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165-593: During the Yuan dynasty , the imperial capital circuit known as Dadu circuit (大都路; Dadulu ) was under control of the Central Secretariat (Zhongshu Sheng). During the eighth month of the first year of reign of the Hongwu Emperor of the new Ming dynasty , this was renamed to Beiping prefecture, and in the tenth month it was attached to Shandong province. In the first lunar month in the first year of

330-484: A banquet with Tugh Temür. He was supposedly killed with poison by El Temür, and Tugh Temür then remounted the throne. Tugh Temür also managed to send delegates to the western Mongol khanates such as Golden Horde and Ilkhanate to be accepted as the suzerain of Mongol world. However, he was mainly a puppet of the powerful official El Temür during his latter three-year reign. El Temür purged pro-Kusala officials and brought power to warlords, whose despotic rule clearly marked

495-524: A diagram of Pascal's triangle . The summation of a finite arithmetic series is also covered in the book. Guo Shoujing applied mathematics to the construction of calendars. He was one of the first mathematicians in China to work on spherical trigonometry. Gou derived a cubic interpolation formula for his astronomical calculations. His calendar, the Shoushi Li ( 授時暦 ; 'Time Granting Calendar'),

660-799: A fair amount of cultural exchange. The other cultures and peoples in the Mongol Empire also very much influenced China. It had significantly eased trade and commerce across Asia until its decline; the communications between Yuan dynasty and its ally and subordinate in Persia , the Ilkhanate , encouraged this development. Buddhism had a great influence in the Yuan government, and the Tibetan-rite Tantric Buddhism had significantly influenced China during this period. The Muslims of

825-549: A major food crop, sorghum , along with other foreign food products and methods of preparation. The Yuan dynasty was the first dynasty founded by non- Han ethnicity that ruled all of China proper . In the historiography of Mongolia, it is generally considered to be the continuation of the Mongol Empire. Mongols are widely known to worship the Eternal Heaven, and according to the traditional Mongolian ideology Yuan

990-524: A major overlap between the civil and military jurisdictions, due to the Mongol traditional reliance on military institutions and offices as the core of governance. Nevertheless, such a civilian bureaucracy, with the Central Secretariat as the top institution that was (directly or indirectly) responsible for most other governmental agencies (such as the traditional Chinese-style Six Ministries ),

1155-739: A mixed Xiongnu-Donghu ancestry for some tribes (e.g. the Khitan ). The Donghu are mentioned by Sima Qian as already existing in Inner Mongolia north of Yan in 699–632 BCE along with the Shanrong . Unofficial Chinese sources such as Yi Zhou Shu ("Lost Book of Zhou") and the Classic of Mountains and Seas project the Donghu's activities back to the Shang dynasty (1600–1046 BCE). However,

1320-608: A mixed board consisting of Chinese and Mongols. Another example was the insignificance of the Ministry of War compared with native Chinese dynasties, as the real military authority in Yuan times resided in the Privy Council. The Kingdom of Qocho , Kingdom of Dali , Chiefdom of Bozhou , other Tusi chiefdoms, and Goryeo were ruled by rulers subject to, and in some cases related to, the Yuan imperial house. Advances in polynomial algebra were made by mathematicians during

1485-552: A passage to the Far East in search of its legendary wealth. After strengthening his government in northern China, Kublai pursued an expansionist policy in line with the tradition of Mongol and Chinese imperialism. He renewed a massive drive against the Song dynasty to the south. Kublai besieged Xiangyang (襄阳) between 1268 and 1273, the last obstacle in his way to capture the rich Yangtze River basin. An unsuccessful naval expedition

1650-463: A population of 669,033. In 1578, Shuntian had 101,134 households and a population of 706,861. After 1743, Shuntian prefecture was divided into four sub-divisions. As Shuntian was the administrative district containing the capital Beijing , the Shuntian prefecture magistrate (府尹, fuyin ) was particularly renowned. This magistrate was a Qing official of the third rank (正三品, zhengsanpin ), which

1815-524: A predominantly Han navy to defeat the Song loyalists at the battle of Yamen in 1279. The last Song emperor drowned, bringing an end to the Song dynasty. The conquest of the Song reunited northern and southern China for the first time in three hundred years. The Yuan dynasty created the "Han Army" ( 漢軍 ) out of defected Jin troops and an army of defected Song troops called the "Newly Submitted Army" ( 新附軍 ). Kublai's government faced financial difficulties after 1279. Wars and construction projects had drained

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1980-473: A prominent sight since Europeans had yet to adopt a tea culture – as well the practice of foot binding by the women in capital of the Great Khan. Recent studies however show that Polo's account is largely accurate and unique. The Yuan undertook extensive public works. Among Kublai Khan's top engineers and scientists was the astronomer Guo Shoujing , who was tasked with many public works projects and helped

2145-564: A separate pocket of resistance to the Ming in Yunnan and Guizhou , but his forces were decisively defeated by the Ming in 1381. By 1387 the remaining Yuan forces in Manchuria under Naghachu had also surrendered to the Ming dynasty . The Yuan remnants retreated to Mongolia after the fall of Yingchang to the Ming in 1370, where the name Great Yuan ( 大元 ) was formally carried on, and is known as

2310-677: A small army and 200 Kalmyk soldiers defeated 1,700 Soviet soldiers in Durvud province of Kalmykia but the Oirats' state was destroyed by the Soviet Army in 1930. Kalmykian nationalists and Pan-Mongolists attempted to migrate Kalmyks to Mongolia in the 1920s. Mongolia suggested to migrate the Soviet Union's Mongols to Mongolia in the 1920s but Russia refused the suggestion. Stalin deported all Kalmyks to Siberia in 1943 and around half of

2475-399: A sovereign state or merge Inner Mongolia with Mongolia. Mongolian is the official national language of Mongolia, where it is spoken by nearly 2.8 million people (2010 estimate), and the official provincial language of China's Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region , where there are at least 4.1 million ethnic Mongols. Across the whole of China, the language is spoken by roughly half of

2640-699: A subordinate relationship with the Viceroy of Zhili . The areas of the Shuntian prefecture outside the Beijing city wall were under the dual administration of the Zhili viceroy and Shuntian magistrate yamens. In contrast, the Zhili viceroy had no authority within the Beijing city wall. During the early Qing dynasty, an interesting facet of Beijing city administration was that Han and Manchu had separate residence and administration. The Manchu Bannermen all lived in

2805-681: A successor at the Siege of Diaoyucheng . Kublai returned from fighting the Song in 1260 when he learned that his brother, Ariq Böke , was challenging his claim to the throne. Kublai convened a kurultai in Kaiping that elected him Great Khan. A rival kurultai in Mongolia proclaimed Ariq Böke Great Khan, beginning a civil war. Kublai depended on the cooperation of his Chinese subjects to ensure that his army received ample resources. He bolstered his popularity among his subjects by modeling his government on

2970-736: A tribe of Shiwei . It resurfaced in the late 11th century during the Khitan -ruled Liao dynasty . After the fall of the Liao in 1125, the Khamag Mongols became a leading tribe on the Mongolian Plateau . However, their wars with the Jurchen -ruled Jin dynasty and the Tatar confederation had weakened them. In the thirteenth century, the word Mongol grew into an umbrella term for a large group of Mongolic-speaking tribes united under

3135-571: A tropical terrain unsuitable for the mounted warfare of the Mongols. The Trần dynasty which ruled Annam (Đại Việt) defeated the Mongols at the Battle of Bạch Đằng (1288) . Annam, Burma, and Champa recognized Mongol hegemony and established tributary relations with the Yuan dynasty. Internal strife threatened Kublai within his empire. Kublai Khan suppressed rebellions challenging his rule in Tibet and

3300-503: Is considered to be "the beginning of an infinite number of beings, the foundation of peace and happiness, state power, the dream of many peoples, besides it there is nothing great or precious." In traditional historiography of China , on the other hand, the Yuan dynasty is usually considered to be the legitimate dynasty between the Song dynasty and the Ming dynasty . Note, however, Yuan dynasty

3465-1043: Is referred to as the Mongol heartland , especially in history books. The ancestors of the modern-day Mongols are referred to as Proto-Mongols . Broadly defined, the term includes the Mongols proper (also known as the Khalkha Mongols ), Buryats , Oirats , the Kalmyks and the Southern Mongols. The latter comprises the Abaga Mongols , Abaganar , Aohans , Arkhorchin, Asud , Baarins , Chahars , Darkhan ( Shar Darkhad ), Dörvön Khüükhed, Eastern Dorbets , Gorlos Mongols , Ikhmyangan, Jalaids, Jaruud, Kharchins , Khishigten , Khorchins , Khuuchid, Muumyangan, Naimans , Onnigud, Ordos , Sunud, Tumed , Urad and Üzemchins . The designation "Mongol" briefly appeared in 8th century records of Tang China to describe

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3630-405: Is traditionally often extended to cover the Mongol Empire before Kublai Khan 's formal establishment of the Yuan in 1271, partly because Kublai officially honoured prior rulers of the Mongol Empire as Yuan emperors by conferring them posthumous names and temple names . Despite the traditional historiography as well as the official views (including the government of the Ming dynasty which overthrew

3795-771: The Commentaries on the I Ching section regarding the first hexagram ( 乾 ). The Mongolian-language counterpart was Dai Ön Ulus , also rendered as Ikh Yuan Üls or Yekhe Yuan Ulus . In Mongolian, Dai Ön a borrowing from Chinese, was often used in conjunction with the "Yeke Mongghul Ulus" ( 大蒙古國 ; 'Great Mongol State'), which resulted in the form ᠳᠠᠢ ᠥᠨ ᠶᠡᠬᠡ ᠮᠣᠩᠭᠣᠯ ᠤᠯᠤᠰ ( 大元大蒙古國 ; Dai Ön Yeqe Mongɣul Ulus , lit. "Great Yuan – Great Mongol State") or ᠳᠠᠢ ᠦᠨ ᠺᠡᠮᠡᠺᠦ ᠶᠡᠬᠡ ᠮᠣᠩᠭᠣᠯ ᠤᠯᠤᠰ ( Dai Ön qemeqü Yeqe Mongɣol Ulus , lit. "Great Mongol State called Great Yuan"). As per contemporary historiographical norm, "Yuan dynasty" typically refers to

3960-620: The 'Phags-pa script . Kublai, as a Khagan (Great Khan) of the Mongol Empire from 1260, had claimed supremacy over the other successor Mongol khanates: the Chagatai , the Golden Horde , and the Ilkhanate , before proclaiming as the Emperor of China in 1271. As such, the Yuan was also sometimes referred to as the Empire of the Great Khan . However, even though the claim of supremacy by

4125-652: The Chiefdom of Bozhou , which was recognized by both the Song and Tang dynasty, also received recognition by the Mongols in the Yuan dynasty, and later by the Ming dynasty . The Luo clan in Shuixi led by Ahua were recognized by the Yuan emperors, as they were by the Song emperors when led by Pugui and Tang emperors when led by Apei. They descended from the Three Kingdoms era king Huoji who legendarily helped Zhuge Liang against Meng Huo . They were also recognized by

4290-605: The Classics , which had fallen into disuse in north China during the period of disunity, were reinstated by the Yuan court, probably in the hope of maintaining order over Han society. Advances were realized in the fields of travel literature, cartography , geography , and scientific education. Certain Chinese innovations and products, such as purified saltpetre , printing techniques, porcelain , playing cards , and medical literature, were exported to Europe and Western Asia, while

4455-660: The Dai Khitai in Afghanistan. With the expansion of the Mongol Empire, the Mongolic peoples settled over almost all Eurasia and carried on military campaigns from the Adriatic Sea to Indonesian Java and from Japan to Palestine . They simultaneously became Padishahs of Persia , Emperors of China , and Great Khans of the Mongols, and one ( Al-Adil Kitbugha ) became Sultan of Egypt . The Mongolic peoples of

4620-412: The Golden Horde established themselves to govern Russia by 1240. By 1279, they conquered the Song dynasty and brought all of China proper under the control of the Yuan dynasty . ... from Chinggis up high down to the common people, all are shaven in the style pojiao . As with small boys in China, they leave three locks, one hanging from the crown of their heads. When it has grown some, they clip it;

4785-643: The Later Jin dynasty (which later evolved into the Qing dynasty ). The rump state is known in historiography as the Northern Yuan . After the division of the Mongol Empire, the Yuan dynasty was the khanate ruled by the successors of Möngke . In official Chinese histories, the Yuan dynasty bore the Mandate of Heaven . The dynasty was established by Kublai Khan, yet he placed his grandfather Genghis Khan on

4950-597: The Ming dynasty . In 1276 Kublai captured the Song capital of Hangzhou (杭州), the wealthiest city of China, after the surrender of the Southern Song Han Chinese Emperor Gong of Song . Emperor Gong was married off to a Mongol princess of the royal Borjigin family of the Yuan dynasty. Song loyalists escaped from the capital and enthroned a young child as Emperor Bing of Song , who was Emperor Gong's younger brother. The Yuan forces commanded by Han Chinese General Zhang Hongfan led

5115-681: The Ming dynasty . After the fall of the Yuan dynasty in 1368, the Mongols continued to rule the Northern Yuan in northern China and the Mongolian steppe. However, the Oirads began to challenge the Eastern Mongols under the Borjigin monarchs in the late 14th century and Mongolia was divided into two parts: Western Mongolia ( Oirats ) and Eastern Mongolia ( Khalkha , Inner Mongols , Barga , Buryats ). The earliest written references to

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5280-513: The Mongol postal system , constructing infrastructure, providing loans that financed trade caravans, and encouraging the circulation of paper jiaochao banknotes. During the beginning of the Yuan dynasty, the Mongols continued issuing coins ; however, under Külüg Khan coins were completely replaced by paper money. It was not until the reign of Toghon Temür that the government of the Yuan dynasty would attempt to reintroduce copper coinage for circulation. The Pax Mongolica , Mongol peace, enabled

5445-658: The Mongolia-Russia border . Oka Buryats revolted in 1767 and Russia completely conquered the Buryat region in the late 18th century. Russia and Qing were rival empires until the early 20th century, however, both empires carried out united policy against Central Asians. The Qing Empire conquered Upper Mongolia or the Oirat's Khoshut Khanate in the 1720s and 80,000 people were killed. By that period, Upper Mongolian population reached 200,000. The Dzungar Khanate conquered by

5610-597: The Mongolian and Tibetan Affairs Commission , lie dormant. Agin-Buryat Okrug and Ust-Orda Buryat Okrugs merged with Irkutsk Oblast and Chita Oblast in 2008 despite Buryats' resistance. Small scale protests occurred in Inner Mongolia in 2011 . The Inner Mongolian People's Party is a member of the Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization and its leaders are attemptin to establish

5775-580: The Northern Yuan dynasty . A rich cultural diversity developed during the Yuan dynasty. The major cultural achievements were the development of drama and the novel and the increased use of the written vernacular . Arts and culture also greatly developed and flourished during the Yuan dynasty. There was a widespread introduction of blue and white painted porcelain, as well as a major change to Chinese painting. The political unity of China and much of central Asia promoted trade between East and West. The Mongols' extensive West Asian and European contacts produced

5940-809: The Shiwei (a subtribe called the "Shiwei Menggu" is held to be the origin of the Genghisid Mongols). Besides these three Xianbei groups, there were others such as the Murong , Duan and Tuoba . Their culture was nomadic, their religion shamanism or Buddhism and their military strength formidable. There is still no direct evidence that the Rouran spoke Mongolic languages , although most scholars agree that they were Proto-Mongolic. The Khitan, however, had two scripts of their own and many Mongolic words are found in their half-deciphered writings. Geographically,

6105-753: The Shiwei . The Khitans, who were independent after their separation from the Kumo Xi (of Wuhuan origin) in 388, continued as a minor power in Manchuria until one of them, Abaoji (872–926), established the Liao dynasty (916–1125). The destruction of Uyghur Khaganate by the Kirghiz resulted in the end of Turkic dominance in Mongolia. According to historians, Kirghiz were not interested in assimilating newly acquired lands; instead, they controlled local tribes through various manaps (tribal leaders). The Khitans occupied

6270-607: The Soviet–Japanese War of 1945 (Mongolian name: Liberation War of 1945 ). Japan forced Inner Mongolian and Barga people to fight against Mongolians but they surrendered to Mongolians and started to fight against their Japanese and Manchu allies. Marshal Khorloogiin Choibalsan called Inner Mongolians and Xinjiang Oirats to migrate to Mongolia during the war but the Soviet Army blocked Inner Mongolian migrants' way. It

6435-514: The Sui and Tang dynasties) gave a Sinicized image in the Yuan administration, the actual functions of these ministries also reflected how Mongolian priorities and policies reshaped and redirected those institutions. For example, the authority of the Yuan legal system, the Ministry of Justice , did not extend to legal cases involving Mongols and Semu , who had separate courts of justice. Cases involving members of more than one ethnic group were decided by

6600-615: The Tuoba Xianbei ruled the southern part of Inner Mongolia and northern China, the Rouran ( Yujiulü Shelun was the first to use the title khagan in 402) ruled eastern Mongolia, western Mongolia, the northern part of Inner Mongolia and northern Mongolia, the Khitan were concentrated in eastern part of Inner Mongolia north of Korea and the Shiwei were located to the north of the Khitan. These tribes and kingdoms were soon overshadowed by

6765-654: The Xiongnu , whose identity is still debated today. Although some scholars maintain that they were proto-Mongols , they were more likely a multi-ethnic group of Mongolic and Turkic tribes . It has been suggested that the language of the Huns was related to the Xiongnu. The Donghu, however, can be much more easily labeled proto-Mongol since the Chinese histories trace only Mongolic tribes and kingdoms ( Xianbei and Wuhuan peoples) from them, although some historical texts claim

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6930-468: The Yakuts after their migration to northern Siberia and about 30% of Yakut words have Mongol origin. However, remnants of the Yuan imperial family retreated north to Mongolia in 1368, retaining their language and culture. There were 250,000 Mongols in southern China and many Mongols were massacred by the rebel army. The survivors were trapped in southern China and eventually assimilated. The Dongxiangs , Bonans , Yugur and Monguor people were invaded by

7095-463: The yin-yang and wuxing philosophy underlying traditional Chinese medicine. No Chinese translation of Western medical works is known, but it is possible that the Chinese had access to Avicenna 's The Canon of Medicine . Mongols The Mongols are an East Asian ethnic group native to Mongolia , China ( Inner Mongolia and other 11 autonomous territories ), as well as Buryatia and Kalmykia republics of Russia . The Mongols are

7260-461: The "Manchu dynasty" or "Manchu Dynasty of China". Furthermore, the Yuan is sometimes known as the "Empire of the Great Khan" or "Khanate of the Great Khan", since Yuan emperors held the nominal title of Great Khan ; these appeared on some Yuan maps. However, both terms can also refer to the khanate within the Mongol Empire directly ruled by Great Khans before the actual establishment of the Yuan dynasty by Kublai Khan in 1271. Genghis Khan united

7425-436: The (97,000–98,000) Kalmyks deported to Siberia died before being allowed to return home in 1957. The government of the Soviet Union forbade teaching the Kalmyk language during the deportation. The Kalmyks' main purpose was to migrate to Mongolia and many Kalmyks joined the German Army. Marshal Khorloogiin Choibalsan attempted to migrate the deportees to Mongolia and he met with them in Siberia during his visit to Russia. Under

7590-399: The 14–16th centuries, however, the Ming dynasty was defeated by the Oirat, Southern Mongol, Eastern Mongol and united Mongol armies. Esen's 30,000 cavalries defeated 500,000 Chinese soldiers in the 1449 Tumu Crisis . Within eighteen months of his defeat of the titular Khan Taisun, in 1453, Esen himself took the title of Great Khan (1454–1455) of the Great Yuan . The Khalkha emerged during

7755-491: The 15th century and this conflict weakened Mongol strength. In 1688, the Western Mongol Dzungar Khanate 's king Galdan Boshugtu attacked Khalkha after murder of his younger brother by Tusheet Khan Chakhundorj (main or Central Khalkha leader) and the Khalkha-Oirat War began. Galdan threatened to kill Chakhundorj and Zanabazar (Javzandamba Khutagt I, spiritual head of Khalkha) but they escaped to Sunud (Inner Mongolia). Many Khalkha nobles and folks fled to Inner Mongolia because of

7920-527: The Bogd Khan regime. Russia encouraged Mongolia to become an autonomous region of China in 1914. Mongolia lost Barga , Dzungaria, Tuva , Upper Mongolia and Inner Mongolia in the 1915 Treaty of Kyakhta . In October 1919, the Republic of China occupied Mongolia after the suspicious deaths of Mongolian patriotic nobles. On 3 February 1921 the White Russian army—led by Baron Ungern and mainly consisting of Mongolian volunteer cavalries, and Buryat and Tatar cossacks —liberated Ulaanbaatar . Baron Ungern's purpose

8085-432: The Bogd Khanate, and the Russian czar, Nicholas II , referred to it as "Mongolian imperialism". Additionally, the United Kingdom urged Russia to abolish Mongolian independence as it was concerned that "if Mongolians gain independence, then Central Asians will revolt". 10,000 Khalkha and Inner Mongolian cavalries (about 3,500 Inner Mongols) defeated 70,000 Chinese soldiers and controlled almost all of Inner Mongolia; however,

8250-466: The Buryat population in Russia died in the 1900s–1950s. 10,000 Buryats of the Buryat-Mongol Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic were massacred by Stalin's order in the 1930s. In 1919 the Buryats established a small theocratic Balagad state in Kizhinginsky District of Russia and it fell in 1926. In 1958, the name "Mongol" was removed from the name of the Buryat-Mongol Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic. On 22 January 1922 Mongolia proposed to migrate

8415-417: The Communists were unable to defeat Japan and Kuomintang . Mongolia and Soviets supported the Uyghur and Kazakh separatist movement during the 1930s and 1940s. By 1945, the Soviets refused to support them after its alliance with the Chinese Communist Party and Mongolia interrupted its relations with the separatists under pressure. Xinjiang Oirat militant groups operated together the Turkic peoples but

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8580-418: The Great said: "The headwaters of the Yenisei River must be Russian land". The Russian Empire sent the Kalmyks and Buryats to war to reduce the populations ( World War I and other wars). During the 20th century, Soviet scientists attempted to convince the Kalmyks and Buryats that they're not Mongols during (demongolization policy). 35,000 Buryats were killed during a rebellion in 1927, and around one-third of

8745-502: The Han and other ethnic population in the outer city, the jurisdiction of the Bannermen fell under the military office of the Nine Gates Infantry Commander (九門提督, jiumen tidu ). Yuan dynasty This is an accepted version of this page The Yuan dynasty ( Chinese : 元 朝 ; pinyin : Yuáncháo ), officially the Great Yuan ( Chinese : 大 元 ; pinyin : Dà Yuán ; Mongolian : ᠶᠡᠬᠡ ᠶᠤᠸᠠᠨ ᠤᠯᠤᠰ , Yeke Yuwan Ulus , literally "Great Yuan State"),

8910-458: The Hu (胡) were not mentioned among the non-Shang fang (方 "border-region"; modern term fāngguó 方國 "fang-countries") in the extant oracle bones from the Shang period. The Xianbei formed part of the Donghu confederation, and possibly had in earlier times some independence within the Donghu confederation as well as from the Zhou dynasty. During the Warring States the poem " The Great Summons " ( Chinese : 大招 ; pinyin : Dà zhāo ) in

9075-425: The Kalmyk Khanate. The Kyrgyzs attacked them near Balkhash Lake . About 100,000–150,000 Kalmyks who settled on the west bank of the Volga River could not cross the river because the river did not freeze in the winter of 1771 and Catherine the Great executed influential nobles of them. After seven months of travel, only one-third (66,073) of the original group reached Dzungaria (Balkhash Lake, western border of

9240-401: The Kalmyks during the Kalmykian Famine but bolshevik Russia refused. 71,000–72,000 (93,000?; around half of the population) Kalmyks died during the Russian famine of 1921–22 . The Kalmyks revolted against the Soviet Union in 1926, 1930 and 1942–1943. In 1913, Nicholas II , tsar of Russia, said: "We need to prevent from Volg Tatars . But the Kalmyks are more dangerous than them because they are

9405-438: The Kazakhs to migrate westwards. In 1687, he besieged the City of Turkistan . Under the leadership of Abul Khair Khan , the Kazakhs won major victories over the Dzungars at the Bulanty River in 1726, and at the Battle of Anrakay in 1729. The Khalkha eventually submitted to Qing rule in 1691 by Zanabazar 's decision, thus bringing all of today's Mongolia under the rule of the Qing dynasty but Khalkha de facto remained under

9570-482: The Law of the Russian Federation of April 26, 1991 "On Rehabilitation of Exiled Peoples," repressions against Kalmyks and other peoples were qualified as acts of genocide. On 3 October 2002 the Ministry of Foreign Affairs announced that Taiwan recognizes Mongolia as an independent country, although no legislative actions were taken to address concerns over its constitutional claims to Mongolia. Offices established to support Taipei's claims over Outer Mongolia, such as

9735-413: The Liao dynasty led by Yelü Dashi fled west through Mongolia after being defeated by the Jurchen -led Jin dynasty and founded the Qara Khitai (Western Liao dynasty) in 1124 while still maintaining control over western Mongolia. In 1218, Genghis Khan incorporated the Qara Khitai after which the Khitan passed into obscurity. Some remnants surfaced as the Qutlugh-Khanid dynasty (1222–1306) in Iran and

9900-446: The Manchus attack in exchange for thousands of taels of silver. By the 1620s, only the Chahars remained under his rule. The Chahar army was defeated in 1625 and 1628 by the Inner Mongol and Manchu armies due to Ligdan's faulty tactics. The Qing forces secured their control over Inner Mongolia by 1635, and the army of the last khan Ligdan moved to battle against Tibetan Gelugpa sect (Yellow Hat sect) forces. The Gelugpa forces supported

10065-431: The Manchus, while Ligdan supported Kagyu sect (Red Hat sect) of Tibetan Buddhism . Ligden died in 1634 on his way to Tibet . By 1636, most Inner Mongolian nobles had submitted to the Qing dynasty founded by the Manchus. Inner Mongolian Tengis noyan revolted against the Qing in the 1640s and the Khalkha battled to protect Sunud. Western Mongol Oirats and Eastern Mongolian Khalkhas vied for domination in Mongolia since

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10230-421: The Middle East and the rest of the empire. Several medical advances were made in the Yuan period. The physician Wei Yilin (1277–1347) invented a suspension method for reducing dislocated joints, which he performed using anesthetics. The Mongol physician Hu Sihui described the importance of a healthy diet in a 1330 medical treatise. Western medicine was also practiced in China by the Nestorian Christians of

10395-455: The Mongol treasury. Efforts to raise and collect tax revenues were plagued by corruption and political scandals. Mishandled military expeditions followed the financial problems. Kublai's second invasion of Japan in 1281 failed because of an inauspicious typhoon . Kublai botched his campaigns against Annam, Champa , and Java , but won a Pyrrhic victory against Burma . The expeditions were hampered by disease, an inhospitable climate, and

10560-489: The Mongol tribes of the steppes and became Great Khan in 1206. He and his successors expanded the Mongol empire across Asia. Under the reign of Genghis' third son, Ögedei Khan , the Mongols destroyed the weakened Jin dynasty in 1234, conquering most of northern China . Ögedei offered his nephew Kublai a position in Xingzhou , Hebei . Kublai was unable to read Chinese but had several Han teachers attached to him since his early years by his mother Sorghaghtani . He sought

10725-416: The Mongolian army retreated due to lack of weapons in 1914. 400 Mongol soldiers and 3,795 Chinese soldiers died in this war. The Khalkhas, Khovd Oirats, Buryats, Dzungarian Oirats, Upper Mongols , Barga Mongols , most Inner Mongolian and some Tuvan leaders sent statements to support Bogd Khan's call of Mongolian reunification . In reality however, most of them were too prudent or irresolute to attempt joining

10890-421: The Mongols so send them to war to reduce the population". On 23 April 1923 Joseph Stalin , communist leader of Russia, said: "We are carrying out wrong policy on the Kalmyks who related to the Mongols. Our policy is too peaceful". In March 1927, Soviet deported 20,000 Kalmyks to Siberia, the tundra and Karelia .The Kalmyks founded the sovereign Republic of Oirat-Kalmyk on 22 March 1930. The Oirats' state had

11055-506: The Mongols to fight against the Jin. Two Han Chinese leaders, Shi Tianze , Liu Heima ( 劉黑馬 , aka Liu Ni), and the Khitan Xiao Zhala ( 蕭札剌 ) defected and commanded the 3 Tumens in the Mongol army. Liu Heima and Shi Tianze served Ögedei Khan. Liu Heima and Shi Tianxiang led armies against Western Xia for the Mongols. There were 4 Han Tumens and 3 Khitan Tumens, with each Tumen consisting of 10,000 troops. The three Khitan Generals Shimobeidier ( 石抹孛迭兒 ), Tabuyir ( 塔不已兒 ), and Zhongxi,

11220-481: The Oirats and Khalkhas before the war. Galdan Boshugtu sent his army to "liberate" Inner Mongolia after defeating the Khalkha's army and called Inner Mongolian nobles to fight for Mongolian independence. Some Inner Mongolian nobles, Tibetans , Kumul Khanate and some Moghulistan 's nobles supported his war against the Manchus, however, Inner Mongolian nobles did not battle against the Qing. There were three khans in Khalkha and Zasagt Khan Shar (Western Khalkha leader)

11385-425: The Oirats did not have the leading role due to their small population. Basmachis or Turkic and Tajik militants fought to liberate Soviet Central Asia until 1942. On February 2, 1913, the Treaty of friendship and alliance between the Government of Mongolia and Tibet was signed. Mongolian agents and Bogd Khan disrupted Soviet secret operations in Tibet to change its regime in the 1920s. On October 27, 1961,

11550-420: The Qing Empire). The Qing Empire transmigrated the Kalmyks to five different areas to prevent their revolt and influential leaders of the Kalmyks died soon (killed by the Manchus). Russia states that Buryatia voluntarily merged with Russia in 1659 due to Mongolian oppression and the Kalmyks voluntarily accepted Russian rule in 1609 but only Georgia voluntarily accepted Russian rule. In the early 20th century,

11715-402: The Qing dynasty in 1755–1758 because of their leaders and military commanders conflicts. Some scholars estimate that about 80% of the Dzungar population were destroyed by a combination of warfare and disease during the Qing conquest of the Dzungar Khanate in 1755–1758. Mark Levene, a historian whose recent research interests focus on genocide , has stated that the extermination of the Dzungars

11880-476: The Song. Kublai's government after 1262 was a compromise between preserving Mongol interests in China and satisfying the demands of his Chinese subjects. He instituted the reforms proposed by his Chinese advisers by centralizing the bureaucracy, expanding the circulation of paper money, and maintaining the traditional monopolies on salt and iron . He restored the Imperial Secretariat and left

12045-539: The Three-Battalions Barracks (三大營, sandaying ) or so-called inner city located in Xijiao (西郊). The Han Chinese and other ethnic groups lived in the outer city. As the outer city consisted of five towns and ten lanes (五城十坊, wuchengshifang ), it gave rise to an old Chinese saying "inside eight banners, outside five towns" (內八旗外五城, neibaqiwaiwucheng ). While Shuntian magistrate had jurisdiction over

12210-514: The Tsarist government imposed a council on the Kalmyk Khan, thereby diluting his authority, while continuing to expect the Kalmyk Khan to provide cavalry units to fight on behalf of Russia. The Russian Orthodox church , by contrast, pressured Buddhist Kalmyks to adopt Orthodoxy. In January 1771, approximately 200,000 (170,000) Kalmyks began the migration from their pastures on the left bank of

12375-485: The United Nations recognized Mongolian independence and granted the nation full membership in the organization. The powerful states of Russia and China have committed many abuses against Mongols in their homeland, including war crimes and crimes against humanity, sometimes characterized as cultural genocide , with targets among the Mongol language, culture, tradition, history, religion, and ethnic identity. Peter

12540-699: The Volga to Dzungaria, through the territories of their Bashkir and Kazakh enemies. The last Kalmyk khan Ubashi led the migration to restore Mongolian independence. Ubashi Khan sent his 30,000 cavalries to the Russo-Turkish War (1768–74) to gain weapon before the migration. The Empress Catherine the Great ordered the Russian army, Bashkirs and Kazakhs to exterminate all migrants and the Empress abolished

12705-579: The Xiongnu, killing 2000, after having received generous gifts from Emperor Guangwu of Han . The Xianbei reached their peak under Tanshihuai Khan (reigned 156–181) who expanded the vast, but short lived, Xianbei state (93–234). Three prominent groups split from the Xianbei state as recorded by the Chinese histories: the Rouran (claimed by some to be the Pannonian Avars ), the Khitan people and

12870-526: The Yuan court, where it was sometimes labeled as huihui or Muslim medicine. The Nestorian physician Jesus the Interpreter founded the Office of Western Medicine in 1263 during the reign of Kublai. Huihui doctors staffed at two imperial hospitals were responsible for treating the imperial family and members of the court. Chinese physicians opposed Western medicine because its humoral system contradicted

13035-505: The Yuan dynasty introduced Middle Eastern cartography , astronomy , medicine, clothing, and cuisine in East Asia. Eastern crops such as carrots , turnips , new varieties of lemons , eggplants , and melons , high-quality granulated sugar , and cotton were all either introduced or successfully popularized during the Yuan dynasty. Western musical instruments were introduced to enrich Chinese performing arts. From this period dates

13200-458: The Yuan dynasty), there also exist Chinese people who did not consider the Yuan dynasty as a legitimate dynasty of China, but rather as a period of foreign domination. The latter believe that Han Chinese were treated as second-class citizens , and that China stagnated economically and scientifically. The dynasty chose white as its imperial color, which corresponds to the Metal element according to

13365-467: The Yuan emperors was recognized by the western khans in 1304, their subservience was nominal and each continued its own separate development. In 1271, Kublai Khan imposed the name Great Yuan ( Chinese : 大元 ; pinyin : Dà Yuán ), establishing the Yuan dynasty. "Dà Yuán" ( 大元 ) is derived from a clause " 大哉乾元 " ( dà zāi Qián Yuán ; 'Great is Qián', 'the Primal';) in

13530-539: The Yuan era. The mathematician Zhu Shijie (1249–1314) solved simultaneous equations with up to four unknowns using a rectangular array of coefficients, equivalent to modern matrices . Zhu used a method of elimination to reduce the simultaneous equations to a single equation with only one unknown. His method is described in the Jade Mirror of the Four Unknowns , written in 1303. The opening pages contain

13695-466: The Yuan government and were given special legal privileges. Kublai created the Imperial Academy of Medicine to manage medical treatises and the education of new doctors. Confucian scholars were attracted to the medical profession because it ensured a high income and medical ethics were compatible with Confucian virtues. The Chinese medical tradition of the Yuan had "Four Great Schools" that

13860-570: The Yuan government. The government had to adopt some measure to increase revenue, such as selling offices, as well as curtailing its spending on some items. When Yesün Temür died in Shangdu in 1328, Tugh Temür was recalled to Khanbaliq by the Qipchaq commander El Temür . He was installed as emperor in Khanbaliq, while Yesün Temür's son Ragibagh succeeded to the throne in Shangdu (商都) with

14025-565: The Yuan inherited from the Jin dynasty. All four schools were based on the same intellectual foundation, but advocated different theoretical approaches toward medicine. Under the Mongols, the practice of Chinese medicine spread to other parts of the empire. Chinese physicians were brought along military campaigns by the Mongols as they expanded towards the west. Chinese medical techniques such as acupuncture , moxibustion , pulse diagnosis , and various herbal drugs and elixirs were transmitted westward to

14190-536: The Yuan period, Beijing became the terminus of the Grand Canal of China , which was completely renovated. These commercially oriented improvements encouraged overland and maritime commerce throughout Asia and facilitated direct Chinese contacts with Europe. Chinese travelers to the West were able to provide assistance in such areas as hydraulic engineering. Contacts with the West also brought the introduction to China of

14355-450: The Yuan reform the lunisolar calendar to provide an accuracy of 365.2425 days of the year, which was only 26 seconds off the modern Gregorian calendar 's measurement. Road and water communications were reorganized and improved. To provide against possible famines, granaries were ordered built throughout the empire. The city of Beijing was rebuilt with new palace grounds that included artificial lakes, hills and mountains, and parks. During

14520-611: The anthology Verses of Chu mentions small-waisted and long-necked Xianbei women, and possibly also the book Discourses of the States , which states that during the reign of King Cheng of Zhou (reigned 1042–1021 BCE) the Xianbei came to participate at a meeting of Zhou subject-lords at Qiyang (岐阳) (now Qishan County ) but were only allowed to perform the fire ceremony under the supervision of Chu since they were not vassals (诸侯) by enfeoffment and establishment . The Xianbei chieftain

14685-503: The approval of Toghon Temür, marking the end of his first administration, and he was not called back until 1349. The final years of the Yuan dynasty were marked by struggle, famine, and bitterness among the populace. In time, Kublai Khan's successors lost all influence on other Mongol lands across Asia, while the Mongols beyond the Middle Kingdom saw them as too Chinese. Gradually, they lost influence in China as well. The reigns of

14850-642: The areas vacated by the Turkic Uyghurs bringing them under their control. The Yenisei Kirghiz state was centered on Khakassia and they were expelled from Mongolia by the Khitans in 924. Beginning in the 10th century, the Khitans, under the leadership of Abaoji , prevailed in several military campaigns against the Tang dynasty ' s border guards, and the Xi , Shiwei and Jurchen nomadic groups. Remnants of

15015-406: The broad sense of the definition by modern scholars due to the division of the Mongol Empire . Some scholars believe that 1260 was the year that the Yuan dynasty emerged with the proclamation of a reign title following the collapse of the unified Mongol Empire. The Yuan dynasty is sometimes also called the "Mongol dynasty" by westerners, akin to the Qing dynasty sometimes being referred to as

15180-489: The bureaucracy of traditional Chinese dynasties and adopting the Chinese era name of Zhongtong. Ariq Böke was hampered by inadequate supplies and surrendered in 1264. All of the three western khanates ( Golden Horde , Chagatai Khanate and Ilkhanate ) became functionally autonomous, and only the Ilkhans truly recognized Kublai as Great Khan. Civil strife had permanently divided the Mongol Empire . Instability troubled

15345-654: The central government administration was established within the first decade of Kublai's reign. This government adopted the traditional Chinese tripartite division of authority among civil , military, and censorial offices, including the Central Secretariat (Zhongshu Sheng) to manage civil affairs, the Privy Council ( 樞密院 ; Shūmì Yuàn ) to manage military affairs, and the Censorate to conduct internal surveillance and inspection. The actual functions of both central and local government institutions, however, showed

15510-402: The conversion to Islam , by Muslims of Central Asia, of growing numbers of Chinese in the northwest and southwest. Nestorianism and Roman Catholicism also enjoyed a period of toleration. Buddhism (especially Tibetan Buddhism ) flourished, although Taoism endured certain persecutions in favor of Buddhism from the Yuan government. Confucian governmental practices and examinations based on

15675-500: The counsel of Chinese Buddhist and Confucian advisers. Möngke Khan succeeded Ögedei's son, Güyük , as Great Khan in 1251. He granted his brother Kublai control over Mongol held territories in China. Kublai built schools for Confucian scholars, issued paper money , revived Chinese rituals, and endorsed policies that stimulated agricultural and commercial growth. He adopted as his capital city Kaiping in Inner Mongolia , later renamed Shangdu . Many Han Chinese and Khitan defected to

15840-400: The country's 5.8 million ethnic Mongols (2005 estimate) However, the exact number of Mongolian speakers in China is unknown, as there is no data available on the language proficiency of that country's citizens. The use of Mongolian in China, specifically in Inner Mongolia, has witnessed periods of decline and revival over the last few hundred years. The language experienced a decline during

16005-635: The decline of the dynasty. Due to the fact that the bureaucracy was dominated by El Temür, Tugh Temür is known for his cultural contribution instead. He adopted many measures honoring Confucianism and promoting Chinese cultural values . His most concrete effort to patronize Chinese learning was founding the Academy of the Pavilion of the Star of Literature ( 奎章閣學士院 ), first established in the spring of 1329 and designed to undertake "a number of tasks relating to

16170-494: The early years of Kublai Khan's reign. Ögedei's grandson Kaidu refused to submit to Kublai and threatened the western frontier of Kublai's domain. The hostile but weakened Song dynasty remained an obstacle in the south. Kublai secured the northeast border in 1259 by installing the hostage prince Wonjong as the ruler of the Kingdom of Goryeo (Korea), making it a Mongol tributary state. Kublai betrothed one of his daughters to

16335-694: The government based on the Confucian principles, with the help of his newly appointed grand chancellor Baiju. During his reign, the Da Yuan Tong Zhi ( 《大元通制》 ; 'Comprehensive Institutions of the Great Yuan';), a huge collection of codes and regulations of the Yuan dynasty begun by his father, was formally promulgated. Gegeen was assassinated in a coup involving five princes from a rival faction, perhaps steppe elite opposed to Confucian reforms. They placed Yesün Temür (or Taidingdi) on

16500-472: The government into the narrative of traditional Chinese political succession. Kublai evoked his public image as a sage emperor by following the rituals of Confucian propriety and ancestor veneration, while simultaneously retaining his roots as a leader from the steppes. Kublai Khan promoted commercial, scientific, and cultural growth. He supported the merchants of the Silk Road trade network by protecting

16665-546: The government's new policy and Soviets. The government and Soviet soldiers defeated the rebels in October. The Buryats started to migrate to Mongolia in the 1900s due to Russian oppression. Joseph Stalin 's regime stopped the migration in 1930 and started a campaign of ethnic cleansing against newcomers and Mongolians. During the Stalinist repressions in Mongolia , almost all adult Buryat men and 22,000–33,000 Mongols (3–5% of

16830-479: The government, sometimes more than high officials, but their official rank was nebulous. Kublai readied the move of the Mongol capital from Karakorum in Mongolia to Khanbaliq in 1264, constructing a new city near the former Jurchen capital Zhongdu , now modern Beijing , in 1266. In 1271, Kublai formally claimed the Mandate of Heaven and declared that 1272 was the first year of the Great Yuan ( 大元 ) in

16995-672: The imperial records as the official founder of the dynasty and accorded him the temple name Taizu. In the edict titled Proclamation of the Dynastic Name issued in 1271, Kublai announced the name of the new dynasty as Great Yuan and claimed the succession of former Chinese dynasties from the Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors to the Tang dynasty . Some of the Yuan emperors mastered the Chinese language , while others only used their native Mongolian language , written with

17160-643: The independence of Outer Mongolia, the Mongolian army controlled Khalkha and Khovd regions (modern day Uvs , Khovd , and Bayan-Ölgii provinces ), but Northern Xinjiang (the Altai and Ili regions of the Qing empire), Upper Mongolia , Barga and Inner Mongolia came under control of the newly formed Republic of China . On February 2, 1913, the Bogd Khanate of Mongolia sent Mongolian cavalries to "liberate" Inner Mongolia from China. Russia refused to sell weapons to

17325-614: The late Qing government encouraged Han Chinese settlement of Mongolian lands under the name of " New Policies " or "New Administration" (xinzheng). As a result, some Mongol leaders, especially those of Outer Mongolia, decided to seek Mongolian independence. After the Xinhai Revolution , the Mongolian Revolution on 30 November 1911 in Outer Mongolia ended an over 200-year rule of the Qing dynasty. With

17490-403: The late Qing period, a revival between 1947 and 1965, a second decline between 1966 and 1976, a second revival between 1977 and 1992, and a third decline between 1995 and 2012. However, in spite of the decline of the Mongolian language in some of Inner Mongolia's urban areas and educational spheres, the ethnic identity of the urbanized Chinese-speaking Mongols is most likely going to survive due to

17655-415: The later Yuan emperors were short and marked by intrigues and rivalries. Uninterested in administration, they were separated from both the army and the populace, and China was torn by dissension and unrest. Outlaws ravaged the country without interference from the weakening Yuan armies. From the late 1340s onwards, people in the countryside suffered from frequent natural disasters such as droughts, floods and

17820-610: The liquidation of the Department of State Affairs ( 尚書省 ), which resulted in the execution of five of the highest-ranking officials. Starting in 1313 the traditional imperial examinations were reintroduced for prospective officials, testing their knowledge on significant historical works. Also, he codified much of the law, as well as publishing or translating a number of Chinese books and works. Emperor Gegeen Khan , Ayurbarwada's son and successor, ruled for only two years, from 1321 to 1323. He continued his father's policies to reform

17985-520: The local administrative structure of past Chinese dynasties unchanged. However, Kublai rejected plans to revive the Confucian imperial examinations and divided Yuan society into three classes with the Han occupying the lowest rank until the conquest of the Song dynasty and its people, who made up the fourth class, the Southern Chinese. Kublai's Chinese advisers still wielded significant power in

18150-445: The northeast. His favorite wife died in 1281 and so did his chosen heir in 1285. Kublai grew despondent and retreated from his duties as emperor. He fell ill in 1293, and died on 18 February 1294. Following the conquest of Dali in 1253, the former ruling Duan family were appointed as its leaders. Local chieftains were appointed as Tusi , recognized as imperial officials by the Yuan, Ming , and Qing -era governments, principally in

18315-470: The official terminology of the institutions may indicate the government structure was almost purely that of native Chinese dynasties, the Yuan bureaucracy actually consisted of a mix of elements from different cultures. The Chinese-style elements of the bureaucracy mainly came from the native Tang , Song , as well as Khitan Liao and Jurchen Jin dynasties. Chinese advisers such as Liu Bingzhong and Yao Shu gave strong influence to Kublai's early court, and

18480-400: The one hand and a rapid weakening of the central government on the other. He had no choice but to rely on local warlords' military power, and gradually lost his interest in politics and ceased to intervene in political struggles. He fled north to Shangdu from Khanbaliq (present-day Beijing) in 1368 after the approach of the forces of the Ming dynasty (1368–1644), founded by Zhu Yuanzhang in

18645-468: The other Mongol-led khanates and controlled most of modern-day China and its surrounding areas, including modern-day Mongolia . It was the first dynasty founded by a non-Han ethnicity that ruled all of China proper . In 1368, following the defeat of the Yuan forces by the Ming dynasty, the Genghisid rulers retreated to the Mongolian Plateau and continued to rule until 1635 when they surrendered to

18810-697: The period was the Venetian Marco Polo , whose account of his trip to "Cambaluc," the capital of the Great Khan, and of life there astounded the people of Europe. The account of his travels, Il milione (or, The Million , known in English as the Travels of Marco Polo ), appeared about the year 1299. Some doubted the accuracy of Marco Polo's accounts due to the lack of mentioning the Great Wall of China, chopsticks, tea houses – which would have been

18975-595: The plough in Middle Mongol language sources appear towards the end of the 14th c. In 1434, Eastern Mongol Taisun Khan 's (1433–1452) Oirat prime minister Togoon Taish reunited the Mongols after killing Adai Khan in Khorchin . Togoon died in 1439 and his son Esen Taish became ruler of Northern Yuan dynasty. Esen later unified the Mongol tribes. The Ming dynasty attempted to invade the Northern Yuan in

19140-543: The population of Mongolia is only hundred thousands". The proportion of victims in relation to the population of the country is much higher than the corresponding figures of the Great Purge in the Soviet Union. The Manchukuo (1932–1945), puppet state of the Empire of Japan (1868–1947) invaded Barga and some part of Inner Mongolia with Japanese help. The Mongolian army advanced to the Great Wall of China during

19305-526: The present-day Xianbei (鮮卑). Again in Inner Mongolia another closely connected core Mongolic Xianbei region was the Upper Xiajiadian culture (1000–600 BCE) where the Donghu confederation was centered. After the Donghu were defeated by Xiongnu king Modu Chanyu , the Xianbei and Wuhuan survived as the main remnants of the confederation. Tadun Khan of the Wuhuan (died 207 AD) was the ancestor of

19470-533: The prince to solidify the relationship between the two houses. Korean women were sent to the Yuan court as tribute and one concubine became the empress of the Yuan dynasty. Kublai was also threatened by domestic unrest. Li Tan, the son-in-law of a powerful official, instigated a revolt against Mongol rule in 1262. After successfully suppressing the revolt, Kublai curbed the influence of the Han advisers in his court. He feared that his dependence on Chinese officials left him vulnerable to future revolts and defections to

19635-456: The principal member of the large family of Mongolic peoples . The Oirats and the Buryats are classified either as distinct ethno-linguistic groups or subgroups of Mongols. The Mongols are bound together by a common heritage and ethnic identity . Their indigenous dialects are collectively known as the Mongolian language . The contiguous geographical area in which the Mongols primarily live

19800-470: The production of thin glass and cloisonné became popular in China. The Yuan exercised a profound influence on the Chinese Ming dynasty. The Ming Emperor Zhu Yuanzhang (1368–97) admired the Mongols' unification of China and adopted its garrison system. Aside from the ancient Roman embassies , the first recorded travels by Europeans to China and back date from this time. The most famous traveler of

19965-464: The proto-Mongolic Kumo Xi . The Wuhuan are of the direct Donghu royal line and the New Book of Tang says that in 209 BCE, Modu Chanyu defeated the Wuhuan instead of using the word Donghu. The Xianbei, however, were of the lateral Donghu line and had a somewhat separate identity, although they shared the same language with the Wuhuan. In 49 CE the Xianbei ruler Bianhe (Bayan Khan?) raided and defeated

20130-406: The province of Yunnan . Succession for the Yuan dynasty, however, was an intractable problem, later causing much strife and internal struggle. This emerged as early as the end of Kublai's reign. Kublai originally named his eldest son, Zhenjin , as the crown prince, but he died before Kublai in 1285. Thus, Zhenjin's third son, with the support of his mother Kökejin and the minister Bayan , succeeded

20295-504: The realm with its main capital in Dadu (modern-day Beijing ). However, the Han -style dynastic name "Great Yuan" and the claim to Chinese political orthodoxy were meant for the entire Mongol Empire when the dynasty was proclaimed. This usage is seen in the writings, including non-Chinese texts, produced during the time of the Yuan dynasty. In spite of this, "Yuan dynasty" is not commonly used in

20460-509: The reign of Dayan Khan (1479–1543) as one of the six tumens of the Eastern Mongolic peoples. They quickly became the dominant Mongolic clan in Mongolia proper. He reunited the Mongols again. In 1550, Altan Khan led a Khalkha Mongol raid on Beijing. The Mongols voluntarily reunified during Eastern Mongolian Tümen Zasagt Khan rule (1558–1592) for the last time (the Mongol Empire united all Mongols before this). Eastern Mongolia

20625-479: The reign of Kublai Khan (1260–1294). While some changes took place such as the functions of certain institutions, the essential components of the government bureaucracy remained intact from the beginning to the end of the dynasty in 1368. The system of bureaucracy created by Kublai Khan reflected various cultures in the empire, including that of the Hans , Khitans , Jurchens , Mongols , and Tibetan Buddhists . While

20790-419: The reign of Temür Khan. Külüg Khan (Emperor Wuzong) came to the throne after the death of Temür Khan. Unlike his predecessor, he did not continue Kublai's work, largely rejecting his objectives. Most significantly he introduced a policy called "New Deals", focused on monetary reforms. During his short reign (1307–11), the government fell into financial difficulties, partly due to bad decisions made by Külüg. By

20955-579: The reign of the Yongle Emperor , the capital was renamed Beijing and the prefecture as Shuntian. Shuntian prefecture went through many changes during the Qing dynasty , and it was only in 1743 during the reign of the Qianlong Emperor that its borders and administrative divisions were settled. Then, Shuntian prefecture was divided into four sub-divisions (路廳, luting ) and twenty four sub-prefectures (州, zhou ) counties (縣, xian ). It

21120-677: The resulting famines, and the government's lack of effective policy led to a loss of popular support. In 1351, the Red Turban Rebellion led by Song loyalists started and grew into a nationwide uprising and the Song loyalists established a renewed Song dynasty in 1351 with its capital at Kaifeng. In 1354, when Toghtogha led a large army to crush the Red Turban rebels, Toghon Temür suddenly dismissed him for fear of betrayal. This resulted in Toghon Temür's restoration of power on

21285-728: The rise of the First Turkic Khaganate in 555, the Uyghur Khaganate in 745 and the Yenisei Kirghiz states in 840. The Tuoba were eventually absorbed into China. The Rouran fled west from the Göktürks and either disappeared into obscurity or, as some say, invaded Europe as the Avars under their Khan, Bayan I . Some Rouran under Tatar Khan migrated east, founding the Tatar confederation , who became part of

21450-624: The rule of Genghis Khan . There are several proposals for the ethnonym Mongol's etymology: In various times Mongolic peoples have been equated with the Scythians , the Magog , and the Tungusic peoples . Based on Chinese historical texts the ancestry of the Mongolic peoples can be traced back to the Donghu , a nomadic confederation occupying eastern Mongolia and Manchuria . The Donghu neighboured

21615-399: The rule of Galdan Boshugtu Khaan until 1696. The Mongol-Oirat's Code (a treaty of alliance) against foreign invasion between the Oirats and Khalkhas was signed in 1640, however, the Mongols could not unite against foreign invasions. Chakhundorj fought against Russian invasion of Outer Mongolia until 1688 and stopped Russian invasion of Khövsgöl Province . Zanabazar struggled to bring together

21780-427: The same year, the 13-year-old Toghon Temür (Emperor Huizong), the last of the nine successors of Kublai Khan, was summoned back from Guangxi and succeeded to the throne. After El Temür's death, Bayan became as powerful an official as El Temür had been in the beginning of his long reign. As Toghon Temür grew, he came to disapprove of Bayan's autocratic rule. In 1340 he allied himself with Bayan's nephew Toqto'a , who

21945-603: The sides of Lake Baikal were separated from Mongolia. In 1689 the Treaty of Nerchinsk established the northern border of Manchuria north of the present line. The Russians retained Trans-Baikalia between Lake Baikal and the Argun River north of Mongolia. The Treaty of Kyakhta (1727) , along with the Treaty of Nerchinsk, regulated the relations between Russian and Qing empires until the mid-nineteenth century, and established

22110-556: The son of Xiaozhaci ( 蕭札刺之子重喜 ) commanded the three Khitan Tumens and the four Han Generals Zhang Rou, Yan Shi, Shi Tianze, and Liu Heima commanded the four Han tumens under Ögedei Khan. Möngke Khan commenced a military campaign against the Chinese Song dynasty in southern China. The Mongol force that invaded southern China was far greater than the force they sent to invade the Middle East in 1256. He died in 1259 without

22275-768: The south. Zhu Yuanzhang was a former Duke and commander in the army of the Red Turban Song dynasty and assumed power as Emperor after the death of the Red Turban Song Emperor Han Lin'er , who had tried to regain Khanbaliq, which eventually failed, and who died in Yingchang (located in present-day Inner Mongolia ) two years later (1370). Yingchang was seized by the Ming shortly after his death. Some royal family members still live in Henan today. The Prince of Liang , Basalawarmi established

22440-449: The spread of technologies, commodities, and culture between China and the West. Kublai expanded the Grand Canal from southern China to Daidu in the north. Mongol rule was cosmopolitan under Kublai Khan. He welcomed foreign visitors to his court, such as the Venetian merchant Marco Polo , who wrote the most influential European account of Yuan China. Marco Polo's travels would later inspire many others like Christopher Columbus to chart

22605-553: The strands lower on both sides they plait to hang down on the shoulders. With the breakup of the empire, the dispersed Mongolic peoples quickly adopted the mostly Turkic cultures surrounding them and were assimilated, forming parts of Afghanistan's Hazaras , Azerbaijanis , Uzbeks , Karakalpaks , Tatars , Bashkirs , Turkmens , Uyghurs , Nogays , Kyrgyzs , Kazakhs , Caucasus peoples , Iranian peoples and Moghuls ; linguistic and cultural Persianization also began to be prominent in these territories. Some Mongols assimilated into

22770-415: The style of a traditional Chinese dynasty. The name of the dynasty is first attested in the I Ching and describes the "origin of the universe" or a "primal force". Kublai proclaimed Khanbaliq the Daidu ( 大都 ; Dàdū ; 'Great Capital') of the dynasty. The era name was changed to Zhiyuan to herald a new era of Chinese history. The adoption of a dynastic name legitimized Mongol rule by integrating

22935-488: The support of Yesün Temür's favorite retainer Dawlat Shah. Gaining support from princes and officers in Northern China and some other parts of the dynasty, Khanbaliq-based Tugh Temür eventually won the civil war against Ragibagh known as the War of the Two Capitals . Afterwards, Tugh Temür abdi­cated in favour of his brother Kusala , who was backed by Chagatai Khan Eljigidey , and announced Khanbaliq's intent to welcome him. However, Kusala suddenly died only four days after

23100-490: The theory of the Five Elements (wuxing). The Metal element does not follow from the Song's dynastic element Five in the creation sequence of the five elements. Instead, it follows from the Jin dynasty 's dynastic element Earth. Although the Yuan did not openly announce it, its choice of white as its imperial color suggests that it considered Jin, another conquest dynasty, rather than the Han-Chinese Song dynasty, as its rightful predecessor. The dragon clothing of Imperial China

23265-402: The throne and ruled as Temür Khan , or Emperor Chengzong, from 1294 to 1307. Temür Khan decided to maintain and continue much of the work begun by his grandfather. He also made peace with the western Mongol khanates as well as neighboring countries such as Vietnam, which recognized his nominal suzerainty and paid tributes for a few decades. However, the corruption in the Yuan dynasty began during

23430-408: The throne, and, after an unsuccessful attempt to calm the princes, he also succumbed to regicide . Before Yesün Temür's reign, China had been relatively free from popular rebellions after the reign of Kublai. Yuan control, however, began to break down in those regions inhabited by ethnic minorities. The occurrence of these revolts and the subsequent suppression aggravated the financial difficulties of

23595-433: The time he died, China was in severe debt and the Yuan court faced popular discontent. The fourth Yuan emperor, Buyantu Khan (born Ayurbarwada), was a competent emperor. He was the first Yuan emperor to actively support and adopt mainstream Chinese culture after the reign of Kublai, to the discontent of some Mongol elite. He had been mentored by Li Meng ( 李孟 ), a Confucian academic. He made many reforms, including

23760-435: The total population; common citizens, monks, Pan-Mongolists, nationalists, patriots, hundreds of military officers, nobles, intellectuals and elite people) were shot dead under Soviet orders. Some authors also offer much higher estimates, up to 100,000 victims. Around the late 1930s the Mongolian People's Republic had an overall population of about 700,000 to 900,000 people. By 1939, Soviet said "We repressed too many people,

23925-481: The transmission of Confucian high culture to the Mongolian imperial establishment" ( 儒教推崇 ). The academy was responsible for compiling and publishing a number of books, but its most important achievement was its compilation of a vast institutional compendium named Jingshi Dadian ( 經世大典 ). Tugh Temür supported Zhu Xi 's Neo-Confucianism and also devoted himself in Buddhism . After the death of Tugh Temür in 1332 and subsequent death of Rinchinbal (Emperor Ningzong)

24090-476: The war. Few Khalkhas fled to the Buryat region and Russia threatened to exterminate them if they did not submit, but many of them submitted to Galdan Boshugtu. In 1683 Galdan 's armies reached Tashkent and the Syr Darya and crushed two armies of the Kazakhs . After that Galdan subjugated the Black Khirgizs and ravaged the Fergana Valley . From 1685 Galdan's forces aggressively pushed the Kazakhs. While his general Rabtan took Taraz , and his main force forced

24255-420: Was "arguably the eighteenth century genocide par excellence." The Dzungar population reached 600,000 in 1755. About 200,000–250,000 Oirats migrated from western Mongolia to Volga River in 1607 and established the Kalmyk Khanate .The Torghuts were led by their Tayishi, Kho Orluk . Russia was concerned about their attack but the Kalmyks became a Russian ally and a treaty to protect the southern Russian border

24420-400: Was Galdan's ally. Tsetsen Khan (Eastern Khalkha leader) did not engage in this conflict. While Galdan was fighting in Eastern Mongolia, his nephew Tseveenravdan seized the Dzungarian throne in 1689 and this event made Galdan impossible to fight against the Qing Empire. The Russian and Qing Empires supported his action because this coup weakened Western Mongolian strength. Galdan Boshugtu's army

24585-442: Was a Mongol -led imperial dynasty of China and a successor state to the Mongol Empire after its division . It was established by Kublai (Emperor Shizu or Setsen Khan), the fifth khagan-emperor of the Mongol Empire from the Borjigin clan, and lasted from 1271 to 1368. In Chinese history , the Yuan dynasty followed the Song dynasty and preceded the Ming dynasty . Although Genghis Khan 's enthronement as Khagan in 1206

24750-584: Was a part of a Pan-Mongolian plan and few Oirats and Inner Mongols ( Huuchids , Bargas, Tümeds , about 800 Uzemchins ) arrived . Inner Mongolian leaders carried out active policy to merge Inner Mongolia with Mongolia since 1911. They founded the Inner Mongolian Army in 1929 but the Inner Mongolian Army disbanded after ending World War II. The Japanese Empire supported Pan-Mongolism since the 1910s but there have never been active relations between Mongolia and Imperial Japan due to Russian resistance. The nominally independent Inner Mongolian Mengjiang state (1936–1945)

24915-513: Was also placed under an imperial magistrate (府尹, fuyin ). In 1910 with the demise of the Qing dynasty , Shuntian prefecture was slowly abolished on 4 October 1914 which became Capital Area (京兆地方; Jīngzhào Dìfāng) later became Beiping Special City on 20 June 1928. The remains of the Shuntian yamen can be found in today's Dongcheng District in Beijing at Donggong street (東公街). During the Ming era, Shuntian had 5 sub-prefectures (州) and 22 counties (縣). In 1490, Shuntian had 100,518 households and

25080-583: Was appointed joint guardian of the ritual torch along with Chu viscount Xiong Yi . These early Xianbei came from the nearby Zhukaigou culture (2200–1500 BCE) in the Ordos Desert , where maternal DNA corresponds to the Mongol Daur people and the Tungusic Evenks . The Zhukaigou Xianbei (part of the Ordos culture of Inner Mongolia and northern Shaanxi ) had trade relations with the Shang. Liu Song dynasty commentator Pei Yin (裴駰), in his Jixie (集解), quoted Eastern Han dynasty scholar Fu Qian (服虔)'s assertion that Shanrong (山戎) and Beidi (北狄) are ancestors of

25245-419: Was created in China. At various times another central government institution called the Department of State Affairs ( 尚書省 ; Shangshu Sheng ) that mainly dealt with finance was established (such as during the reign of Külüg Khan or Emperor Wuzong), but was usually abandoned shortly afterwards. While the existence of these central government departments and the Six Ministries (which had been introduced since

25410-409: Was defeated by the outnumbering Qing army in 1696 and he died in 1697. The Mongols who fled to the Buryat region and Inner Mongolia returned after the war. Some Khalkhas mixed with the Buryats. The Buryats fought against Russian invasion since the 1620s and thousands of Buryats were massacred. The Buryat region was formally annexed to Russia by treaties in 1689 and 1727, when the territories on both

25575-426: Was described in Chinese as the Han -style title of Emperor and the Mongol Empire had ruled territories including modern-day northern China for decades, it was not until 1271 that Kublai Khan officially proclaimed the dynasty in the traditional Han style, and the conquest was not complete until 1279 when the Southern Song dynasty was defeated in the Battle of Yamen . His realm was, by this point, isolated from

25740-400: Was disseminated in 1281 as the official calendar of the Yuan dynasty. The calendar may have been influenced solely by the work of Song dynasty astronomer Shen Kuo or possibly by the work of Arab astronomers. There are no explicit signs of Muslim influences in the Shoushi calendar, but Mongol rulers were known to be interested in Muslim calendars. Mathematical knowledge from the Middle East

25905-433: Was divided into three parts in the 17th century: Outer Mongolia (Khalkha), Inner Mongolia (Inner Mongols) and the Buryat region in southern Siberia . The last Mongol khagan was Ligdan in the early 17th century. He got into conflicts with the Manchus over the looting of Chinese cities, and managed to alienate most Mongol tribes. In 1618, Ligdan signed a treaty with the Ming dynasty to protect their northern border from

26070-513: Was established with support of Japan in 1936; also, some Buryat and Inner Mongol nobles founded a Pan-Mongolist government with the support of Japan in 1919. The Inner Mongols established the short-lived Republic of Inner Mongolia in 1945. Another part of Choibalsan's plan was to merge Inner Mongolia and Dzungaria with Mongolia. By 1945, Chinese communist leader Mao Zedong requested the Soviets to stop Pan-Mongolism because China lost its control over Inner Mongolia and without Inner Mongolian support

26235-475: Was in discord with Bayan, and banished Bayan by coup. With the dismissal of Bayan, Toqto'a seized the power of the court. His first administration clearly exhibited fresh new spirit. He also gave a few early signs of a new and positive direction in central government. One of his successful projects was to finish the long-stalled official histories of the Liao , Jin , and Song dynasties, which were eventually completed in 1345. Yet, Toqto'a resigned his office with

26400-471: Was introduced to China under the Mongols, and Muslim astronomers brought Arabic numerals to China in the 13th century. The physicians of the Yuan court came from diverse cultures. Healers were divided into non-Mongol physicians called otachi and traditional Mongol shamans. The Mongols characterized otachi doctors by their use of herbal remedies, which was distinguished from the spiritual cures of Mongol shamanism. Physicians received official support from

26565-456: Was signed between the Kalmyk Khanate and Russia. In 1724 the Kalmyks came under control of Russia. By the early 18th century, there were approximately 300,000–350,000 Kalmyks and 15,000,000 Russians. The Tsardom of Russia gradually chipped away at the autonomy of the Kalmyk Khanate. These policies, for instance, encouraged the establishment of Russian and German settlements on pastures the Kalmyks used to roam and feed their livestock. In addition,

26730-560: Was to find allies to defeat the Soviet Union . The Statement of Reunification of Mongolia was adopted by Mongolian revolutionaries in 1921. The Soviet, however, considered Mongolia to be Chinese territory in 1924 during a secret meeting with the Republic of China. However, the Soviets officially recognized Mongolian independence in 1945 but carried out various policies (political, economic and cultural) against Mongolia until its fall in 1991 to prevent Pan-Mongolism and other irredentist movements . On 10 April 1932, Mongolians revolted against

26895-410: Was two to three ranks higher than magistrates of other prefectures. In fact, some of the Shuntian magistrates were shilang (侍郎) rank imperial ministers. While the yamen of third-rank Qing officials used copper seals, the yamen of Shuntian prefecture used silver seals. Even though the sub-prefectures and counties of Shuntian formally belonged to the Zhili viceroyalty, the Shuntian magistrate did not have

27060-537: Was undertaken against Japan in 1274. The Duan family ruling the Kingdom of Dali (大理) in Yunnan submitted to the Yuan dynasty as vassals and were allowed to keep their throne, militarily assisting the Yuan dynasty against the Song dynasty in southern China. The Duan family still ruled Dali relatively independently during the Yuan dynasty. The Tusi chieftains and local tribe leaders and kingdoms in Yunnan, Guizhou and Sichuan submitted to Yuan rule and were allowed to keep their titles. The Han Chinese Yang family ruling

27225-412: Was used by the Ilkhanids , the Chinese Huangdi ( Emperor ) title was used by the Ilkhanids due to heavy clout upon the Mongols of the Chinese system of politics. Seals with Chinese characters were created by the Ilkhanids themselves besides the seals they received from the Yuan dynasty which contain references to a Chinese government organization. The structure of the Yuan government took shape during

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