of Kraków. In the Third Partition , the annexed lands included Western Galicia and Southern Masovia. Major historical events of the Austrian Partition included: the formation of

2214-537: The Black Death led to additional 14th-century outbreaks of violence against the Jews in Kalisz , Kraków and Bochnia . Traders and artisans jealous of Jewish prosperity, and fearing their rivalry, supported the harassment. In 1423, the statute of Warka forbade Jews the granting of loans against letters of credit or mortgage and limited their operations exclusively to loans made on security of moveable property. In

2337-730: The Bund labor union which supported assimilation and the rights of labor . The Folkspartei (People's Party) advocated, for its part, cultural autonomy and resistance to assimilation. In 1912, Agudat Israel , a religious party, came into existence. Many Jews took part in the Polish insurrections, particularly against Russia (since the Tsars discriminated heavily against the Jews). The Kościuszko Insurrection (1794), November Insurrection (1830–31), January Insurrection (1863) and Revolutionary Movement of 1905 all saw significant Jewish involvement in

2460-698: The Free City of Kraków protectorate of Austria , Prussia and Russia , which lasted for a decade. It was abolished by Austria, after the crushing of Kraków Uprising in 1846. The formation of the Polish Legions by Piłsudski initially to fight alongside the Austro-Hungarian Army , helped Poland regain its sovereignty in aftermath of World War I . For most of the 19th century, the Austrian government made little or no concessions to their Polish constituents, their attitude being that

2583-589: The Jedwabne pogrom . Collaboration by non-Jewish Polish citizens in the Holocaust was sporadic, but incidents of hostility against Jews are well documented and have been a subject of renewed scholarly interest during the 21st century. In the post-war period, many of the approximately 200,000 Jewish survivors registered at the Central Committee of Polish Jews or CKŻP (of whom 136,000 arrived from

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2706-549: The Jews were expelled from Spain in 1492, as well as from Austria , Hungary and Germany , thus stimulating Jewish immigration to the much more accessible Poland. Indeed, with the expulsion of the Jews from Spain , Poland became the recognized haven for exiles from Western Europe; and the resulting accession to the ranks of Polish Jewry made it the cultural and spiritual center of the Jewish people. The most prosperous period for Polish Jews began following this new influx of Jews with

2829-604: The Munich Agreement at several rallies in 1938. In the early 1950s, Namier had a celebrated debate on the pages of the Times Literary Supplement with the former French foreign minister Georges Bonnet . At issue was the question whether Bonnet had, as Namier charged, snubbed an offer by the Polish foreign minister Colonel Józef Beck in May 1938 to have Poland come to the aid of Czechoslovakia in

2952-507: The Ottoman Empire . Arabic-speaking Mizrahi Jews and Persian Jews also migrated to Poland during this time. Jewish religious life thrived in many Polish communities. In 1503, the Polish monarchy appointed Rabbi Jacob Pollak the first official Rabbi of Poland. By 1551, Jews were given permission to choose their own Chief Rabbi. The Chief Rabbinate held power over law and finance, appointing judges and other officials. Some power

3075-781: The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth . The worldwide Jewish population at that time was estimated at 1.2 million. In 1768, the Koliivshchyna , a rebellion in Right-bank Ukraine west of the Dnieper in Volhynia , led to ferocious murders of Polish noblemen, Catholic priests and thousands of Jews by haydamaks . Four years later, in 1772, the military Partitions of Poland had begun between Russia, Prussia and Austria. The culture and intellectual output of

3198-525: The Tories and Whigs were collections of ever-shifting and fluid small groups whose stances altered on an issue-by-issue basis. Namier felt that prosopographical methods were the best for analysing small groups like the House of Commons , but he was opposed to the application of prosopography to larger groups. At the time of its publication in 1929, The Structure of Politics at the Accession of George III caused

3321-535: The Ukrainian language . After 1848 Ukrainians also moved into Austrian politics with their own political parties. Austria-Hungary gave Ukrainians more rights than Ukrainians living in the Russian Empire . Decades after it had ceased to exist its former Ukrainian citizens had positive emotions about Austria-Hungary. On the other hand, economically, Galicia was rather backward, and universally regarded as

3444-622: The University of Manchester from 1931 until his retirement in 1953, having been loudly cheered by his students at the conclusion of his last lecture there on European History. Namier remained active in various Zionist groups (in particular, lobbying the British government to allow the creation of what he called a Jewish Fighting Force in the Mandate of Palestine ) and from 1933 was engaged in efforts on behalf of Jewish refugees from Germany. He

3567-464: The annexations of 1772 , and even more of its peoples. Jews were most numerous in the territories that fell under the military control of Austria and Russia. The permanent council established at the instance of the Russian government (1773–1788) served as the highest administrative tribunal, and occupied itself with the elaboration of a plan that would make practicable the reorganization of Poland on

3690-469: The assassination of Alexander in 1881 – an act falsely blamed upon the Jews. The assassination prompted a large-scale wave of anti-Jewish riots, called pogroms (Russian: погро́м ;) throughout 1881–1884. In the 1881 outbreak, pogroms were primarily limited to Russia, although in a riot in Warsaw two Jews were killed, 24 others were wounded, women were raped and over two million rubles worth of property

3813-414: The brewing industry . The harshest measures designed to compel Jews to merge into society at large called for their expulsion from small villages, forcing them to move into towns. Once the resettlement began, thousands of Jews lost their only source of income and turned to Qahal for support. Their living conditions in the Pale began to dramatically worsen. During the reign of Tsar Nicolas I , known by

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3936-521: The fall of communism in Poland , there has been a renewed interest in Jewish culture, featuring an annual Jewish Culture Festival , new study programs at Polish secondary schools and universities, and the opening of Warsaw 's Museum of the History of Polish Jews . From the founding of the Kingdom of Poland in 1025 until the early years of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth created in 1569 , Poland

4059-456: The "deep-seated drives and emotions" of the individual were what explained politics", wrote Richard J. Evans on 29 November 2019, reviewing Conservative Revolutionary: the lives of Lewis Namier (Manchester University Press, 2019), a new biography by D. W. Hayton (a participant in the History of Parliament project). Namier used sources such as wills and tax records to reveal the interests of

4182-452: The 14th and 15th centuries, rich Jewish merchants and moneylenders leased the royal mint, salt mines and the collecting of customs and tolls. The most famous of them were Jordan and his son Lewko of Kraków in the 14th century and Jakub Slomkowicz of Łuck , Wolczko of Drohobycz , Natko of Lviv , Samson of Zydaczow , Josko of Hrubieszów and Szania of Belz in the 15th century. For example, Wolczko of Drohobycz, King Ladislaus Jagiełło's broker,

4305-577: The 16th century, established his yeshiva in Kraków . In addition to being a renowned Talmudic and legal scholar , Isserles was also learned in Kabbalah , and studied history, astronomy, and philosophy. He is considered the " Maimonides of Polish Jewry." The Remuh Synagogue was built for him in 1557. Rema (רמ״א) is the Hebrew acronym for his name. After the childless death of Sigismund II Augustus ,

4428-520: The 19th century. By the late 19th century, Haskalah and the debates it caused created a growing number of political movements within the Jewish community itself, covering a wide range of views and vying for votes in local and regional elections. Zionism became very popular with the advent of the Poale Zion socialist party as well as the religious Polish Mizrahi , and the increasingly popular General Zionists . Jews also took up socialism , forming

4551-626: The 3,000,000 Polish Jews murdered in the Holocaust, who constituted 90% of Polish Jewry, made up half of all Poles killed during the war. While the Holocaust occurred largely in German-occupied Poland , it was orchestrated and perpetrated by the Nazis. Polish attitudes to the Holocaust varied widely, from actively risking death in order to save Jewish lives , and passive refusal to inform on them, to indifference, blackmail, and in extreme cases, committing premeditated murders such as in

4674-569: The Accession of George III , England in the Age of the American Revolution and the History of Parliament series he edited later in his life with John Brooke . Namier used prosopography or collective biography of every Member of Parliament (MP) and peer who sat in the British Parliament in the latter 18th century to reveal that local interests, not national ones, often determined how parliamentarians voted. Namier argued very strongly that far from being tightly organised groups, both

4797-578: The Christian population (fur making, tanning, tailoring). In 1454 anti-Jewish riots flared up in Bohemia 's ethnically-German Wrocław and other Silesian cities, inspired by a Franciscan friar, John of Capistrano , who accused Jews of profaning the Christian religion. As a result, Jews were banished from Lower Silesia. Zbigniew Olesnicki then invited John to conduct a similar campaign in Kraków and several other cities, to lesser effect. The decline in

4920-467: The Commonwealth it obtained into: Two important and major cities of the Austrian partition were Kraków (German: Krakau ) and Lwów (German: Lemberg ). In the first partition, Austria received the largest share of the formerly Polish population, and the second largest land share (83,000 km² and over 2.65 million people). Austria did not participate in the second partition, and in

5043-631: The Crown hetman Stefan Czarniecki of the Ruthenian and Jewish population. He defeated the Swedes in 1660 and was equally successful in his battles against the Russians. Meanwhile, the horrors of the war were aggravated by pestilence . Many Jews along with the townsfolk of Kalisz , Kraków, Poznań , Piotrków and Lublin fell victim to recurring epidemics. As soon as the disturbances had ceased,

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5166-648: The Entente members. After leaving government service, Namier taught at Balliol (1920–21) before going into business for himself. Later Namier, who was a long-time Zionist , worked as political secretary for the Jewish Agency in Palestine (1929–31). For a time he was a close friend and associate of Chaim Weizmann , but Weizmann later severed relations with Namier when the latter converted to Anglicanism to marry his second wife. Namier served as professor at

5289-685: The Fat of Legnica in 1290–95, and Bolko III the Generous of Legnica and Wrocław in 1295. Article 31 of the Statute of Kalisz tried to rein in the Catholic Church from disseminating blood libels against the Jews, by stating: "Accusing Jews of drinking Christian blood is expressly prohibited. If despite this a Jew should be accused of murdering a Christian child, such charge must be sustained by testimony of three Christians and three Jews." During

5412-530: The Jewish community in Poland had a profound impact on Judaism as a whole. Some Jewish historians have recounted that the word Poland is pronounced as Polania or Polin in Hebrew , and as transliterated into Hebrew, these names for Poland were interpreted as "good omens" because Polania can be broken down into three Hebrew words: po ("here"), lan ("dwells"), ya (" God "), and Polin into two words of: po ("here") lin ("[you should] dwell"). The "message"

5535-461: The Jews as " Haman the Second", hundreds of new anti-Jewish measures were enacted. The 1827 decree by Nicolas – while lifting the traditional double taxation on Jews in lieu of army service – made Jews subject to general military recruitment laws that required Jewish communities to provide 7 recruits per each 1000 "souls" every 4 years. Unlike the general population that had to provide recruits between

5658-576: The Jews began to return and to rebuild their destroyed homes; and while it is true that the Jewish population of Poland had decreased, it still was more numerous than that of the Jewish colonies in Western Europe. Poland continued to be the spiritual center of Judaism. Through 1698, the Polish kings generally remained supportive of the Jews. Although Jewish losses in those events were high, the Commonwealth lost one-third of its population – approximately three million of its citizens. The environment of

5781-423: The Jews of his benevolence on the basis of "the principle of tolerance which in conformity with God's laws obliged him to protect them". The policy of the government toward the Jews of Poland oscillated under Casimir's sons and successors, John I Albert (1492–1501) and Alexander Jagiellon (1501–1506). In 1495, Jews were ordered out of the center of Kraków and allowed to settle in the "Jewish town" of Kazimierz. In

5904-459: The Jews to emigrate to Poland was the Magdeburg rights (or Magdeburg Law), a charter given to Jews, among others, that specifically outlined the rights and privileges that Jews had in Poland. For example, they could maintain communal autonomy, and live according to their own laws. This made it very attractive for Jewish communities to pick up and move to Poland. The first mention of Jewish settlers in Płock dates from 1237, in Kalisz from 1287 and

6027-439: The Khmelnytsky Uprising until after the Deluge (1648–1658) left a deep and lasting impression not only on the social life of the Polish–Lithuanian Jews, but on their spiritual life as well. The intellectual output of the Jews of Poland was reduced. The Talmudic learning which up to that period had been the common possession of the majority of the people became accessible to a limited number of students only. What religious study there

6150-405: The Law, but also spiritual advisers, teachers, judges, and legislators; and their authority compelled the communal leaders to make themselves familiar with the abstruse questions of Jewish law . Polish Jewry found its views of life shaped by the spirit of Talmudic and rabbinical literature, whose influence was felt in the home, in school, and in the synagogue. In the first half of the 16th century

6273-464: The MPs. In his time, his methods were new and quite controversial. His obsession with collecting facts such as club membership of various MPs and then attempting to correlate them with voting patterns led his critics to accuse him of "taking ideas out of history". Namier has been described by the historian Lawrence Stone as a member of an 'elitist school' with a 'deeply pessimistic attitude toward human affairs'. His biographer John Cannon concludes: As

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6396-418: The Napoleonic Duchy of Warsaw in 1807, which was followed by the 1809 Austro-Polish War aided by the French, and the victorious Battle of Raszyn resulting in Austrian temporary defeat (1809) marked by the recapture of Kraków and Lwów by the Duchy. However, the fall of Napoleon, leading to abolition of the Duchy at the Congress of Vienna (1815) allowed Austria to regain control. The Congress created

6519-484: The November Insurrection of 1830–1831, the January Insurrection of 1863, as well as in the revolutionary movement of 1905. Many Polish Jews were enlisted in the Polish Legions , which fought for the Polish independence, achieved in 1918 when the occupying forces disintegrated following World War I. Official Russian policy would eventually prove to be substantially harsher to the Jews than that under independent Polish rule. The lands that had once been Poland were to remain

6642-520: The Polish Commonwealth, according to Hundert, profoundly affected Jews due to genuinely positive encounter with the Christian culture across the many cities and towns owned by the Polish aristocracy. There was no isolation. The Jewish dress resembled that of their Polish neighbor. "Reports of romances, of drinking together in taverns, and of intellectual conversations are quite abundant." Wealthy Jews had Polish noblemen at their table, and served meals on silver plates. By 1764, there were about 750,000 Jews in

6765-519: The Polish delegation was highly antagonistic and his attitude towards Poland and Polish territories openly hostile. Namier was later accused of changing the British proposal – the " Curzon Line " – for the eastern border of Poland by leaving the city of Lviv (in Polish, Lwów) and the Oil Basin on the eastern side when the British Foreign Office sent a cable to the Commissar for Foreign Affairs of Bolshevik Russia, Georgy Vasilyevich Chicherin  [ ru ] . The Polish delegation had no knowledge of

6888-453: The Soviet Union) left the Polish People’s Republic for the nascent State of Israel or the Americas . Their departure was hastened by the destruction of Jewish institutions, post-war anti-Jewish violence , and the hostility of the Communist Party to both religion and private enterprise, but also because in 1946–1947 Poland was the only Eastern Bloc country to allow free Jewish aliyah to Israel, without visas or exit permits. Most of

7011-427: The Tall and Władysław III Spindleshanks . Jews enjoyed undisturbed peace and prosperity in the many principalities into which the country was then divided; they formed the middle class in a country where the general population consisted of landlords (developing into szlachta , the unique Polish nobility) and peasants, and they were instrumental in promoting the commercial interests of the land. Another factor for

7134-419: The age of 12, but this requirement was often ignored. Between the years 1850 and 1914 it is estimated that about 1 million people from Galicia (mostly Poles) emigrated to United States. " Galician poverty " and "Galician misery" to this day have survived in Polish as expressions of hopelessness ( adage : bieda galicyjska or nędza galicyjska ). The Austrian Empire divided the former territories of

7257-540: The ages of 18 and 35, Jews had to provide recruits between the ages of 12 and 25, at the qahal 's discretion. Thus between 1827 and 1857 over 30,000 children were placed in the so-called Cantonist schools, where they were pressured to convert. "Many children were smuggled to Poland, where the conscription of Jews did not take effect until 1844." The Pale of Settlement ( Russian : Черта́ осе́длости , chertá osédlosti , Yiddish : תּחום-המושבֿ , tkhum-ha-moyshəv , Hebrew : תְּחוּם הַמּוֹשָב , tḥùm ha-mosháv )

7380-459: The authority of both was recognized by the Jews throughout Europe. Heated religious disputations were common, and Jewish scholars participated in them. At the same time, the Kabbalah had become entrenched under the protection of Rabbinism ; and such scholars as Mordecai Jaffe and Yoel Sirkis devoted themselves to its study. This period of great Rabbinical scholarship was interrupted by the [Khmelnytsky Uprising and The Deluge. The decade from

7503-412: The capital of the Polish kingdom of the Piast dynasty . Among the first Jews to arrive in Poland in 1097 or 1098 were those banished from Prague . The first permanent Jewish community is mentioned in 1085 by a Jewish scholar Jehuda ha-Kohen in the city of Przemyśl . As elsewhere in Central and Eastern Europe , the principal activity of Jews in medieval Poland was commerce and trade, including

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7626-401: The cause of Polish independence. During the Second Polish Republic period, there were several prominent Jewish politicians in the Polish Sejm, such as Apolinary Hartglas and Yitzhak Gruenbaum . Many Jewish political parties were active, representing a wide ideological spectrum, from the Zionists, to the socialists to the anti-Zionists. One of the largest of these parties was the Bund, which

7749-475: The claims that Namier was responsible and calls him "merely a convenient supplier of anti‑Polish arguments". The earlier-approved compromised version of the Curzon Line which was approved at the Spa Conference in Belgium was renamed by Namier as Curzon Line "B". Chicherin relayed this document to Lenin who rejected it nevertheless, assured of his victory over Poland followed by a planned annexation of its entire territory. In one of his memoranda Namier falsified

7872-521: The cooperation of the Polish princes for enforcement, which was generally not forthcoming, due to the profits which the Jews' economic activity yielded to the princes. In 1332, King Casimir III the Great (1303–1370) amplified and expanded Bolesław's old charter with the Wiślicki Statute . Under his reign, streams of Jewish immigrants headed east to Poland and Jewish settlements are first mentioned as existing in Lvov (1356), Sandomierz (1367), and Kazimierz near Kraków (1386). Casimir, who according to

7995-402: The creation of a Jewish state in Palestine . The Polish state also supported Jewish paramilitary groups such as the Haganah , Betar , and Irgun , providing them with weapons and training. In 1939, at the start of World War II, Poland was partitioned between Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union (see Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact ). One-fifth of the Polish population perished during World War II;

8118-404: The defeat of Germany in World War One, Namier joined the British delegation at the Versailles Peace Conference of 1919. Based on his personal background, Namier maintained a firm personal interest in Russian affairs; however, he was also seen as one of the biggest enemies of the newly-independent Polish state in the British political environment. During the Polish–Soviet War his relationship with

8241-528: The desecration of Jewish cemeteries . Nevertheless, while the Jews of Poland enjoyed tranquility for the greater part of Casimir's reign, toward its close they were subjected to persecution on account of the Black Death . In 1348, the first blood libel accusation against Jews in Poland was recorded, and in 1367 the first pogrom took place in Poznań . Compared with the pitiless destruction of their co-religionists in Western Europe , however, Polish Jews did not fare badly; and Jewish refugees from Germany fled to

8364-444: The direction of the rabbis, in the more prominent communities. Such schools were officially known as gymnasia , and their rabbi principals as rectors . Important yeshivot existed in Kraków, Poznań, and other cities. Jewish printing establishments came into existence in the first quarter of the 16th century. In 1530 a Torah was printed in Kraków; and at the end of the century the Jewish printing houses of that city and Lublin issued

8487-414: The dogmatic clergy pushed for less official tolerance, pressured by the Synod of Constance . In 1349 pogroms took place in many towns in Silesia. There were accusations of blood libel by the priests, and new riots against the Jews in Poznań in 1399. Accusations of blood libel by another fanatic priest led to the riots in Kraków in 1407, although the royal guard hastened to the rescue. Hysteria caused by

8610-424: The eastern and southern areas of Polish-occupied Ukraine. The precise number of dead is not known, but the decrease of the Jewish population during this period is estimated at 100,000 to 200,000, which also includes emigration, deaths from diseases and jasyr (captivity in the Ottoman Empire ). The Jewish community suffered greatly during the 1648 Ukrainian Cossack uprising which had been directed primarily against

8733-401: The ethical problems of antisemitism and persecution, one form of which was the Musar movement . Polish Jews generally were less influenced by Haskalah , rather focusing on a strong continuation of their religious lives based on Halakha ("rabbis's law") following primarily Orthodox Judaism , Hasidic Judaism , and also adapting to the new Religious Zionism of the Mizrachi movement later in

8856-451: The event of a German attack. Bonnet denied that such an offer had been made, which led Namier to accuse Bonnet of seeking to falsify the record. Namier concluded the debate in 1953 with words "The Polish offer, for what it was worth, was first torpedoed by Bonnet the statesmen, and next obliterated by Bonnet the historian". Namier's writings on German history have been criticised for being influenced by Germanophobia . His hatred of Germany

8979-529: The existence of Line "A" whatsoever since the idea of handing Lwów over to the Bolsheviks was rejected by Prime Minister Władysław Grabski at the very beginning of talks. Lwów had never been under the rule of Moscow in its history. Professor Piotr Eberhardt from the Polish Academy of Sciences speculates that Lloyd George could have been aware of Namier's modification; Bartłomiej Rusin refutes

9102-553: The export and import of goods such as cloth, linen, furs, hides, wax, metal objects, and slaves. The first extensive Jewish migration from Western Europe to Poland occurred at the time of the First Crusade in 1098. Under Bolesław III (1102–1139), Jews, encouraged by the tolerant regime of this ruler, settled throughout Poland, including over the border in Lithuanian territory as far as Kyiv . Bolesław III recognized

9225-495: The family estate was left to Namier's sister. In 1940 when he feared a Nazi invasion of Britain he burned a large number of his papers and arranged to commit suicide. In 1945, his first wife died. In 1947, he married writer Julia de Beausobre (born Iulia Michaelovna Kazarina ), who authored a biography of him after his death. To marry Julia, who was a convinced Christian, he converted to Anglicanism which led to an estrangement with Chaim Weizman. His sister, Teodora Niemirowska,

9348-497: The first half of the 19th century some semblance of a vastly smaller Polish state was preserved, especially in the form of the Congress Poland (1815–1831). Under foreign rule many Jews inhabiting formerly Polish lands were indifferent to Polish aspirations for independence. However, most Polonized Jews supported the revolutionary activities of Polish patriots and participated in national uprisings. Polish Jews took part in

9471-536: The following century. Shachna's son Israel became rabbi of Lublin on the death of his father, and Shachna's pupil Moses Isserles (known as the ReMA ) (1520–1572) achieved an international reputation among the Jews as the co-author of the Shulkhan Arukh , (the "Code of Jewish Law"). His contemporary and correspondent Solomon Luria (1510–1573) of Lublin also enjoyed a wide reputation among his co-religionists; and

9594-623: The former Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth ; it covered much of present-day Lithuania , Belarus , Poland , Moldova , Ukraine , and parts of western Russia . From 1791 to 1835, and until 1917, there were differing reconfigurations of the boundaries of the Pale, such that certain areas were variously open or shut to Jewish residency, such as the Caucasus . At times, Jews were forbidden to live in agricultural communities, or certain cities, as in Kyiv , Sevastopol and Yalta , excluded from residency at

9717-515: The home of many Jews, as, in 1772, Catherine II , the Tzarina of Russia, instituted the Pale of Settlement , restricting Jews to the western parts of the empire, which would eventually include much of Poland, although it excluded some areas in which Jews had previously lived. By the late 19th century, over four million Jews would live in the Pale. Tsarist policy towards the Jews of Poland alternated between harsh rules, and inducements meant to break

9840-460: The inviolability of their persons and property should be guaranteed and that religious toleration should be to a certain extent granted them; but he insisted that Jews living in the cities should be separated from the Christians, that those of them having no definite occupation should be banished from the kingdom, and that even those engaged in agriculture should not be allowed to possess land. On

9963-669: The king to grant them that privilege. After the Union of Brest in 1595–1596, the Orthodox church was outlawed in Polish-Lithuanian commonwealth and that caused massive religious, social and political tensions in Ruthenia . In part it was also caused due to mass migration of the Jews to Ruthenia and their role perceived by local population and in turn led to multiple Cossack uprisings. The largest one of them started in 1648 and

10086-652: The last king of the Jagiellon dynasty , nobles ( szlachta ) gathered at Warsaw in 1573 and signed a document in which representatives of all major religions pledged mutual support and tolerance. The following eight or nine decades of material prosperity and relative security experienced by Polish Jews – wrote Professor Gershon Hundert – witnessed the appearance of "a virtual galaxy of sparkling intellectual figures." Jewish academies were established in Lublin, Kraków, Brześć (Brisk), Lwów, Ostróg and other towns. Poland-Lithuania

10209-633: The long period of statutory religious tolerance and social autonomy which ended after the Partitions of Poland in the 18th century. During World War II there was a nearly complete genocidal destruction of the Polish Jewish community by Nazi Germany and its collaborators of various nationalities, during the German occupation of Poland between 1939 and 1945, called the Holocaust . Since

10332-490: The more hospitable cities in Poland. As a result of the marriage of Władysław II Jagiełło to Jadwiga , daughter of Louis I of Hungary , Lithuania was united with the kingdom of Poland . In 1388–1389 , broad privileges were extended to Lithuanian Jews including freedom of religion and commerce on equal terms with the Christians. Under the rule of Władysław II, Polish Jews had increased in numbers and attained prosperity. However, religious persecution gradually increased, as

10455-491: The next hundred years, the Church pushed for the persecution of Jews while the rulers of Poland usually protected them. The Councils of Wrocław (1267), Buda (1279), and Łęczyca (1285) each segregated Jews, ordered them to wear a special emblem, banned them from holding offices where Christians would be subordinated to them, and forbade them from building more than one prayer house in each town. However, those church decrees required

10578-559: The nobility). Sigismund II Augustus (1548–1572), mainly followed his father's tolerant policy and also granted communal-administration autonomy to the Jews and laid the foundation for the power of the Qahal , or autonomous Jewish community. According to some sources, about three-quarters of all Jews lived in Poland by the middle of the 16th century. In the 16h and 17th centuries, Poland welcomed Jewish immigrants from Italy , as well as Sephardi Jews and Romaniote Jews migrating there from

10701-721: The nobles, purgatory for the townspeople, hell for the peasants, and paradise for the Jews". Despite the Warsaw Confederation agreement, it did not last for long due to beginning of Counter-Reformation in the Commonwealth and growing influence of the Jesuits. By 1590s there were anti-Semitic outbreaks in Poznań , Lublin , Kraków , Vilnius and Kyiv . In Lwów alone mass attacks of Jews started in 1572 and then repeated in 1592, 1613, 1618, and from 1638 every year with Jesuit students being responsible for many of them. At

10824-497: The other hand, some szlachta and intellectuals proposed a national system of government, of the civil and political equality of the Jews. This was the only example in modern Europe before the French Revolution of tolerance and broadmindedness in dealing with the Jewish question. But all these reforms were too late: a Russian army soon invaded Poland, and soon after a Prussian one followed. A second partition of Poland

10947-461: The pogrom and instead sheltered Jewish families. The Jewish Enlightenment, Haskalah , began to take hold in Poland during the 19th century, stressing secular ideas and values. Champions of Haskalah , the Maskilim , pushed for assimilation and integration into Russian culture. At the same time, there was another school of Jewish thought that emphasized traditional study and a Jewish response to

11070-457: The poorest of the three partitions. There was much corruption during the elections, and the region was seen by the Viennese government as the low priority for investment and development. It was a vast, but constantly struggling region with inefficient agriculture and little industry. In 1900, 60% of the village population (age 12 and over) could not read or write. Education was obligatory until

11193-464: The recurring invasions of the Russians, Crimean Tatars and Ottomans , became the scene of even more atrocities. Charles X of Sweden , at the head of his victorious army, overran the cities of Kraków and Warsaw. The amount of destruction, pillage and methodical plunder during the Siege of Kraków (1657) was so enormous that parts the city never again recovered. Which was later followed by the massacres of

11316-583: The reign of Sigismund I the Old (1506–1548), who protected the Jews in his realm. During his reign, in 1538, the Polish Sejm passed a law making illegal the leasing of royal perogatives, such as salt mines, the mint, and customs to Jews. While these so-called "great arenda " became one of the protected privileges of the szlachta , in the 16th and 17th centuries, Jews were the primary administrators of agricultural arenda (administrating landed estates leased from

11439-498: The remaining Jews left Poland in late 1968 as the result of the "anti-Zionist" campaign . After the fall of the Communist regime in 1989, the situation of Polish Jews became normalized and those who were Polish citizens before World War II were allowed to renew Polish citizenship . The contemporary Polish Jewish community is estimated to have between 10,000 and 20,000 members. The number of people with Jewish heritage of any sort

11562-525: The resistance to large-scale conversion. In 1804, Alexander I of Russia issued a "Statute Concerning Jews", meant to accelerate the process of assimilation of the Empire's new Jewish population. The Polish Jews were allowed to establish schools with Russian, German or Polish curricula. However, they were also restricted from leasing property, teaching in Yiddish, and from entering Russia. They were banned from

11685-404: The results of a national census from Eastern Galicia originating from Austria-Hungary . He single-handedly reduced the number of ethnic Poles living in the region from 2 million down to 600–700 inhabitants. Professor Anna M. Cienciala believes that Namier was not the original initiator of this misrepresentation, but merely an unscrupulous supplier of handy arguments for the anti-Polish lobby among

11808-460: The same time Privilegium de non tolerandis Judaeis and Privilegium de non tolerandis Christianis were introduced to limit Jews living in the Christian cities, which intensified their migration to the Eastern parts of the country where they were invited by the magnates to their private towns . By the end of the 18th century two-thirds of the royal towns and cities in the Commonwealth had pressed

11931-529: The same year, Alexander, when he was the Grand Duke of Lithuania , followed the 1492 example of Spanish rulers and banished Jews from Lithuania. For several years they took shelter in Poland until he reversed his decision eight years later in 1503 after becoming King of Poland and allowed them back to Lithuania. The next year he issued a proclamation in which he stated that a policy of tolerance befitted "kings and rulers". Poland became more tolerant just as

12054-455: The seeds of Talmudic learning had been transplanted to Poland from Bohemia , particularly from the school of Jacob Pollak , the creator of Pilpul ("sharp reasoning"). Shalom Shachna (c. 1500–1558), a pupil of Pollak, is counted among the pioneers of Talmudic learning in Poland. He lived and died in Lublin , where he was the head of the yeshivah which produced the rabbinical celebrities of

12177-487: The status of the Jews was briefly checked by Casimir IV Jagiellon (1447–1492), but soon the nobility forced him to issue the Statute of Nieszawa , which, among other things, abolished the ancient privileges of the Jews "as contrary to divine right and the law of the land." Nevertheless, the king continued to offer his protection to the Jews. Two years later Casimir issued another document announcing that he could not deprive

12300-462: The utility of Jews in the development of the commercial interests of his country. Jews came to form the backbone of the Polish economy. Mieszko III employed Jews in his mint as engravers and technical supervisors, and the coins minted during that period even bear Hebraic markings . Jews worked on commission for the mints of other contemporary Polish princes, including Casimir the Just , Bolesław I

12423-563: The weakening of the Commonwealth and growing religious strife (due to the Protestant Reformation and Catholic Counter-Reformation ), Poland's traditional tolerance began to wane from the 17th century. After the Partitions of Poland in 1795 and the destruction of Poland as a sovereign state , Polish Jews became subject to the laws of the partitioning powers, including the increasingly antisemitic Russian Empire , as well as Austria-Hungary and Kingdom of Prussia (later

12546-666: The wealthy nobility and landlords. The Jews, perceived as allies of the Poles, were also victims of the revolt, during which about 20% of them were killed. Ruled by the elected kings of the House of Vasa since 1587, the embattled Commonwealth was invaded by the Swedish Empire in 1655 in what became known as the Deluge . Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth which had already suffered from the Khmelnytsky Uprising and from

12669-579: Was accepted as the official regional language on Polish soil, and used in schools; Polish organizations had some freedom to operate, and Polish parties could formally participate in Austro-Hungarian politics of the empire. Austria-Hungary also de facto encouraged (the flourishing ) Ukrainian organizations as a divide and rule tactic. This led to accusations by Poles that "Austria-Hungary had invented Ukrainians". Ukrainians maintained schools (from elementary to higher levels) and newspapers in

12792-462: Was became overly formalized, some rabbis busied themselves with quibbles concerning religious laws; others wrote commentaries on different parts of the Talmud in which hair-splitting arguments were raised and discussed; and at times these arguments dealt with matters which were of no practical importance. At the same time, many miracle-workers made their appearance among the Jews of Poland, culminating in

12915-729: Was born Ludwik Bernstein Niemirowski in Wola Okrzejska in the Russian-controlled Congress Poland , now part of the Lublin Voivodeship of southeastern Poland, although his family moved to Austrian Poland in 1890. His family were secular-minded Polish-Jewish gentry. His father, with whom young Lewis often quarreled, idolized the Austro-Hungarian Empire . By contrast, Namier throughout his life detested it. Before coming to England he

13038-601: Was bought by Catherine the Great for 2.5 million rubles, with the Russian army stationing only 5 kilometres (3 mi) away from Warsaw. Eight years later, triggered by the Confederation of Bar against Russian influence and the pro-Russian king, the outlying provinces of Poland were overrun from all sides by different military forces and divided for the first time by the three neighboring empires, Russia, Austria , and Prussia . The Commonwealth lost 30% of its land during

13161-622: Was concerned. Prominent among such rulers was Bolesław the Pious of Kalisz , Prince of Great Poland . With the consent of the class representatives and higher officials, in 1264 he issued a General Charter of Jewish Liberties (commonly called the Statute of Kalisz ), which granted all Jews the freedom to worship, trade, and travel. Similar privileges were granted to the Silesian Jews by the local princes, Henryk IV Probus of Wrocław in 1273–90, Henryk III of Głogów in 1274 and 1299, Henryk V

13284-417: Was content to condemn appeasement without seeking to explain the reasons for it; and eager to dismiss political principles as rhetorical posturing. Polish-Jewish The history of the Jews in Poland dates back at least 1,000 years. For centuries, Poland was home to the largest and most significant Ashkenazi Jewish community in the world. Poland was a principal center of Jewish culture , because of

13407-548: Was destroyed. The new czar, Alexander III , blamed the Jews for the riots and issued a series of harsh restrictions on Jewish movements. Pogroms continued until 1884, with at least tacit government approval. They proved a turning point in the history of the Jews in partitioned Poland and throughout the world. In 1884, 36 Jewish Zionist delegates met in Katowice , forming the Hovevei Zion movement. The pogroms prompted

13530-666: Was educated at the University of Lwów in Austrian Galicia (now in Ukraine ) and the University of Lausanne . At Lausanne, Namier heard Vilfredo Pareto lecture, and Pareto's ideas about elites would have a great influence on his thinking. Namier emigrated to the United Kingdom in 1907, studied first at the London School of Economics for a year and then at Balliol College , Oxford , from 1908, and became

13653-605: Was followed by several conflicts, in which the country lost over a third of its population (over three million people). The Jewish losses were counted in the hundreds of thousands. The first of these large-scale atrocities was the Khmelnytsky Uprising , in which the Cossacks of the Zaporozhian Host under Bohdan Khmelnytsky massacred tens of thousands of Jews as well as Catholic and Uniate population in

13776-455: Was legendary; Namier himself wrote in 1942 as the war raged on: "it did not require either 1914, or 1933, or 1939 to teach me the truth about the Germans. Long before the last war I considered them a deadly menace to Europe and the civilisation." Like the work of his friend Sir John Wheeler-Bennett , Namier's diplomatic histories are generally poorly regarded by modern historians because he

13899-517: Was made on 17 July 1793. Jews, in a Jewish regiment led by Berek Joselewicz , took part in the Kościuszko Uprising the following year, when the Poles tried to again achieve independence, but were brutally put down. Following the revolt, the third and final partition of Poland took place in 1795. The territories which included the great bulk of the Jewish population was transferred to Russia, and thus they became subjects of that empire, although in

14022-528: Was married twice and knighted in 1952 at the onset of Cold War . Also in 1952, Namier was given the honour of delivering the Romanes Lecture , on which subject Namier chose Monarchy and the Party System . In 1917, Namier married a Russian refugee, Clara Sophia Edeleff-Poniatowska, although they separated in 1921. He was by this time estranged from his father so that when his father died in 1922

14145-501: Was shared with local councils. The Polish government permitted the Rabbinate to grow in power, to use it for tax collection purposes. Only 30% of the money raised by the Rabbinate served Jewish causes, the rest went to the Crown for protection. In this period Poland-Lithuania became the main center for Ashkenazi Jewry and its yeshivot achieved fame from the early 16th century. Moses Isserles (1520–1572), an eminent Talmudist of

14268-532: Was strongest in Warsaw and Lodz. In addition to the socialists, Zionist parties were also popular, in particular, the Marxist Poale Zion and the orthodox religious Polish Mizrahi. The General Zionist party became the most prominent Jewish party in the interwar period and in the 1919 elections to the first Polish Sejm since the partitions, gained 50% of the Jewish vote. Austrian Partition The territories acquired by Austrian Empire (later

14391-411: Was that Poland was meant to be a good place for the Jews. During the time from the rule of Sigismund I the Old until the Holocaust , Poland would be at the center of Jewish religious life. Many agreed with Rabbi David HaLevi Segal that Poland was a place where "most of the time the gentiles do no harm; on the contrary they do right by Israel" ( Divre David; 1689). Yeshivot were established, under

14514-637: Was the first chronicler to mention the Polish state ruled by Prince Mieszko I . In the summer of 965 or 966, Jacob made a trade and diplomatic journey from his native Toledo in Muslim Spain to the Holy Roman Empire and then to the Slavic countries. The first actual mention of Jews in Polish chronicles occurs in the 11th century, where it appears that Jews then lived in Gniezno , at that time

14637-473: Was the most tolerant country in Europe. Historians have used the label paradisus iudaeorum ( Latin for " Paradise of the Jews"). Poland became a shelter for Jews persecuted and expelled from various European countries and the home to the world's largest Jewish community of the time. According to some sources, about three-quarters of the world's Jews lived in Poland by the middle of the 16th century. With

14760-530: Was the mother of Anna Kurska . Namier is best known for his work on the Parliament of Great Britain , in particular English politics in the 1760s. His principal conclusion of that decade was that there was no risk of an authoritarian disposal of British parliamentarism. By way of its very detailed study of individuals, this course of study caused substantial revision to accounts based on a party system. Namier's best-known works were The Structure of Politics at

14883-480: Was the only country in Europe where the Jews cultivated their own farmer's fields. The central autonomous body that regulated Jewish life in Poland from the middle of the 16th to mid-18th century was known as the Council of Four Lands . It was during this period that a rueful pasquinade claiming that Poland was a "paradise for the Jews" gave birth to a proverb, which after subsequent extrapolations became "heaven for

15006-417: Was the owner of several villages in the Ruthenian voivodship and the soltys (administrator) of the village of Werbiz. Also, Jews from Grodno were in this period owners of villages, manors, meadows, fish ponds and mills. However, until the end of the 15th century, agriculture as a source of income played only a minor role among Jewish families. More important were crafts for the needs of both their fellow Jews and

15129-477: Was the term given to a region of Imperial Russia in which permanent residency by Jews was allowed and beyond which Jewish permanent residency was generally prohibited. It extended from the eastern pale , or demarcation line, to the western Russian border with the Kingdom of Prussia (later the German Empire ) and with Austria-Hungary . The archaic English term pale is derived from the Latin word palus ,

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