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109-398: According to International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), Sinharaja is the country's last viable area of primary tropical rainforest . Over 60% of the trees are endemic, many of them considered rare. 50% of Sri Lankan's endemics species of animals (especially butterfly, amphibians, birds, snakes and fish species). It is home to 95% endemic birds. The hilly virgin rainforest, part of

218-653: A British invasion in 1803 but successfully retaliated. The First Kandyan War ended in a stalemate. By then the entire coastal area was under the British East India Company as a result of the Treaty of Amiens . On 14 February 1815, Kandy was occupied by the British in the Second Kandyan War , ending Sri Lanka's independence. Sri Vikrama Rajasinha, the last native monarch of Sri Lanka,

327-545: A Pāḷi chronicle written in the 5th century CE, the original inhabitants of Sri Lanka are said to be the Yakshas and Nagas . Sinhalese history traditionally starts in 543 BCE with the arrival of Prince Vijaya , a semi-legendary prince who sailed with 700 followers to Sri Lanka, after being expelled from Vanga kingdom (present-day Bengal ). He established the Kingdom of Tambapanni , near modern-day Mannar . Vijaya (Singha)

436-796: A bhikkhu and the son of the Mauryan Emperor Ashoka arrived in Mihintale carrying the message of Buddhism. His mission won over the monarch, who embraced the faith and propagated it throughout the Sinhalese population . Succeeding kingdoms of Sri Lanka would maintain many Buddhist schools and monasteries and support the propagation of Buddhism into other countries in Southeast Asia. Sri Lankan Bhikkhus studied in India's famous ancient Buddhist University of Nalanda , which

545-430: A severe economic crisis occurred caused by rapidly increasing foreign debt, massive government budget deficits due to tax cuts, falling foreign remittances, a food crisis caused by mandatory organic farming along with a ban on chemical fertilizers, and a multitude of other factors. The Sri Lankan Government officially declared the ongoing crisis to be the worst economic crisis in the country in 73 years. In August 2021,

654-417: A 24,000 strong army. Unlike previous invaders, he looted , ransacked and destroyed everything in the ancient Anuradhapura and Polonnaruwa Kingdoms beyond recovery. His priorities in ruling were to extract as much as possible from the land and overturn as many of the traditions of Rajarata as possible. His reign saw the massive migration of native Sinhalese people to the south and west of Sri Lanka, and into

763-458: A distance away from the tide mark, with the stabilization of the soil. In these areas plant species such as, Sand dunes are characterized by stunted or creping vegetation on large masses of sand. The sand dune structure is determined by wind speed and direction. Dunes are raised beaches of sand and are characteristic of certain coastal areas in the arid zone. Example: near Mullativu , Trincomalee, Kalpitiya , Yala etc. In 1882, 82% of Sri Lanka

872-468: A fledgling Tamil militancy in the north during the 1970s. The policy of standardisation by the Sirimavo government to rectify disparities created in university enrolment, which was in essence an affirmative action to assist geographically disadvantaged students to obtain tertiary education, resulted in reducing the proportion of Tamil students at university level and acted as the immediate catalyst for

981-516: A food emergency was declared. In June 2022, Prime Minister Ranil Wickremesinghe declared the collapse of the Sri Lankan economy in parliament. The crisis resulted in Sri Lanka defaulting on its $ 51 billion sovereign debt for the first time in its history, along with double-digit inflation, a crippling energy crisis that led to approximately 15 hour power cuts, severe fuel shortages leading to

1090-506: A local brew and vinegar. Local people walk in the forest to collect the above items when they are not busy with their other agricultural pursuits. In addition, the crystal-clear water coming from dozens of streams is the main water source for all people living around the reserve. For generations, local people trekked through the forest from south to north to make their annual pilgrimage to the Adams Peak. In 2013, UNESCO requested to halt

1199-527: A number of organisations, the Sri Lankan government announced in 2011 a plan to rename all those over which it has authority. The pre-history of Sri Lanka goes back 125,000 years and possibly even as far back as 500,000 years. The era spans the Palaeolithic , Mesolithic , and early Iron Ages . Among the Paleolithic human settlements discovered in Sri Lanka, Pahiyangala (37,000 BP), named after

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1308-426: A result of the depression of 1847 stalled economic development and prompted the governor to introduce a series of taxes on firearms, dogs, shops, boats, etc., and to reintroduce a form of rajakariya , requiring six days free labour on roads or payment of a cash equivalent. These harsh measures antagonised the locals, and another rebellion broke out in 1848. A devastating leaf disease, Hemileia vastatrix , struck

1417-541: A short canopy of about 13 m, with a dense shrub layer. There are trees with umbrella-shaped rounded crowns and twisted branches having leathery small leaves to accommodate the strong winds that prevail in the montane zone . High density of epiphytes cover the branches and stems of trees. Some plants found in these forests are; Some animals that inhabit montane rainforests of Sri Lanka are yellow-eared bulbul , Sri Lanka highland shrew ( Suncus montanus) , sambar ( Rusa unicolor unicolor) . Montane forests are distributed in

1526-517: A small part of the northern Gin Ganga . Most of the forest (60%) is contained within the borders of Rathnapura District . The other parts include Galle District with 20% and Kaluthara District with 20%. The rainforest likely formed during the Jurassic period (from 200 million years to 145 million years ago). This forest encompasses an area of 36,000 hectares (88,960 acres/360 km). The reserve

1635-818: A sub canopy and a well-developed shrub/herb layer. Some plant species naturally found in these forests are Some of the canopy trees are deciduous during the dry spell of the year. These forests harbour the largest elephant populations in Asia. The mammal fauna includes Panthera pardus kotiya , Melursus ursinus , Axis axis ceylonensis . Most of the forest are protected ad National parks such as Yala National Park , Wilpattu National Park , Wasgamuwa National Park , Maduru-Oya national park , Ritigal Strict Nature reserve and many sanctuaries and forest reserves. These forests are disturbed by 'chena' cultivation, human settlements, extraction of timber, poaching etc. These are called "scrubs" than "forests" as large trees are sparse and

1744-885: A thick grass cover and few scattered trees. These are common on hill slopes of the dry or intermediate zone. The thin layer of soil on hill slopes can not support the growth of trees and the grass cover of savannas helps to bind soil particles and reduce erosion of soil. Periodic fires are common to this ecosystem as the dried grass cover easily catches fire in dry period of the year. They have trees with fire-resistant species. Savannas are seen in Bibile , Monaragala , Mahiyanganaya , Wellawaya and Horton Plains areas. These are distributed by periodic fires set by villagers for various reasons. Some plant species found in Savanna are trees are; There are two type of 'patana' found in Sri Lanka; 'wet patana grassland' and 'dry patana grassland' based on

1853-564: Is Pidurutalagala , reaching 2,524 metres (8,281 ft) above sea level. Sri Lanka has 103 rivers. The longest of these is the Mahaweli River , extending 335 kilometres (208 mi). These waterways give rise to 51 natural waterfalls of 10 metres (33 ft) or more. The highest is Bambarakanda Falls , with a height of 263 metres (863 ft). Sri Lanka's coastline is 1,585 km (985 mi) long. Sri Lanka claims an exclusive economic zone extending 200 nautical miles , which

1962-666: Is a place where forest vegetation is inundated for a short period of time in the year as seen in Waturana swamp at Bulathsinhala located in the ' Kalu Ganga ' river basin. Generally 'villus' are the flood plains of the reservoirs. 'Villu' grasslands possess a special link with the wildlife in the area, especially elephants and bird population. The vegetation is dominant with grasses (members of Poaceae )and sedge (member of Cyperaceae ). 'Villu' grasslands are located in areas such as Mahawelli flood plains, Wilpattu National Park. Lagoons are coastal wetlands generally separated from

2071-486: Is about 70% tropical dry monsoon forests, 15% tropical moist monsoon forests and 5% tropical lower montane forests . By the dawn of the 19th century, Sri Lanka's forest cover was estimated at up to 70% of the total land area. Since then, the forest cover has decreased progressively over time. Based on a global yardstick of concentrations of exceptional terrestrial biodiversity under threat, Sri Lanka and Western Ghats of southwestern India have been grouped together as one of

2180-468: Is also exposed to intense sunlight. Mangrove plants could be categorized into groups; true mangroves that occur towards the boundary between sea and land and mangrove associated that occur more towards inland common true mangrove species are; Common mangrove associate are; To protect from sunlight leaves of the mangrove have a thick cuticle to reflect sunrays and/ or cut off excess radiation. Some have salt glands to secrete excess salts that are absorbed by

2289-438: Is approximately 6.7 times Sri Lanka's land area. The coastline and adjacent waters support highly productive marine ecosystems such as fringing coral reefs and shallow beds of coastal and estuarine seagrasses . Sri Lanka has 45 estuaries and 40 lagoons . Sri Lanka's mangrove ecosystem spans over 7,000 hectares and played a vital role in buffering the force of the waves in the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami . The island

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2398-433: Is considered the oldest human-planted tree (with a continuous historical record) in the world. ( Bodhivaṃsa ) Sri Lanka experienced the first of many foreign invasions during the reign of Suratissa , who was defeated by two horse traders named Sena and Guttika from South India. The next invasion came immediately in 205 BCE by a Chola named Elara , who overthrew Asela and ruled the country for 44 years. Dutugamunu ,

2507-591: Is made up of grasses that grow up to 1–2 m height such as Cymbopogon nardus and Themeda tremula. 'Dry patana' is common on hill tops in Hanthana , Gampola , Welimada and Haputale . Wetlands are simply habitats with permanent or temporary accumulation of water with associated plant and animals. According to the Ramsar Convention , wetlands are defined as areas of marsh, fen, peatland or water, whether natural or salt, including areas of marine water

2616-547: Is memorable for two major campaigns – in the south of India as part of a Pandyan war of succession, and a punitive strike against the kings of Ramanna ( Burma ) for various perceived insults to Sri Lanka. After his demise, Sri Lanka gradually decayed in power. In 1215, Kalinga Magha , an invader with uncertain origins, identified as the founder of the Jaffna kingdom, invaded and captured the Kingdom of Polonnaruwa . He sailed from Kalinga 690 nautical miles on 100 large ships with

2725-510: Is now known in Sinhala as Śrī Laṅkā ( Sinhala : ශ්‍රී ලංකා ) and in Tamil as Ilaṅkai ( Tamil : இலங்கை , IPA: [iˈlaŋɡaɪ] ). In 1972, its formal name was changed to "Free, Sovereign and Independent Republic of Sri Lanka". Later, on 7 September 1978, it was changed to the "Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka". As the name Ceylon still appears in the names of

2834-461: Is only 21 km (13 mi) from east to west, and a maximum of 7 km (4.3 mi) from north to south, but it is a treasure trove of endemic species , including trees, insects, amphibians , reptiles, birds, and mammals. Sinharaja forest vegetation density has been estimated at 240,000 plants per hectare, the most dense rain forest in Asia. The reserve is well-integrated with the local population who live in some dozens of villages dotted along

2943-701: Is the first of the approximately 189 monarchs of Sri Lanka described in chronicles such as the Dīpavaṃsa , Mahāvaṃsa , Cūḷavaṃsa , and Rājāvaliya . Once Prakrit speakers had attained dominance on the island, the Mahāvaṃsa further recounts the later migration of royal brides and service castes from the Tamil Pandya kingdom to the Anuradhapura kingdom in the early historic period. The Anuradhapura period (377 BCE – 1017 CE) began with

3052-551: The Central Highlands including Knuckles range , Pidurutalagala , Hakgala . Montane forests were greatly affected due to tea cultivation . These forests have a mean annual temperature of about 29 °C and rainfall around 1,000 mm- 1,500 mm most of which falls during the northeast monsoon periods. There is a marked dry spell from May to August. Above forests are distributed in areas below 300 m altitude. These forests are characterized by having sparse canopy,

3161-729: The Ceylon Civil Service and the legal, educational, engineering, and medical professions with natives. New leaders represented the various ethnic groups of the population in the Ceylon Legislative Council on a communal basis. Buddhist and Hindu revivalism reacted against Christian missionary activities. The first two decades in the 20th century are noted by the unique harmony among Sinhalese and Tamil political leadership, which has since been lost. The 1906 malaria outbreak in Ceylon actually started in

3270-487: The Chinese traveller monk Faxian ; Batadombalena (28,500 BP); and Belilena (12,000 BP) are the most important. In these caves, archaeologists have found the remains of anatomically modern humans which they have named Balangoda Man , and other evidence suggesting that they may have engaged in agriculture and kept domestic dogs for driving game. The earliest inhabitants of Sri Lanka were probably ancestors of

3379-564: The Chrysopogon nodulibarbis and Arundinella villosa. The animals include a large Sri Lankan sambar and wild boar population and few Sri Lankan leopards ( Panthera pardus kotiya). Extensive 'wet patana' are found only in Horton plains. 'Dry patana' are found in altitudes between 500 m to 1,600 m. They receive a rainfall about 1,400 to 2,000 mm with a definite dry period. Temperature ranges from 18 °C to 24 °C. The vegetation

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3488-748: The Indian Ocean , southwest of the Bay of Bengal , separated from the Indian peninsula by the Gulf of Mannar and the Palk Strait . It shares a maritime border with the Maldives in the southwest and India in the northwest. Sri Lanka has a population of approximately 22 million and is home to several cultures, languages and ethnicities. The Sinhalese people form the majority of the population, followed by

3597-617: The Indian Plate , a major tectonic plate that was formerly part of the Indo-Australian Plate . It is in the Indian Ocean southwest of the Bay of Bengal , between latitudes 5° and 10° N , and longitudes 79° and 82° E . Sri Lanka is separated from the mainland portion of the Indian subcontinent by the Gulf of Mannar and Palk Strait . According to Hindu mythology , a land bridge existed between

3706-630: The Pali Canon , date to the fourth Buddhist council , which took place in 29 BCE. Also called the Pearl of the Indian Ocean , or the Granary of the East , Sri Lanka's geographic location and deep harbours have made it of great strategic importance, from the earliest days of the ancient Silk Road trade route to today's so-called maritime Silk Road . Because its location made it a major trading hub, it

3815-744: The Portuguese , the independent existence of the Jaffna kingdom came to an end. During the reign of the Rajasinha II , Dutch explorers arrived on the island. In 1638, the king signed a treaty with the Dutch East India Company to get rid of the Portuguese who ruled most of the coastal areas. The following Dutch–Portuguese War resulted in a Dutch victory, with Colombo falling into Dutch hands by 1656. The Dutch remained in

3924-701: The SAARC , the G77 and the Non-Aligned Movement , as well as a member of the United Nations and the Commonwealth of Nations . In antiquity, Sri Lanka was known to travellers by a variety of names. According to the Mahāvaṃsa , the legendary Prince Vijaya named the island Tambapaṇṇĩ (" copper-red hands" or "copper-red earth"), because his followers' hands were reddened by the red soil of

4033-585: The Sinhalese —to Kandy and built the Temple of the Tooth . In spite of on-going intermittent warfare with Europeans, the kingdom survived. Later, a crisis of succession emerged in Kandy upon king Vira Narendra Sinha 's death in 1739. He was married to a Telugu -speaking Nayakkar princess from South India ( Madurai ) and was childless by her. Eventually, with the support of bhikkhu Weliwita Sarankara and ignoring

4142-679: The Sri Lanka Armed Forces defeated the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam . Sri Lanka is a developing country , ranking 78th on the Human Development Index . It is the highest-ranked South Asian nation in terms of development and has the second-highest per capita income in South Asia. The country has had a long history of engagement with modern international groups; it is a founding member of

4251-520: The Sri Lanka lowland rain forests ecoregion , was saved from the worst of commercial logging by its inaccessibility, and was designated a World Biosphere Reserve in 1978 and a World Heritage Site in 1988. Because of the dense vegetation, wildlife is not as easily seen as at dry-zone national parks such as Yala . The most common larger mammal is the endemic purple-faced langur . | image= Birds tend to move in mixed feeding flocks , invariably led by

4360-611: The Sri Lankan Tamils , who are the largest minority group and are concentrated in northern Sri Lanka; both groups have played an influential role in the island's history. Other long-established groups include the Moors , Indian Tamils , Burghers , Malays , Chinese , and Vedda . Sri Lanka's documented history goes back 3,000 years, with evidence of prehistoric human settlements dating back 125,000 years. The earliest known Buddhist writings of Sri Lanka , known collectively as

4469-457: The Vedda people , an indigenous people numbering approximately 2,500 living in modern-day Sri Lanka. During the protohistoric period (1000–500 BCE) Sri Lanka was culturally united with southern India, and shared the same megalithic burials, pottery , iron technology, farming techniques and megalithic graffiti . This cultural complex spread from southern India along with Dravidian clans such as

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4578-562: The Velir , prior to the migration of Prakrit speakers. One of the first written references to the island is found in the Indian epic Ramayana , which provides details of a kingdom named Lanka that was created by the divine sculptor Vishvakarma for Kubera , the God of Wealth. It is said that Kubera was overthrown by his rakshasa stepbrother, Ravana . According to the Mahāvaṃsa ,

4687-450: The 34 global hotspots of biodiversity, implying that biologically they are among the richest and at the same time the most endangered terrestrial biogeographic region in earth. Sri Lanka is in the north-equatorial tropical zone. Therefore it experiences a climate with high rainfall and temperature which permits the county to be broadly classified into groups as follows. The tropical wet lowland rainforests are found below 900 m elevation in

4796-459: The Congress lost momentum towards the mid-1920s. The Donoughmore reforms of 1931 repudiated the communal representation and introduced universal adult franchise (the franchise stood at 4% before the reforms). This step was strongly criticised by the Tamil political leadership, who realised that they would be reduced to a minority in the newly created State Council of Ceylon , which succeeded

4905-541: The IPKF in 1990. In October 1990, the LTTE expelled Sri Lankan Moors (Muslims by religion) from northern Sri Lanka. In 2002, the Sri Lankan government and LTTE signed a Norwegian-mediated ceasefire agreement. The 2004 Asian tsunami killed over 30,000 and displaced over 500,000 people in Sri Lanka. From 1985 to 2006, the Sri Lankan government and Tamil insurgents held four rounds of peace talks without success. Both LTTE and

5014-427: The Indian mainland and Sri Lanka. It now amounts to only a chain of limestone shoals remaining above sea level . Legends claim that it was passable on foot up to 1480 CE, until cyclones deepened the channel. Portions are still as shallow as 1 metre (3 ft), hindering navigation. The island consists mostly of flat to rolling coastal plains, with mountains rising only in the south-central part. The highest point

5123-571: The Kalpitiya peninsula. These offer the most varied reef access from snorkelling on shallow reefs to scuba diving on deeper reefs. Patchy coral reefs are also found on the western and eastern seaboards at a distance of about 15–20 km from the shore, at an average depth of 20m. Passekudah and Trincomalee have the best coral reefs on the Eastern Maritime Province seaboard. Hikkaduwa , Unawatuna , Rumassala and Matara have

5232-643: The Netherlands might deliver Sri Lanka to the French, the British Empire occupied the coastal areas of the island (which they called the colony of British Ceylon ) with little difficulty in 1796. Two years later, in 1798, Sri Rajadhi Rajasinha , third of the four Nayakkar kings of Sri Lanka, died of a fever. Following his death, a nephew of Rajadhi Rajasinha, eighteen-year-old Kannasamy, was crowned. The young king, now named Sri Vikrama Rajasinha , faced

5341-532: The Sinharaja. He was the unofficial guardian of the Sinharaja. He has been the protector and caretaker of it since the 1950s till his death in 2021. Forestry in Sri Lanka Sri Lanka exhibits a remarkable biological diversity and is considered to be the richest country in Asia in terms of species concentration. In 2019 a total area of 16.5% of Sri Lanka was forested. In 2010, it

5450-785: The Sri Lanka Forest Department, the President, the Ministry of Environment and the Central Environment authority to stop this but the Government of Sri Lanka has decided to go ahead with it to improve the livelihood of poor villagers of the area as it will clear only 0.006% of the total landmass of the forest. Mr. Martin Wijesinhe was one of the most significant people in Sri Lanka in connection to

5559-567: The area where he landed. In Hindu mythology , the term Lankā ("Island") appears but it is unknown whether it refers to the modern-day state. The Tamil term Eelam ( Tamil : ஈழம் , romanized:  īḻam ) was used to designate the whole island in Sangam literature . The island was known under Chola rule as Mummudi Cholamandalam ("realm of the three crowned Cholas"). Ancient Greek geographers called it Taprobanā ( Ancient Greek : Ταπροβανᾶ ) or Taprobanē ( Ταπροβανῆ ) from

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5668-472: The areas they had captured, thereby violating the treaty they had signed in 1638. The Burgher people , a distinct ethnic group, emerged as a result of intermingling between the Dutch and native Sri Lankans in this period. The Kingdom of Kandy was the last independent monarchy of Sri Lanka. In 1595, Vimaladharmasurya brought the sacred Tooth Relic —the traditional symbol of royal and religious authority amongst

5777-583: The arid coastal regions of the country where soil dries up to form crystals of salts during the dry season. Low rainfall, high wind, high temperatures and losses sand blowing with salt are some of the major characteristics found in this ecosystem. The vegetation has only few plant and animal species. Plant are short, contain fleshy succulent plant bodies one common plant species is Salicornia spp. salt marshes are common in Puttalam, Mannar, Hambantota and Vakarai areas. In large lagoon areas with low wave action,

5886-464: The arrival of Portuguese soldier and explorer Lourenço de Almeida , the son of Francisco de Almeida , in 1505. In 1517, the Portuguese built a fort at the port city of Colombo and gradually extended their control over the coastal areas. In 1592, after decades of intermittent warfare with the Portuguese, Vimaladharmasuriya I moved his kingdom to the inland city of Kandy , a location he thought more secure from attack. In 1619, succumbing to attacks by

5995-481: The bill posed a grave concern for the Tamil community, which perceived in it a threat to their language and culture. The Federal Party (FP) launched a movement of non-violent resistance ( satyagraha ) against the bill, which prompted Bandaranaike to reach an agreement ( Bandaranaike–Chelvanayakam Pact ) with S. J. V. Chelvanayakam , leader of the FP, to resolve the looming ethnic conflict. The pact proved ineffective in

6104-412: The border. The villages are more in number along the southern border whilst the presence of some large estates along the northern border has resulted in only a few villages there. The locals collect herbal medicine, edible fruits, nuts, mushrooms, other non-timber forest products including bees honey and a sugary sap collected from a local palm species of the genus Caryota. The sap is converted into jaggery,

6213-553: The canopy. The vegetation is filled with a network of woody lianas that reach to the canopy layer. A diverse population of epiphytic lichens, mosses, liverworts ferns, orchids are found while many fungi inhabit decaying woods and soil. High endemism of floral and faunal diversity can be seen in these forests. ( Sinharaja , Nakiyadeniya and Kanneliya are some examples for wet lowlands rainforest) These forests are disturbed due to expansion of tea cultivation, agriculture, industrial and residential development. Some tree species found in

6322-443: The coffee plantations in 1869, destroying the entire industry within fifteen years. The British quickly found a replacement: abandoning coffee, they began cultivating tea instead. Tea production in Sri Lanka thrived in the following decades. Large-scale rubber plantations began in the early 20th century. By the end of the 19th century, a new educated social class transcending race and caste arose through British attempts to staff

6431-518: The conquest led by king Parâkramabâhu VI 's adopted son, Prince Sapumal . He ruled the North from 1450 to 1467 CE. The next three centuries starting from 1215 were marked by kaleidoscopically shifting collections of capitals in south and central Sri Lanka, including Dambadeniya, Yapahuwa , Gampola , Raigama , Kotte , Sitawaka , and finally, Kandy . In 1247, the Malay kingdom of Tambralinga which

6540-477: The country based on the rule of law and amalgamated the Kandyan and maritime provinces as a single unit of government. An executive council and a legislative council were established, later becoming the foundation of a representative legislature. By this time, experiments with coffee plantations were largely successful. Soon, coffee became the primary commodity export of Sri Lanka. Falling coffee prices as

6649-399: The country for the first time in over a century. Upon his request, ordained monks were sent from Burma to Sri Lanka to re-establish Buddhism, which had almost disappeared from the country during the Chola reign. During the medieval period, Sri Lanka was divided into three sub-territories, namely, Ruhunu , Pihiti and Maya . Sri Lanka's irrigation system was extensively expanded during

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6758-485: The course of the 26 year long conflict. 2019 Sri Lanka Easter bombings carried out by the terrorist group National Thowheeth Jama'ath on 21 April 2019 resulted in the brutal death of 261 innocent people. On 26 April 2019 an anti terrorist operation was carried out against the National Thowheeth Jama'ath by the Sri Lanka Army with the operation being successful and National Thowheeth Jama'ath's insurgency ending. Economic troubles in Sri Lanka began in 2019, when

6867-543: The danger of not writing it down so that even if some of the monks whose duty it was to study and remember parts of the Canon for later generations died, the teachings would not be lost. After the council, palm-leaf manuscripts containing the completed Canon were taken to other countries such as Burma , Thailand , Cambodia and Laos . Sri Lanka was the first Asian country known to have a female ruler: Anula of Anuradhapura (r. 47–42 BCE). Sri Lankan monarchs undertook some remarkable construction projects such as Sigiriya ,

6976-572: The depth of which at low tide not exceed six metres. Inland freshwater marshlands are low-lying areas that receive water through surface runoff , ground water seepage or flood water from rivers. These contain peat (partially decomposed organic matter), and water-logged sticky clay soil. Many water birds, amphibians and fresh species inhabit these areas. Plants that have adapted to grow in shallow stagnant water such as Colocassi spp. , Aponogeton spp. , species are abundant in inland marshlands. Freshwater swamp forests are not common in Sri Lanka. It

7085-453: The early 1900s, but the first case was documented in 1906. In 1919, major Sinhalese and Tamil political organisations united to form the Ceylon National Congress, under the leadership of Ponnambalam Arunachalam , pressing colonial masters for more constitutional reforms. But without massive popular support, and with the governor's encouragement for "communal representation" by creating a "Colombo seat" that dangled between Sinhalese and Tamils,

7194-449: The eldest son of the southern regional sub-king, Kavan Tissa , defeated Elara in the Battle of Vijithapura . During its two and a half millennia of existence, the Sinhala kingdom was invaded at least eight times by neighbouring South Indian dynasties such as the Chola , Pandya , and Pallava . There also were incursions by the kingdoms of Kalinga (modern Odisha ) and from the Malay Peninsula as well. The Fourth Theravāda Council

7303-412: The endemic Sri Lankan birdwing butterfly and leeches . Surrounded in dense fog, the dark and mysterious Sinharaja forest is steeped in deep legend and mystery. The word Sinharaja means lion- (සිංහ/சிங்கம் sinha ) king or kingdom (රාජ/ராஜா raja ), and a popular folk legend has it that a legendary lion lived in this protected forest. Sinharaja Forest Reserve covers most of the Kalu Ganga basin and

7412-445: The establishment of the Anuradhapura kingdom in 380 BCE during the reign of Pandukabhaya . Thereafter, Anuradhapura served as the capital city of the country for nearly 1,400 years. Ancient Sri Lankans excelled at building certain types of structures such as tanks , dagobas and palaces. Society underwent a major transformation during the reign of Devanampiya Tissa , with the arrival of Buddhism from India. In 250 BCE, Mahinda ,

7521-486: The face of ongoing protests by opposition and the Buddhist clergy. The bill, together with various government colonisation schemes , contributed much towards the political rancour between Sinhalese and Tamil political leaders. Bandaranaike was assassinated by an extremist Buddhist monk in 1959. Sirimavo Bandaranaike , the widow of Bandaranaike, took office as prime minister in 1960, and withstood an attempted coup d'état in 1962. During her second term as prime minister,

7630-404: The fearless Sri Lanka drongo and the noisy orange-billed babbler . Of Sri Lanka's 26 endemic birds, the 20 rainforest species all occur here, including the elusive red-faced malkoha , green-billed coucal and Sri Lanka blue magpie . Reptiles include the endemic green pit viper and hump-nosed viper , and there are a large variety of amphibians, especially tree frogs . Invertebrates include

7739-415: The first South Asian country to liberalise its economy. Beginning in 1983 , ethnic tensions were manifested in an on-and-off insurgency against the government by the LTTE. An LTTE attack on 13 soldiers resulted in the start of a civil war, and in response anti-Tamil race riots took place, allegedly backed by Sinhalese hard-line ministers, which resulted in more than 150,000 Tamil civilians fleeing

7848-543: The first Sri Lankan president to resign in the middle of his term. On the same day the President's House was stormed, protesters besieged and stormed the private residence of the prime minister and burnt it down. After winning the 2022 Sri Lankan presidential election , on 21 July 2022, Ranil Wickremesinghe took oath as the ninth President of Sri Lanka. He implemented various economic reforms in efforts to stabilize Sri Lanka's economy, which has shown slight improvement since. On 23 September 2024, Anura Kumara Dissanayake

7957-505: The fisheries activities as these are the parking areas of fishing boats. Coral reefs are one of the natural wonders of Sri Lanka. Coastline of about 1,585 km, has nearshore coral reefs of varying quality along 2% of the liner coast. The most extensive coral reefs occur off the north west and east coast up to and around the Jaffna Peninsula . The greatest extent of true corals in Sri Lanka lie in patchy reefs from Vakalai to

8066-520: The floor of the shallow sea is occupied by sea grasses. These are not grass species but appear like grasses due to the shape of leaves. (eg. plant species such as Halodule spp. and Halophyla spp. are common sea grasses found in Sri Lanka) Especially from Kalpitiya to Mannar. Sea grasses grow in a compact cluster and provides the sea bed a favourable habitat for breeding of many fish species. However, these areas are often disturbed by

8175-528: The government instituted socialist economic policies, strengthening ties with the Soviet Union and China, while promoting a policy of non-alignment. In 1971, Ceylon experienced a Marxist insurrection , which was quickly suppressed. In 1972, the country became a republic named Sri Lanka, repudiating its dominion status. Prolonged minority grievances and the use of communal emotionalism as an election campaign weapon by both Sinhalese and Tamil leaders abetted

8284-551: The government resumed fighting in 2006, and the government officially backed out of the ceasefire in 2008. In 2009, under the Presidency of Mahinda Rajapaksa , the Sri Lanka Armed Forces defeated the LTTE, bringing an end to the 26 year long civil war on 19 May 2009, and re-established control of the entire country by the Sri Lankan Government. Overall, between 60,000 and 100,000 people were killed during

8393-597: The island and mainland, Sri Lanka fauna and flora , especially those in the south western quarter, show remarkably high diversity and extraordinary endemism. It is the only area of seasonal lowland climate between western Malaysia ( Sumathra , Malay Peninsula , Borneo and Philippines ) and eastern coastal Madagascar . According to the National Red List said, Sri Lanka counts 253 land species, 245 species of butterflies, 240 birds, 211 reptiles, 748 evaluated vertebrates and 1,492 invertebrates. Forest coverage

8502-766: The island, seeking asylum in other countries. Lapses in foreign policy resulted in India strengthening the Tigers by providing arms and training. In 1987, the Indo-Sri Lanka Accord was signed and the Indian Peace Keeping Force (IPKF) was deployed in northern Sri Lanka to stabilise the region by neutralising the LTTE. The same year, the JVP launched its second insurrection in Southern Sri Lanka, necessitating redeployment of

8611-558: The last century. Planted crops, such as sugar cane , banana, maize and paddy , in an unplanned manner, have led to ever-increasing human-elephant conflicts. Sri Lanka current forest cover 16.5% in 2019 down form 29.7% in 2017. Sri Lanka Sri Lanka , historically known as Ceylon , and officially the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka , is an island country in South Asia . It lies in

8720-827: The legislative council. In 1937, Tamil leader G. G. Ponnambalam demanded a 50–50 representation (50% for the Sinhalese and 50% for other ethnic groups) in the State Council. However, this demand was not met by the Soulbury reforms of 1944–45. The Soulbury constitution ushered in dominion status , with independence proclaimed on 4 February 1948. D. S. Senanayake became the first Prime Minister of Ceylon . Prominent Tamil leaders including Ponnambalam and Arunachalam Mahadeva joined his cabinet. The British Royal Navy remained stationed at Trincomalee until 1956. A countrywide popular demonstration against withdrawal of

8829-608: The local king Vira Alakesvara of Gampola . Zheng He captured King Vira Alakesvara and later released him. Zheng He erected the Galle Trilingual Inscription , a stone tablet at Galle written in three languages ( Chinese , Tamil , and Persian ), to commemorate his visit. The stele was discovered by S. H. Thomlin at Galle in 1911 and is now preserved in the Colombo National Museum . The early modern period of Sri Lanka begins with

8938-510: The low land dry zone. Typical irrigation tanks include Parakrama Samudra , Kala Wewa , Minneriya Wewa " and Tissa Wewa . The long sea shore of Sri Lanka varies in nature. The most common sea shore type is sandy seashores. The seashore areas share the characteristics of high temperature throughout, and slat spray and high winds especially during the monsoon seasons. Most of the sea shore plants have adapted to these conditions. Examples for these plants are, The vegetation gradually become stable

9047-539: The main fringing reefs along the southern coast. Little Basses and Great Basses off the south coast have the best barrier like reefs in Sri Lanka. Sri Lanka has an extensive network of rivers, which drains a total of 103 distinct natural river basins. The river basins originating in the wet highlands are perennial, while many of those in dry zone are seasonal. There is hardly any vegetation to be found in running water. There are no natural lakes in Sri Lanka, but there are numerous ancient irrigation tanks mainly scattered in

9156-426: The more than 20 m deep Palk Strait . There had been repeated land connections with India across this strait during successive glacial periods, the last being between 10,000 and 20,000 years ago when the sea level was about 120m below the present level creating a 140 km wide land bridge. Notwithstanding these intermittent land connections with India, when exchange of species undoubtedly would have taken place between

9265-414: The mountainous interior, in a bid to escape his power. Sri Lanka never really recovered from the effects of Kalinga Magha's invasion. King Vijayabâhu III, who led the resistance, brought the kingdom to Dambadeniya . The north, in the meanwhile, eventually evolved into the Jaffna kingdom . The Jaffna kingdom never came under the rule of any kingdom of the south except on one occasion; in 1450, following

9374-505: The plants. There are special roots to intake atmospheric oxygen. Seeds of some mangroves germinate while attached to the mother plant ("vivipary"). This helps the seed to establish successfully soon after falling from the tree. Mangroves provide a unique habitat mainly for many crustaceans and mollusks . Mangroves are found in Puttalam , Batticaloa , Trincomalee , Galle , Bentota and Negambo. Salt marshes are marshlands restricted to

9483-405: The rainfall pattern and soil of the site. 'Wet patana' grass lands are found in areas above 1,500 m from the sea level with mean annual rainfall of over 2,000 mm. Temperature range from 5 °C to 18 °C. Mist, fog and frost and frost are common in these areas and do not experience any dry period. The grasses do not reach more than 1 m height and are called ' tussock grasses ' which include

9592-558: The reign of Parākramabāhu the Great (1153–1186). This period is considered as a time when Sri Lanka was at the height of its power. He built 1,470 reservoirs – the highest number by any ruler in Sri Lanka's history – repaired 165 dams, 3,910 canals, 163 major reservoirs, and 2,376 mini-reservoirs. His most famous construction is the Parakrama Samudra , the largest irrigation project of medieval Sri Lanka. Parākramabāhu's reign

9701-437: The rice rations resulted in the resignation of prime minister Dudley Senanayake . S. W. R. D. Bandaranaike was elected prime minister in 1956. His three-year rule had a profound influence through his self-proclaimed role of "defender of the besieged Sinhalese culture". He introduced the controversial Sinhala Only Act , recognising Sinhala as the only official language of the government. Although partially reversed in 1958,

9810-533: The right of "Unambuwe Bandara" , the crown passed to the brother of one of Narendrasinha's princesses, overlooking Narendrasinha's own son by a Sinhalese concubine . The new king was crowned Sri Vijaya Rajasinha later that year. Kings of the Nayakkar dynasty launched several attacks on Dutch controlled areas, which proved to be unsuccessful. During the Napoleonic Wars , fearing that French control of

9919-501: The rise of militancy. The assassination of Jaffna Mayor Alfred Duraiyappah in 1975 by the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) marked a crisis point. The government of J. R. Jayawardene swept to power in 1977, defeating the United Front government. Jayawardene introduced a new constitution , together with a free-market economy and a powerful executive presidency modelled after that of France. It made Sri Lanka

10028-494: The sea by a sand barries. (eg. Negambo and Bundala lagoons) Estuaries are formed in places where rivers enter the sea and does not contain a sand barriers separating it from seas.(eg. Madu Ganga / Benthota ) The daily tidal fluctuation is a characteristic of these places. Mangroves ecosystem is an intertidal vegetation that covers fringes of the lagoons and estuaries. They share characteristics usually of saline/brackish water, loose soil and anoxic conditions. The vegetation

10137-454: The so-called "Fortress in the Sky", built during the reign of Kashyapa I , who ruled between 477 and 495. The Sigiriya rock fortress is surrounded by an extensive network of ramparts and moats. Inside this protective enclosure were gardens, ponds, pavilions, palaces and other structures. In 993 CE, the invasion of Chola emperor Rajaraja I forced the then Sinhalese ruler Mahinda V to flee to

10246-413: The south western quarter of the country. The mean annual temperature is about 28 °C, and the mean annual rainfalls varies between 2,000–5,000 mm in different locations without any dry period. The humidity is very high. These forests are characterized by a tall canopy, sub canopy and a sparse shrub layer consisting mostly of the saplings of canopy trees. Sometimes an emergent layer is also seen above

10355-549: The southern part of Sri Lanka. Taking advantage of this situation, Rajendra I , son of Rajaraja I, launched a large invasion in 1017. Mahinda V was captured and taken to India, and the Cholas sacked the city of Anuradhapura causing the fall of Anuradhapura kingdom . Subsequently, they moved the capital to Polonnaruwa . Following a 17-year-long campaign, Vijayabahu I successfully drove the Chola out of Sri Lanka in 1070, reuniting

10464-730: The suspension of fuel to all non-essential vehicles, and more such economic disorder. Due to the crisis, massive street protests erupted all over the country, with protesters demanding the resignation of the President Gotabaya Rajapaksa . The protests culminated with the storming and siege of the President's House on July 9, 2022, and resulted in President Gotabaya Rajapaksa fleeing to Singapore and later emailing his resignation to parliament, formally announcing his resignation and making him

10573-560: The vegetation is mainly consists of thorny shrubs. They are found in arid lowlands. The mean annual temperature is around 31 °C and rainfall is below 1,000 mm with a longer dry period. Due to the dry conditions, many fauna species can't be found. However Axis axis ceylonensis, Panthera pardus kotiya, Elephas maximus maximus can be seen in these areas. They are distributed near Hambantota , Yala, Mannar , Puttalam areas and disturbed due to various development pressures. The following plant species are commonly found; Savannas have

10682-405: The wet lowland rain forests are; Some animal species found in the wet lowland rainforests are purple-faced langur , red slender loris , golden palm civet . They occur at elevations above 1,500 m above mean sea level. The average temperature is about 16 °C and rainfall is about 2,000 mmm without any dry period. The humidity is high as lowland rainforests. These forests are characterized by

10791-519: The widening of the ancient road linking Lankagama area to Deniyaya along a 1-km jungle patch inside the protected area after a complaint from the Centre for Environmental and Nature Studies of Sri Lanka. The construction was recommenced on August 10, 2020 after prolonged appeals to the Sri Lankan government by the villagers. A group of environmentalists carried out a big social media campaign and asked

10900-472: The word Tambapanni . The Persians and Arabs referred to it as Sarandīb (the origin of the word " serendipity ") from Sanskrit Siṃhaladvīpaḥ . Ceilão , the name given to Sri Lanka by the Portuguese when they arrived in 1505, was transliterated into English as Ceylon . As a British crown colony , the island was known as Ceylon; it achieved independence as the Dominion of Ceylon in 1948. The country

11009-434: Was 28.8% (and 32.2% in 1995. ) 9.0% of Sri Lanka's forests are classified as primary forest (the most biodiverse form of forest and the biggest carbon sinks on Earth). Sri Lanka's forests contain 61 million metric tons of carbon in living forest biomass (in 2010 ). Between 1990 and 2005 alone, Sri Lanka lost 17.7% of its forest cover. Sri Lanka continental separated from the south eastern tip of peninsular India by

11118-603: Was a vassal of Sri Vijaya led by their king Chandrabhanu briefly invaded Sri Lanka from Insular Southeast Asia . They were then expelled by the South Indian Pandyan dynasty. However, this temporary invasion reinforced the steady flow of the presence of various Austronesian merchant ethnic groups, from Sumatrans (Indonesia) to Lucoes (Philippines) into Sri Lanka which occurred since 200 BCE. Chinese admiral Zheng He and his naval expeditionary force landed at Galle, Sri Lanka in 1409 and got into battle with

11227-571: Was already known to both East Asians and Europeans as long ago as the Anuradhapura period . During a period of great political crisis in the Kingdom of Kotte , the Portuguese arrived in Sri Lanka and sought to control its maritime trade, with a part of Sri Lanka subsequently becoming a Portuguese possession . After the Sinhalese–Portuguese War , the Dutch colonial empire and the Kingdom of Kandy took control of those areas. Dutch Ceylon

11336-651: Was destroyed by Bakhtiyar Khalji . It is probable that many of the scriptures from Nalanda are preserved in Sri Lanka's many monasteries and that the written form of the Tripiṭaka , including Sinhalese Buddhist literature, were part of the University of Nalanda. In 245 BCE, bhikkhunī Sanghamitta arrived with the Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi tree, which is considered to be a sapling from the historical Bodhi Tree under which Gautama Buddha became enlightened. It

11445-605: Was exiled to India. The Kandyan Convention formally ceded the entire country to the British Empire. Attempts by Sri Lankan noblemen to undermine British power in 1818 during the Uva Rebellion were thwarted by Governor Robert Brownrigg . The beginning of the modern period of Sri Lanka is marked by the Colebrooke–Cameron reforms of 1833. They introduced a utilitarian and liberal political culture to

11554-413: Was forested. Between 1990 and 2000, Sri Lanka lost an average of 1.14% of its forest per year. In total, between 1990 and 2005 alone, Sri Lanka lost 17.7% of its forest cover. Large scale agricultural and settlement schemes without the recognition given for wild animal habitats and their migration patterns have been a major driver of deforestation and degradation, particularly in the dry zone, during

11663-507: Was held at the Anuradhapura Maha Viharaya in Sri Lanka under the patronage of Valagamba in 25 BCE. The council was held in response to a year in which the harvests in Sri Lanka were particularly poor and many Buddhist monks subsequently died of starvation. Because the Pali Canon was at that time oral literature maintained in several recensions by dhammabhāṇaka s ( dharma reciters), the surviving monks recognised

11772-400: Was sworn in as Sri Lanka's new president after winning the presidential election as a left-wing candidate. On 14 November 2024, President Anura Kumara Dissanayake's National People's Power (NPP), a left-leaning alliance, received a two-thirds majority in parliament in Sri Lankan parliamentary election. Sri Lanka, an island in South Asia shaped as a teardrop or a pear/ mango , lies on

11881-434: Was taken by the British Empire , which extended control over the whole island, colonising it as British Ceylon from 1815 to 1948. A national movement for political independence arose in the early 20th century, and 1948, Ceylon became a dominion . It was succeeded by the republic of Sri Lanka in 1972. Sri Lanka's more recent history was marred by the 26-year Sri Lankan Civil War , which began in 1983 and ended in 2009, when

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