206-488: In Swedish and Finnish history , Finland under Swedish rule is the historical period when the bulk of the area that later came to constitute Finland was an integral part of Sweden . The starting point of Swedish rule is uncertain and controversial. Historical evidence of the establishment of Swedish rule in Finland exists from the middle of the 13th century onwards. Swedish rule ended in most of so-called Old Finland ,
412-510: A Grand Duchy and thus was officially ruled by the Tsar of Russia though it was not strictly part of Russia. Humanitarian aid from England did not succeed in preventing Sweden from adopting more Napoleon-friendly policies after the Swedish coup d'état in 1809. In 1810, French Marshal Jean-Baptiste Bernadotte , one of Napoleon's top generals, was elected as Charles XIV John of Sweden (1818–44) by
618-702: A campaign in Russia that would end in a staggering defeat for the Swedes. The Russian victory at the Battle of Poltava put an end to Sweden's eastbound expansion, and by the time of Charles XII's death in 1718 the Empire had been severely diminished both territorially and militarily. The last traces of occupied continental territory vanished during the Napoleonic Wars , and Finland was ceded to Russia in 1809 , marking
824-511: A castle was called a slottslän ( linnalääni in Finnish). Sweden was an electoral kingdom in medieval times and the election was held at the Stones of Mora . Finland also received the right to send their representative to the election in 1362, which shows the established role of Finland as part of Sweden. The development of government and justice had a large role in the law established during
1030-516: A certain amount per annum should revert to the Crown. The same Riksdag decided that the king was not bound by any particular constitution , but only by law and statutes, and not even obligated to consult the Privy Council , but was to be regarded as a sovereign lord. The Privy Council changed its official title from Riksråd (council of state) to kungligt råd (royal council); a visible sign that
1236-674: A civilian government controlled by the Riksdag. A new " Age of Freedom " opened, and the economy was rebuilt, supported by large exports of iron and lumber to Britain. The Riksdag developed into an active parliament. This tradition continued into the nineteenth century, laying the basis for the transition towards a modern democracy. The reign of Charles XII (1697–1718) has stirred up great controversy. Historians have puzzled over why this military genius overreached and greatly weakened Sweden. Although most early-19th-century historians tended to follow Voltaire 's lead in bestowing extravagant praise on
1442-487: A diet, which submitted the dukes to the king's control and stripped them of a chance for independent foreign politics. Destroying the position of John, the duke of Finland, was important to the king. As John's duchy, Finland became a "feudal minicountry" subject to the realm, with its own chancery , tax chamber and council, which could be compared to a state council. John's prerogatives in Livonia were also in conflict with
1648-516: A general European war. He achieved passage over the Belts and emerged triumphant, only to die of sheer exhaustion. Immediately after his death, a regency was appointed to govern Sweden during the minority of his only son and successor, Charles XI of Sweden , who was four years old. The regency council moved quickly to end the war with Sweden's numerous enemies, which now included the Tsardom of Russia ,
1854-439: A general guide of justice in the Swedish realm in 1608 and remained in force until the new law of the realm in 1734. However, the law was often not used to the full extent of its cruelty, and death penalties were replaced with lesser penalties in about half of the cases. Unrest increased among the peasants during Gustav Vasa's reign, because of both heightened taxes and the struggle for power amongst his sons. The unrest resulted in
2060-554: A great power by taking direct control of the Baltic region, which was Europe's main source of grain, iron, copper, timber, tar, hemp, and furs. Sweden had first gained a foothold on territory outside its traditional provinces in 1561, when Estonia opted for vassalage to Sweden during the Livonian War . While, in 1590, Sweden had to cede Ingria and Kexholm to Russia, and Sigismund tried to incorporate Swedish Estonia into
2266-625: A liberal/right-wing coalition to power. During the Cold War, Sweden remained neutral. The neutrality policy was dropped in 2022, in response to the Russian invasion of Ukraine , and Sweden formally became a member of NATO in March 2024. Chronological history Sweden has a large number of petroglyphs ( hällristningar in Swedish), with the highest concentration in the province of Bohuslän and
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#17327839882942472-600: A new rebellion and eventually was crowned King in 1523. His reign proved lasting and marked the end of Sweden's participation in the Kalmar Union. Gustav Vasa furthermore encouraged Protestant preachers, finally breaking with the papacy and establishing the Lutheran Church in Sweden, seizing Catholic Church property and wealth. During the 17th century, after winning wars against Denmark–Norway , Russia , and
2678-462: A personal dislike of the French king and developed a strong anti-French bias. The remainder of the reign of Charles XI is remarkable for a revolution, in which the government of Sweden was transformed to a semi-absolute monarchy. The king emerged from the war convinced that if Sweden were to retain its position as a great power, it needed to reform its whole economic system radically and circumscribe
2884-434: A range of roughly 50 meters, and then to draw their swords before the battalion resumed their attack. The two foremost ranks then discharged at a range of roughly 20 meters before drawing their swords, and the charge began. At this range, the powerful muskets usually felled many enemy troops and was demoralising to them. Directly after the volley, the Swedes charged the enemy ranks with pikes , bayonets and sabres. Note that
3090-461: A result of Sweden's intervention, Sweden helped secure religious liberty in Europe for Protestants, becoming a leading power of Continental Protestantism for 90 years. The elevation of Sweden to the rank of an imperial power required that it remain a military monarchy, armed for possible emergency. Sweden's poverty and sparse population meant the country was ill-suited for imperial status. However, in
3296-421: A secret alliance was formed between Denmark–Norway, Poland–Lithuania, and Russia against Sweden. This coalition acted at the start of the 18th century when Denmark–Norway and Poland launched surprise attacks on Sweden. In 1721, Russia and its allies won the war against Sweden. As a result, Russia was able to annex the Swedish territories of Estonia , Livonia , Ingria , and Karelia . This effectively put an end to
3502-489: A written government language increased during the 14th century. In local governments in cities, particularly concerning international trade, the Middle Low German language was also largely used. It is however impossible to present accurate approximations of the relations of different languages in medieval times. Unlike the situation in central Europe, peasants in Sweden were free and feudalism never developed in
3708-490: Is no direct evidence of Orthodox influence. Around the year 1000, Olof Skötkonung became the first known king to rule both Svealand and Götaland . Historical details about early medieval kings are obscure, and even the dates of their reigning periods remain unclear. In the 12th century, Sweden was still undergoing dynastic struggles between the Erik and Sverker clans. Svealand and the Swedes were usually more supportive of
3914-809: Is now Western and Southern Finland and the Karelian isthmus , had become part of Sweden, Catholic Church and the Uppsala diocese. Eastern Karelia, the Käkisalmi region and the Ladoga Karelia retained their ties to the Orthodox Church and to Novgorod . The Treaty of Nöteborg , made in 1323 between Sweden and Novgorod, was the first treaty that defined the eastern boundary of the Swedish realm and Finland at least for Karelia. The boundary in northern Finland remained unclear. However, Sweden annexed
4120-399: Is usually accepted that Swedish recorded history, in contrast with pre-history, starts around the late 10th century, when sources are common enough that they can be contrasted with each other. The modern Swedish state was formed over a long period of unification and consolidation. Historians have set different standards for when it can be considered complete. Some common laws were present from
4326-546: Is usually taken as the reign of Gustavus Adolphus , who ascended the throne in 1611, and its end as the loss of territories in 1721 following the Great Northern War . After the death of Gustavus Adolphus in 1632, the empire was controlled for lengthy periods by part of the high nobility , such as the Oxenstierna family, acting as regents for minor monarchs. The interests of the high nobility contrasted with
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#17327839882944532-561: The 25 Years' War . It was mostly a brutal war with guerilla warfare on both sides. In its beginnings, the war was well organised, and there was a truce on the Finnish front from 1573 to 1577. In the middle of the decade the peasant conflicts started again: the Karelians attacked in the direction of Oulujärvi and Iijoki , forces from Southern Finland travelled across the Gulf of Finland . At
4738-564: The Age of Greatness ( Swedish : stormaktstiden ) was the period in Swedish history spanning much of the 17th and early 18th centuries during which Sweden became a European great power that exercised territorial control over much of the Baltic region . During this period it also held territories on the North Sea and some overseas colonies , including New Sweden . The beginning of the period
4944-682: The Battle of Breitenfeld (1631) , the infantry was almost entirely reliant on their firepower and saw very limited offensive use; but under the leadership of Johan Banér , who took command after the defeat at Nördlingen, the Gustavian brigade system was finally changed into the battalion system recognisable from the War of the Spanish Succession and the Great Northern War (the depth was lowered from six ranks to three or four when
5150-567: The Battle of Lützen in 1632 and his daughter Christina succeeded him on the throne while still a minor. In practice, the realm was ruled by a caretaker government led by Axel Oxenstierna. In the Peace of Westphalia that had ended the Thirty Years' War in 1648, Sweden secured its position as a superpower. However, the Thirty Years' War and other conflicts in the superpower age drained Sweden's and Finland's resources badly. A significant part of
5356-591: The Christianisation of the South-western part of Finland is known to have already started in the 10th century, and in the 12th century, the area was probably almost entirely Christian. According to Erik's Chronicle , the Swedish kingdom made two crusades to Finland in the 13th century. The so-called Second Crusade against Tavastians was made in 1249–1250 and the so-called Third Crusade against Karelians in 1293. According to historical sources,
5562-539: The Cudgel War from 1596 to 1597. It ended bloodily, with the army beating the Ostrobothnian and Savonian peasants, armed by cudgels, spears and bows. The rebellion in Finland was directed at the nobility in power and especially at Klaus Fleming. The rebels sought help from the duke Karl who had been trying to usurp the throne. According to current research, the reasons for the rebellion included strain left from
5768-661: The Duchy of Livonia , Sweden gradually expanded at the eastern Baltic during the following years. In a series of Polish–Swedish War (1600–1629) and the Russo-Swedish Ingrian War , Gustavus Adolphus retook Ingria and Kexholm (formally ceded in the Treaty of Stolbovo , 1617) as well as the bulk of Livonia (formally ceded in the Treaty of Altmark , 1629). Sweden's role in the Thirty Years' War determined
5974-497: The Ottoman Empire . Following the defeat at Poltava, Poland and Denmark re-entered the war, along with other countries wanting parts of the Swedish provinces. In the following years, most of them would fall, and Russia occupied the eastern half of Sweden (present-day Finland ). Despite these setbacks, Charles XII twice tried to invade Norway to force Denmark-Norway out of the war again. On 30 November 1718, King Charles XII
6180-539: The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth , Sweden emerged as a great power by taking direct control of the Baltic region. Sweden's role in the Thirty Years' War determined the political and religious balance of power in Europe. The Swedish Empire expanded enormously into the modern Estonia and Latvia, northern Germany, and several regions that to this day are part of Sweden. Before the end of the 17th century,
6386-749: The Protestant Reformation to curb the power of the church and was crowned as King Gustavus I in 1523. In 1527, he persuaded the Riksdag of Västerås (comprising the nobles, clergy, burghers, and freehold peasants) to confiscate church lands, which comprised 21% of the farmland. Gustavus took the Lutheran reformers under his protection and appointed his men as bishops. Gustavus suppressed aristocratic opposition to his ecclesiastical policies and efforts at centralization. Tax reforms took place in 1538 and 1558, whereby multiple complex taxes on independent farmers were simplified and standardized throughout
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6592-814: The Spanish Netherlands . The anti-French faction prevailed; and in April 1668, Sweden acceded to the Triple Alliance , which ended the French acquisitions through the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle . For the next four years, Sweden remained true to the Triple Alliance; but, in 1672, Louis XIV succeeded in isolating the Dutch Republic and regaining Sweden as an ally. By the Treaty of Stockholm on 14 April 1672, Sweden entered an agreement with
6798-649: The Stockholm Bloodbath . The Swedish nobleman Gustav Vasa rose up to oppose the union king and won the peasants on his side. The German Hanseatic merchants also supported Gustav Vasa and provided him with weapons and money. The Finnish-born brothers Erik and Ivar Fleming conquered the Finnish castles for Gustav Vasa and drove the Danish away from Finland in 1523. The age of the Nordic union came to an end, and Gustav Vasa became king of Sweden and Finland. During
7004-595: The Swedish Empire . They still faced difficulties in dealing with higher Swedish authorities in Finnish and a lack of publications in Finnish. The starting point of the Swedish rule is under a large amount of uncertainty. It is connected to the efforts of the Catholic Church to expand the faith in the Eastern Baltic Sea region and to Northern Crusades . According to the legend of Eric
7210-460: The Treaties of Nijmegen on 7 February and of St. Germain on 29 June 1679, Sweden received almost full restitution of its German territory. By the Treaty of Fontainebleau confirmed by the subsequent Peace of Lund on 2 September, Denmark–Norway was to return all the land it had captured to Sweden on 4 October 1679. While Sweden could never have gained these concessions alone, Charles XI formed
7416-399: The Treaty of Roskilde in 1658. For the moment, Sweden held a tenuous position of leadership. Careful statesmanship might mean permanent dominion on the Baltic shore, but left little room for mistakes. The extravagance of Gustavus Adolphus's two immediate successors, Christina and Charles X Gustav , caused great difficulties for the new empire. Christina's financial extravagance brought
7622-632: The Treaty of Stettin (1630) , and a war indemnity of 20,000,000 Riksdaler . Through the efforts of Johan Oxenstierna and Johan Adler Salvius it obtained: These German possessions were to be held as fiefs of the Holy Roman Empire. This allowed Sweden a vote in the Imperial Diet and enabled it to "direct" the Lower Saxon Circle alternately with Brandenburg . France and Sweden, moreover, became joint guarantors of
7828-516: The treaty of Oliva in 1660. Gustav II Adolph inherited the Polish war together with the Kalmar War against Denmark–Norway when Charles IX died in 1611. The war against Denmark–Norway was a terrible loss that forced Sweden to pay a ransom of 1 million silverdaler to regain Älvsborg (final payment, 1619). The Polish war was interrupted by a series of truces caused by Sweden's weakness along with
8034-491: The uniformity policy (i.e., upholding the traditional equality in status of the Swedish estates favoured by the kings and peasantry). In territories acquired during the periods of de facto noble rule, serfdom was not abolished, and there was also a trend to set up respective estates in Sweden proper . The Great Reduction of 1680 put an end to these efforts of the nobility and required them to return estates once gained from
8240-425: The wheellock pistol as the primary weapon of the cavalry . Horsemen rode knee-by-knee in a tight formation. When in range, they switched to gallop and charged, and at a range of ten yards, shot both their pistols. A standard regiment numbered 250 simultaneous shots that would blast a hole in the enemy ranks. They then continued the charge with sabres ( värjor ), aiming to break the enemy formation. The infantry
8446-640: The "indelningsverk" — a system of military tenure in which national forces were bound to the soil. This tied to the "rust hail tenure", under which the tenants, instead of paying rent, were obliged to equip and maintain a cavalry soldier and horse; while the knekthållare supplied duly equipped foot soldiers. Soldiers were provided with holdings on which they lived in times of peace. Formerly, ordinary conscription had existed alongside this indelning, or distribution system, but it had proved inadequate as well as highly unpopular, and in 1682, Charles XI ended it in favor of an extended distribution system. The Swedish Royal Navy
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8652-453: The 1560s, Swedish foreign policy was marked by war against Poland in the Baltics . As well as this, Erik XIV was driven to war against Denmark-Norway and Lübeck . This required good relations to the east: concentrating military forces elsewhere required good relations towards Moscow. Erik XIV's era ended in 1568 after the nobility rose up against the king. This time even the Finnish nobility
8858-536: The 1580s. Led by Pekka Vesainen , the Ostrobothnians made vengeance trips to White Karelia . The war ended in 1595 with the Treaty of Teusina . After John III died in 1592, the throne was left vacant. There were two candidates for his successor: Sigismund and the duke Karl. The question of the monarchy was entwined with church politics: in the time of the counter-reformation in Europe Sigismund
9064-462: The 25-year war, financial setbacks and suffering caused by the castle camp system. Researchers disagree on how big an effect the duke Karl's leading the rebels against Klaus Fleming had on the outbreak of the Cudgel War. From 1604 to 1611, the duke Karl of Södermanland was king Charles IX of Sweden . During his reign, the realm was almost constantly at war with Russia and Poland, especially about
9270-705: The Baltics, Sweden was still at war with Poland, and in 1629 the temporary Truce of Altmark was made. In Germany, Gustav II Adolf joined the Thirty Years' War between the Catholic emperor and the Protestant princes in 1630 after making landfall in Northern Germany. Sweden's aim in the war was to support the German Protestants and strengthen its own position. However, Gustav II Adolf died in
9476-401: The Crown, and the burden of proof of ownership lay with the actual owner of the property, not the Crown. The amount of revenue accruing to the Crown from the whole "Reduktion" is impossible to estimate; but by these means, combined with careful management and rigid economy, Charles XI reduced the national debt by three quarters. Charles XI re-established on a broader basis the reorganization of
9682-468: The Dutch system for fighting in caracole among the cavalry, with unfortunate results. His partially reformed army suffered a disastrous defeat at Kircholm against a Polish-Lithuanian army led by Jan Karol Chodkiewicz . Charles IX's revolt against his nephew Sigismund of Poland and subsequent rise to the throne of Sweden caused a dynastic struggle for the throne of Sweden that would not finally end until
9888-561: The Erik clan and founded the Bjälbo dynasty. This dynasty gradually consolidated Sweden to a strong state. During the early Middle Ages, the Swedish kingdom also expanded to control Norrland and Finland . This expansion sparked tension with the Russian states, a tension that was to continue throughout Swedish history. In 1319, Sweden and Norway were united under King Magnus Eriksson , who
10094-460: The Erik dynasty and Götaland and Geats more supportive of the Sverker dynasty, which wanted friendlier relations with Denmark. This further divided the country between parties because the ruler was not clear. The country elected their king from each district by selecting 12 people from the local nobles, who then elected the king at the Stones of Mora . The divide ended when a third clan married into
10300-586: The Estates of 1655, the king proposed that noble holders of crown property should either: 1) pay an annual sum of 200,000 Riksdaler out of the lands they would receive, or 2) surrender a fourth of the property itself, worth approximately 800,000 Riksdaler. The nobility wished to avoid taxation and stipulated that 6 November 1632, the day of Gustavus Adolphus's death, should be the limit to which retrospective taxes could be collected, and that there should be no further restitution of alienated crown property. Against this,
10506-848: The Finnish population on the shores of Northern Ostrobothnia in the 14th century to its realm. To help establish the power of the King of Sweden , three castles were built: the Turku Castle in Finland Proper, the Häme Castle in Tavastia and the Vyborg Castle in Karelia. In medieval times the castles were important for the defence of Finland and they also acted as government centers in Finland. The government area surrounding
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#173278398829410712-412: The French to protect its sphere of interest containing the Dutch Republic from hostile German claims in return for 400,000 Riksdaler per annum in peace and 600,000 in wartime. In 1674, Louis XIV called upon Sweden to invade the Electorate of Brandenburg . In May 1675, a Swedish army advanced into the Mark but was defeated on 18 June at Fehrbellin and retreated to Swedish Demmin . The Fehrbellin affair
10918-403: The German knighthood. After the conflict had intensified, the king assembled a diet in 1563, where John was sentenced to death. The development led to the siege of the Turku Castle in summer 1563. After conflicts and bombardments, the castle surrendered on 12 August 1563, after which the luxury of the castle was destroyed, the duke and his wife were arrested and sent to Sweden for imprisonment. In
11124-492: The Germans travel in the country. Post-war prosperity provided the foundations for the social welfare policies characteristic of modern Sweden. During World War II , Sweden once again remained neutral, avoiding the fate of occupied Norway. The country attempted to stay out of alliances and remain officially neutral during the entire Cold War , and declined to join NATO . The social democratic party held government for 44 years (1932–1976). The 1976 parliamentary elections brought
11330-480: The Great Northern War put an end to Sweden's time as a great power. As a result of eighteen years of war, Sweden gained small and scattered possessions, but had secured control of three principal rivers in northern Germany—the Oder , the Elbe and the Weser —and gained toll-collection rights for those important commercial arteries, benefitting the Swedish economy. Two principal reasons for the small reparations were France 's envy and Queen Christina 's impatience. As
11536-401: The Holy , written in the 1270s, the King of Sweden Eric the Holy and English bishop Henry made the first Swedish crusade to southwest Finland in the 1150s. According to the chronicle and other sources, the bishop Henry was converting people to Christianity in the areas of Finland Proper and Satakunta during the crusade. The crusade, possibly in 1155, most likely never occurred. Also,
11742-411: The King and much of the Swedish army was shipped to the Baltic provinces, where Russian and Polish armies were laying siege to several towns. The Russian army was soundly defeated in the Battle of Narva , after which Charles took the army into Poland with the intent of dethroning the Polish king Augustus II . This took several years, but in 1706, with the Treaty of Altranstädt , he reached his goal. In
11948-426: The Muslim world ( Serkland ). The large Russian mainland and its many navigable rivers offered good prospects for merchandise and plundering. During the 9th century, extensive Scandinavian settlements began on the east side of the Baltic Sea . The conversion from Norse paganism to Christianity was a complex, gradual, and at times violent (see Temple at Uppsala ) process. The main early source of religious influence
12154-412: The New Age in the 16th and 17th centuries started using the so-called " Law of Moses ", that is to say, some parts of the Bible . According to the Law of Moses, witchcraft and magic was forbidden, and for example blasphemy , swearing , betraying one's parents, perjury , killing, demanding too high interest, false testimony and numerous sexual crimes could be punished by death. The Law of Moses became
12360-508: The New World. New Sweden was founded in the valley of the Delaware River in 1638, and Sweden later laid claim to a number of Caribbean islands. A string of Swedish forts and trading posts was constructed along the coast of West Africa as well, but these were not designed for Swedish settlers. At the conclusion of the Thirty Years' War, the Peace of Westphalia in 1648 granted Sweden territories as war reparations . Sweden demanded Silesia , Pomerania (which had been in its possession since
12566-441: The Norwegian province of Trøndelag and the Danish island of Bornholm , which had been surrendered at Roskilde. Denmark–Norway was also compelled to recognize the independence of the dukes of Holstein-Gottorp . The Russo-Swedish War (1656–1658) was terminated by the Treaty of Cardis on 2 July 1661, through which the Tsar surrendered the Baltic provinces to Sweden — Ingria , Estonia and Kexholm . Thus, Sweden emerged from
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#173278398829412772-407: The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, known as the Deluge . By the time of the Swedish Intervention in the Thirty Years' War in 1630, Gustav II Adolph had transformed the Swedish (Gustavian) army into an army in which the cavalry fought with aggressive shock tactics, closer to the Polish tactics than the Western European . The Caracole and heavy armor were mostly abandoned, and the saber replaced
12978-427: The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, the Electorate of Brandenburg and Denmark-Norway . The Peace of Oliva on 3 May 1660, put an end to the long feud with Poland . French mediation of this treaty also ended the quarrel between Sweden, the Holy Roman emperor and the elector of Brandenburg . This treaty confirmed both Sweden's possession of Livonia and the elector of Brandenburg's sovereignty over Prussia ; and
13184-443: The Riksdag. He had a Jacobin background and was well-grounded in revolutionary principles, but put Sweden in the coalition that opposed Napoleon. In 1813, his forces joined the allies against Napoleon and defeated the Danes at Bornhöved . In the Treaty of Kiel , Denmark ceded mainland Norway to the Swedish king. Norway, however, declared its independence , adopted a constitution and chose a new king. Sweden invaded Norway to enforce
13390-417: The Second Chamber of the Riksdag maintained a conservative view, but their decline after 1900 gradually ended opposition to full suffrage. Religion maintained a major role but public school religious education changed from the drill in the Lutheran catechism to biblical-ethical studies. Sweden was neutral in World War I , although the Swedish government was sympathetic to both sides at different times during
13596-638: The Southern coast of the Baltic. Sweden came out of the Scanian War with only minor losses largely due to France forcing Sweden's adversaries into the treaties of Fontainebleau (1679) (confirmed at Lund ) and Saint-Germain (1679) . The following period of peace allowed Charles XI of Sweden to reform and stabilise the realm. He consolidated the finances of the Crown by the great reduction of 1680 ; further changes were made in finance, commerce, national maritime and land armaments, judicial procedure, church government and education. Russia, Saxony–Poland, and Denmark–Norway pooled their power in 1700 and attacked
13802-440: The Swedes were merchant seamen well known for their far-reaching trade. During the 11th and 12th centuries, Sweden gradually became a unified Christian kingdom that later included Finland. Until 1060, the kings of Uppsala ruled most of modern Sweden except for the southern and western coastal regions, which remained under Danish rule until the 17th century. After a century of civil wars, a new royal family emerged, which strengthened
14008-512: The Swedish Empire between 1617 and 1721. Relative to the contemporary population of Finland, this was equivalent to over a million of them dying in 20th-century Finland. Throughout the Thirty Years' War, the infantry's shock ability was continuously improved. The static nature of the infantry that served well against the cavalry-dominated Polish-Lithuanian army was enhanced during the war to produce infantry capable of both providing devastating firepower and executing offensive maneuvers. Initially, at
14214-417: The Swedish Empire, and crippled her Baltic Sea power. Sweden joined in the Enlightenment culture of the day in the arts, architecture, science, and learning. Between 1570 and 1800, Sweden experienced two periods of urban expansion. Finland was lost to Russia in a war in 1808–1809. In the early 19th century, Finland and the remaining territories outside the Scandinavian Peninsula were lost. Sweden's last war
14420-426: The Swedish Empire. Although the young Swedish King Charles XII (1682–1718; reigned 1697–1718) won spectacular victories in the early years of the Great Northern War , most notably in the stunning success against the Russians at the Battle of Narva (1700) , his plan to attack Moscow and force Russia into peace proved too ambitious. The Russians won decisively at the Battle of Poltava in June 1709, capturing much of
14626-468: The Swedish high nobility rebelled against the king, and he fled to Danzig . Christian I was elected as king of Sweden. He ruled from 1457 to 1464. However, not all people supported the new king – especially in Vyborg. The next period was marked by problems in the eastern parts of the realm. As population spread to the wilderness, border disputes and fights with Novgorod and the Karelians started. As Savonian population spread, Northern Karelia
14832-457: The Swedish realm and the Finns would choose a leader of their own. The king was finally deposed in 1439, after which Sweden was ruled by a council of aristocrats . It was composed of bishops and leading noblemen. The mightiest of this group was Karl Knutsson, who was elected leader of the realm in 1438. His biggest competitor, the drots Krister retreated to Vyborg after this. After the fall of
15038-619: The Swedish realm in the proportion it did in central Europe. The local government was based on local settlements ( socken ) and parishes in the countryside. In the medieval times, the concept of cities was introduced to Finland. The bourgeoisie living in the cities, such as merchants and handicraft workers, only represented a small part of the population. The most important medieval cities in Finland were Turku (in Swedish Åbo) and Viipuri (Viborg). Other cities were Naantali (Nådendal), Rauma (Raumå), Ulvila (Ulfsby) and Porvoo (Borgå). Faraway trade in Finland and other Nordic countries in
15244-604: The Union of Kalmar and laying the foundation for modern Sweden. At the same time, he broke with the papacy and established the Lutheran Church in Sweden. The Union's final disintegration in the early 16th century brought on a long-lived rivalry between Norway and Denmark on one side and Sweden on the other. The Catholic bishops had supported the Danish King Christian II , but he was overthrown by Gustavus Vasa , and Sweden became independent again. Gustavus used
15450-429: The absolutist government, Finland's connections to Denmark were severed. However, the connections to Sweden were not really strengthened but local slottslän governors mostly ruled the country. In 1440, the Danish invited Christopher of Bavaria to their country and elected him as their king. In Sweden, negotiations were being held about the conditions of his recognition. Charles VIII of Sweden moved to Finland in
15656-448: The archbishop, the drots and the marshal, under authority from the government. The stated reason was that the Finns had proven to be loyal to the realm and sworn never to take up a leader of their own, and promised not to rise up in rebellion, and accepted the leader appointed by the government. Seppo Suvanto [ fi ; sv ] has interpreted this so that Sweden feared that the Finnish local government would detach itself from
15862-514: The areas. The Finnish language , dating from prehistoric times, and some parts of folklore religion and culture remained under Swedish rule, even though they changed as they adapted to new circumstances. For example, in this period Finnish adopted the Latin alphabet as its writing system and approximately 1100 Swedish loanwords, though most of them are originally from Latin or Greek . The historian Peter Englund has noted that Swedish-ruled Finland
16068-562: The army but had effectively failed to do so. Charles IX, like most other rulers, had tried to implement the Dutch system into the army but with limited success. The lack of a strict organisation in the infantry caused the proportion of pikemen to musketeers to be far lower than the preferred ratio of 1 to 1. This, combined with the lack of funds to provide the soldiers with armour, caused the Swedish infantry to be dangerously lightly equipped and unable to deal with cavalry or heavier infantry in open terrain. Charles IX was, however, able to implement
16274-472: The army, which in 1810 decided to bring in one of Napoleon's marshals, Jean Bernadotte, as the heir apparent. Sweden experimented briefly with overseas colonies, including " New Sweden " in Colonial America and the " Swedish Gold Coast " in present-day Ghana , which began in the 1630s. Sweden purchased the small Caribbean island of Saint Barthélemy from France in 1784, then sold it back in 1878;
16480-451: The authorities as Swedish was established as the sole official language of government. In fact, it remained a widely accepted view in Sweden proper that the Finns were in principle a separate and conquered people and therefore not necessarily entitled to be treated equitably with Swedes. Swedish kings visited Finland rarely and in Swedish contemporary texts Finns were often portrayed as primitive and their language inferior. Approximately half of
16686-590: The autonomous Grand Duchy of Finland . Swedish rule in the area of modern-day Finland started as a result of the Northern Crusades . The Finnish upper class lost its position and lands to new Swedish and German nobility and to the Catholic Church . The Swedish colonisation of some coastal areas of Finland with Christian population was a way to retain power in former pagan areas that had been conquered. It has been estimated that there were thousands of colonists. Colonisation led to several conflicts between
16892-543: The battle for the Swedish crown, Finnish castles were also conquered and persuaded to the union king's side. The Danish knight Erik Axelsson Tott came with his brothers to conquer castles in the 1480s, and in the end, all the castles were under the power of the Axelssons. After Erik's death he left the Viipuri, Hämeenlinna and Savonlinna counties to his brothers Ivar and Lauri, who already ruled over Raseborg . However,
17098-406: The bayonet was introduced at the end of the 17th century). Swedish tactics once again greatly diverged from the continental tactics during the second half of the 17th century. The continental tactics increasingly emphasized the firepower of the battalion, while the Swedish ( Carolean ) tactics almost exclusively relied on the shock factor as the infantry and cavalry charged the enemy. As the bayonet
17304-562: The borderline went. The Swedish tried to postpone checking the borderline for as long as possible, and despite temporary agreements, conflicts and raids on both sides continued. In a nobility meeting held in Vyborg in 1555, the king was advised to go to war. The attack resulted in a counter-attack by Ivan the Terrible from the direction of Vyborg and Savonia. Negotiations held from 1556 to 1557 resulted in an interim peace lasting 40 years. There
17510-527: The castles to the nobility, but ruled over them through officials dependent on him, gathering a significant amount of tax income to himself. In the late 15th century, previous skirmishes with Moscow escalated into a war . In 1495, the Vyborg Castle was sieged. People from Western Finland were also drafted to war. In threatened areas, all people over 15 years of age were called to arms, and in addition, German mercenaries and people from Sweden arrived in
17716-454: The centre of Russian trade. Domestic trade was economically more significant than foreign trade. Under the union times, the Finnish government was reorganised to help the economic situation. In 1405, hundreds of farms had their tax exemption status revoked. With this, the foundation for systematic agricultural taxing was created. The crown attempted to raise tax income also by settler activities: farming fields caused tax income, whereas work in
17922-653: The centre of intense fighting between Swedes and Danes, with a large scale confrontation between the main armies near Lund in December 1676. After that, Scania was divided into Danish and Swedish enclaves centering around the main cities for the rest of the war. The remaining territories in Scania were mainly a no man's land where a fierce "little war" took place, with Swedish troops on the one side and Danish official and semi-official troops (freeshooters etc.) in conjunction with armed locals. Through homeland military successes of
18128-436: The church were also assigned to sons of the Finnish frälse under the union times. However, peasants could also participate in the activities of different courts and have an effect in political decisions, such as the election of the king. Apart from Turku and Viipuri (Viborg), cities under union times were small, and numbered very few. As such, foreign trade was modest. Even Viipuri could not compete with Reval (Tallinn) as
18334-500: The colonists and local population which have been recorded in the 14th century. In colonised coastal areas the Finnish population, remaining as a minority, principally lost its fishing and cultivation rights to the colonists. Though the Finnish provinces were an integral part of the Kingdom of Sweden with the same legal rights and duties as the rest of the realm, Finnish-speaking Swedish subjects faced comparative challenges in dealing with
18540-649: The conflict, even briefly occupying the Åland islands jointly with the Germans. At first, the Swedish government flirted with the possibility of changing their neutral stance to side with the Central Powers , and made concessions to them including mining the Öresund straits to close them to Allied warships wishing to enter the Baltic. Later the Swedish signed agreements allowing trade with the Allied powers and limiting trade with Central Powers, though this brought about
18746-450: The continent, was lost on 5 November. A defensive alliance with John III of Poland was rendered inoperative on 4 August 1677, by the annihilation of Sweden's sea-power; the Battle of Öland , 17 June 1676; the Battle of Fehmarn , June 1677, and most notable on 1–2 July the Battle of Køge Bay . The difficulties concerning the Polish king continued. The Scanian provinces (Scania, Halland and Blegind/ Blekinge ), once eastern Denmark, became
18952-424: The councilors were no longer the king's colleagues, but rather his servants. Thus, Sweden had become an absolute monarchy but enacted the right of the Swedish people, in parliament , to be consulted on all important matters. The Riksdag, completely overshadowed by the Crown, did little more than register the royal decrees during the reign of Charles XI of Sweden ; but it continued to exist as an essential part of
19158-541: The country from 1739 to 1765; they engaged in wars in 1741, 1757, Russian influence grew in Sweden after the war in 1741 which greatly affected politics in the Swedish realm (though much of this influence was lost in 1790 as a result of the Russo-Swedish war of 1788–1790). Sweden joined in the Enlightenment culture of the day in the arts, architecture, science, and learning. A new law in 1766 established for
19364-499: The country was prosperous, although rampant alcoholism was a growing social problem. Gustav III weakened the nobility and promoted numerous major social reforms. He felt the Swedish monarchy could survive and flourish by achieving a coalition with the newly emerged middle classes against the nobility. He personally disliked the French Revolution but decided to promote additional anti-feudal reforms to strengthen his hand among
19570-495: The country's culture. A growing awareness of strong national sentiments and an appreciation of natural resources led to the creation of the Swedish Ski Association in 1892 in order to combine nature, leisure, and nationalism. The organization focused its efforts on patriotic, militaristic, heroic, and environmental Swedish traditions as they relate to ski sports and outdoor life. With a broader voting franchise,
19776-483: The country. The Russian attacks stretched from Karelia to Ostrobothnia , Savonia and Tavastia . Peace was made in 1497. In the same year, the Privy Council of Sweden deposed Sten Sture as regent. However, the Finnish slottsläns remained under his control. A civil war followed, where King John beat the regent's troops, becoming King of Sweden himself (1497–1501). In 1499, Sture had to renounce his areas in Finland. In 1503, Svante Nilsson Sture (reigned 1504–1512)
19982-438: The countryside. Also overall peacekeeping and justice work belonged to the officials' duties – this way the crown's share of tax and fine income could be secured. Enhancing government raised the crown's tax income by tens of percents. Continuing conflicts with Russia were still significant in Finnish foreign politics. In the start of Gustav Vasa's reign, negotiations were held in an attempt to regain an idea of where
20188-537: The crown to the king. Serfdom, however, remained in force in the dominions acquired in the Holy Roman Empire and in Swedish Estonia , where a consequent application of the uniformity policy was hindered by the treaties by which they were gained. After its victories in the Thirty Years' War and the subsequent Peace of Westphalia Sweden was granted territories in northern Germany. Sweden reached
20394-455: The death rate trend diverged, however, leading to increased excess male mortality during the first half of the century. There were very high rates of infant and child mortality before 1800. Among infants and children between the ages of one and four, smallpox peaked as a cause of death in the 1770–1780s and declined afterward. Mortality also peaked during this period due to other air-, food-, and waterborne diseases, but these declined as well during
20600-465: The disagreements. The final times of the union were a time of unrest in most of Finland, not only in Vyborg. In the late 16th century, the Danish went on pillages on the Finnish coast, and the pirate captain Otto Rudi robbed Turku and its cathedral 's treasures. As the Danish union king Christian II of Denmark came to power, in his coronation he had tens of Swedish noblemen beheaded. This was called
20806-514: The discharge of the leaders of the Engelbrekt Engelbrektsson rebellion and the forming of a compromise. Krister Nilsson became the drots ( seneschal ) and Karl Knutsson Bonde became the marshal. After Nilsson had returned to Finland in the same autumn, rebel movements started in Sweden again. In order to fight the rebel movements, the Finnish peasants were promised a cut in taxes in a letter dated 24 June 1436, signed by
21012-499: The district; tax assessments per farm were adjusted to reflect an ability to pay. Crown tax revenues increased, but more importantly, the new system was perceived as fairer and more acceptable. A war with Luebeck in 1535 resulted in the expulsion of the Hanseatic traders , who previously had had a monopoly of foreign trade. With its own businessmen in charge, Sweden's economic strength grew rapidly, and by 1544 Gustavus controlled 60% of
21218-499: The early 19th century. The decline of several diseases during this time created a more favorable environment that increased children's resistance to disease and dramatically lowered child mortality. The introduction of compulsory gymnastics in Swedish schools in 1880 rested partly on a long tradition, from Renaissance humanism to the Enlightenment, of the importance of physical as well as intellectual training. More immediately,
21424-552: The early development of Swedish democracy. Sweden's socialist leaders chose a moderate, reformist political course with broad-based public support. This helped Sweden avoid the severe extremist challenges and political and class divisions that plagued many European countries that attempted to develop social democratic systems after 1911. By dealing early, cooperatively, and effectively with the challenges of industrialization and its impact on Swedish social, political, and economic structures, Swedish social democrats were able to create one of
21630-556: The early times of the Kalmar Union were a time of peace for Finland. With his active foreign policy, the king Eric of Pomerania ran into conflict with the Hanseatic League, which made trade more difficult. In the 1430s, the upper class and peasant rebel movements in Sweden did not really have an effect on Finland. The opposition to the upper class caused by the minor peasant rebel movements in Finland can be explained by
21836-457: The east, the direction of Russia , whereas the Danish were more interested in the south – the direction of the German lands. There were also internal conflicts between the high class of individual nations. The struggle to power was not only the result of "foreign political" differences in modern parlance. Even in the union age, Finland did not form a continuous governmental area but
22042-746: The eastern half of which was already occupied by Russia. The rapid Swedish advance became known in Poland as the Swedish Deluge. The Grand Duchy of Lithuania became a Swedish fief, the Polish–Lithuanian regular armies surrendered and the Polish King John II Casimir Vasa fled to the Habsburgs. The Deluge lasted for five years and took a great toll on Poland and Lithuania, with some historians crediting this invasion as
22248-445: The end of Sweden’s period as a great power. Sweden emerged as a great European power under Axel Oxenstierna and King Gustavus Adolphus . As a result of acquiring territories seized from Russia and the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth , as well as its involvement in the Thirty Years' War , Sweden found itself transformed into the leader of Protestantism . During the Thirty Years' War, Sweden managed to conquer approximately half of
22454-406: The end of the decade, organised warfare started again with an attack to Narva (1579) and the conquest of Kexholm in 1580. Narva was conquered the next year, after which negotiations led to an interim peace lasting until the year 1590. Despite the interim peace, guerilla warfare continued on both sides of the eastern border, which led to Kainuu and Northern Ostrobothnia being largely deserted in
22660-512: The exhausted Swedish army. Charles XII and the remnants of his army were cut off from Sweden and fled south into Ottoman territory, where he remained three years. He overstayed his welcome, refusing to leave until the Ottoman Empire joined him in a new war against Tsar Peter I of Russia. He established a powerful political network in Constantinople, which included even the mother of the sultan. Charles's persistence worked, as Peter's army
22866-570: The expansion of the property of the crown and the frälse . The best known of these rebellions was David's Rebellion in Tavastia in 1438, which was a peasant rebellion aimed at the Viikki manor. No one from Finland participated in the Arboga meeting in 1435. In the same autumn, the bishop Magnus II Tavast and Krister Nilsson arrived in Sweden, and in the negotiations there they participated in
23072-600: The fall of the government of Hjalmar Hammarskjöld . During the First World War and the 1920s, its industries expanded to meet the European demand for Swedish steel, ball bearings , wood pulp, and matches. Post-war prosperity provided the foundations for the social welfare policies characteristic of modern Sweden. Sweden created a successful model of social democracy because of the unique way in which Sweden's labor leaders, politicians, and classes cooperated during
23278-418: The farmlands in all of Sweden. Sweden now built the first modern army in Europe, supported by a sophisticated tax system and government bureaucracy. Gustavus proclaimed the Swedish crown hereditary and the house of Vasa ruled Sweden (1523–1654) and Poland (1587–1668). During the 16th and 17th centuries, the kings demanded ever increasing taxes and military conscription, emphasizing the need for defense. However
23484-408: The financial extravagance of Christina. However, his own desire for military glory may have caused problems for his country. In three days, he persuaded the Swedish estates of the potential of his attack on the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth . However, when he left Stockholm for Warsaw on 10 July 1654, he gained more personal glory than advantage for his country. The Polish-Swedish War expanded into
23690-443: The finest arsenals in the world. After Charles XI's death, the throne was inherited by his underage son, Charles XII . After a brief regency, he was declared to be of age to rule. Three years later, in 1700, Denmark–Norway, Poland and Russia, the countries that had lost the most territory to Sweden, jointly declared war. Denmark–Norway was soon forced to peace after a joint intervention of Swedish, English and Dutch armies, whereafter
23896-586: The first stage of the Industrial Revolution reached Sweden. This first take-off was founded on rural forges, textile proto-industries and sawmills. The popularity of Charles XIV decreased for a time in the 1830s, culminating in the Rabulist riots in 1838 after the Lèse-majesté conviction of the journalist Magnus Jacob Crusenstolpe , and some calls for his abdication. The 19th century
24102-467: The first time the principle of freedom of the press, a notable step towards liberty of political opinion. The Academy of Science was founded in 1739 and the Academy of Letters, History, and Antiquities in 1753. The outstanding cultural leader was Carl Linnaeus (1707–78), whose work in biology and ethnography had a major impact on European science. Following half a century of parliamentary domination came
24308-409: The following century, a series of rebellions lessened Sweden's ties to the union, sometimes even leading to the election of a separate Swedish king. The fighting reached a climax following the Stockholm Bloodbath in 1520, a mass execution of accused heretics orchestrated by Christian II of Denmark . One of the few members of the most powerful noble families not present, Gustav Vasa , was able to raise
24514-489: The foremost model of many later Swedish kings . At the time Finns were an essential part of the Swedish military. Roughly 2/5 of the infantry and 3/7 of the cavalry in the army were from Finland . They served in their own units which used Finnish as their main language. Commands were also given in Finnish. The Finnish cavalry in the Swedish army was called Hakkapeliitat after their battle cry " Hakkaa päälle! ". Approximately 110,000 soldiers from Finland died serving
24720-466: The formation of a continuous circle of power did not fit to the regent Sten Sture 's plans. In 1481 Sten Sture arrived in Finland, all the way to Viipuri. The regent and the local governors could not come to an agreement: the regent promised tax cuts to the people; the local landowners could not accept this. In the end of the union times, no regent had universal acceptance from all the Nordic countries any more. The King of Denmark John (reigned 1481–1513)
24926-478: The foundation of a number of small new towns. The second period of urban growth began around 1750 in response to shifts in Swedish trade patterns from the Baltic to the North Atlantic. It was characterised by increasing populations in the small towns of the north and west. Finland was lost to Russia in a war that lasted from February 1808 to September 1809. As a result of the peace agreement, Finland became
25132-412: The government did not have a clear distinction of jobs, but tasks under the king's service changed according to the situation. In the 1530s, Gustav Vasa started to bring in German government officials to the country, along with whom new visions of royal power arrived in Sweden. During the 1544 Västerås Diet [ fi ; sv ] , the royalty was changed to hereditary and Gustav Vasa's eldest son Erik
25338-481: The government. Moreover, this transfer of authority was a voluntary act. The people, knowing the king to be their ally, trusted and cooperated with him. The Riksdag of 1682 declared that the king was empowered to bestow fiefs and take them back again, making the king the disposer of his subjects' temporal property. Presently, this new principle of autocracy was extended to the king's legislative authority, when on 9 December 1682, all four estates not only confirmed that
25544-600: The great German rivers lay within Swedish territory, which also included two-thirds of Lake Ladoga and one-half of Lake Peipus . Stockholm , the capital, lay in the very centre of the empire, whose second greatest city was Riga , on the other side of the sea. This empire contained about a quarter of the population of modern Sweden, at only 2,500,000 people, or about 2.3 people per square kilometer. However, Sweden's expansion had been possible partly due to turmoil and weakness in countries in its vicinity, and when they became more stable, they began to look for chances to regain what
25750-478: The height of its power during the Second Northern War , when its primary adversary, Denmark–Norway , was neutralized by the Treaty of Roskilde in 1658. Denmark–Norway was forced to give up a third of its territory to save the rest. Although the reign of Charles XII would see initial Swedish victories in the Peace of Travendal (1700) and the Treaty of Altranstädt (1706) , he would go on to lead
25956-574: The higher productivity of American industry, this stimulating faster modernization. In 1873, Sweden and Denmark formed the Scandinavian Monetary Union . The late 19th century saw the emergence of an opposition press, the abolition of guild monopolies on craftsmen and the reform of taxation. Two years of military service was made compulsory for young men although there was no warfare. The steady decline of death rates in Sweden began about 1810. For men and women of working age,
26162-481: The king held the legislative powers enjoyed by his predecessors, but even gave him the right of interpreting and amending the common law. The recovery of the alienated crown lands occupied Charles XI for the rest of his life. He created a commission, which was ultimately converted into a permanent department of state. It acted on the principle that the titles of all private landed estates might be called in question, because at some time or other they must have belonged to
26368-454: The king of Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth renounced to all claims to the Swedish crown. The treaty compelled Denmark–Norway to reopen direct negotiations with Sweden. Eventually, under the Treaty of Copenhagen on 27 May 1660, Sweden kept the three formerly Danish Scanian provinces and the formerly Norwegian Bohuslän province, which Denmark-Norway had surrendered by the Treaty of Roskilde two years previously; but Sweden had to relinquish
26574-586: The king: through a planned marriage with Catherine Jagiellon , John could receive numerous castles under his power in Livonia. At the same time, Erik XIV was being driven to war with Poland because of his expansion politics directed at Livonia. In 1561, the Tallinn city council had already given the city to the protection of the king, and during the same spring the Virumaa and Harjumaa nobility also resigned from
26780-629: The lands of the eastern Danish provinces for 6500 kg of silver, which included Scania . After the Black Death and internal power struggles in Sweden, Queen Margaret I of Denmark (the former daughter-in-law of King Magnus Eriksson) united the Nordic countries in the Union of Kalmar in 1397, with the approval of the Swedish nobility . In the 16th century, Gustav Vasa (1496-1560) fought for an independent Sweden, crushing an attempt to restore
26986-451: The latter half of the 17th century, the major difference between the Swedish army and those common on the continent was the relative lack of firepower and the use of pikes and sabres. Sweden and Russia were the only countries at the time using pikes. In contemporary Europe, infantry were equipped with a musket, while in the Swedish army, every third man had a pike. The pikemen were normally deployed four men deep with musketeers of equal depth on
27192-500: The meantime, Russia had managed to take possession of several towns by the Baltic Sea. Instead of trying to retake these, Charles chose to march directly on Moscow, but due to extreme weather, difficulties with his supply lines and the Russian scorched earth strategy, he was forced to turn towards Ukraine . In 1709, the Swedish army was defeated and captured in the Battle of Poltava ; Charles managed to escape south to Bender in
27398-590: The medieval times was mostly in the hands of German Hanseatic League merchants and as such a significant portion of the bourgeoisie in Turku and Viipuri were Germans . In cities, the local government was in the hands of a court led by a mayor . The Ordinance of Alsnö , given during the reign of Magnus III of Sweden , established a small secular frälse (Finnish: rälssi ) or nobility , freed from tax , in Sweden and Finland in 1280. The spiritual frälse meant spiritual people who were exempt from paying tax to
27604-480: The member states of the Holy Roman Empire . The fortunes of war would shift back and forth several times. After its defeat in the Battle of Nördlingen (1634) , confidence in Sweden among the Swedish-controlled German states was damaged, and several of the provinces refused further Swedish military support, leaving Sweden with only a couple of northern German provinces. After France intervened on
27810-414: The middle classes. After Gustav made war on Russia and did poorly, he was assassinated by a conspiracy of nobles who were angry that he tried to restrict their privileges for the benefit of the peasants. Under the successor, King Gustav IV , Sweden joined various coalitions against Napoleon but was badly defeated and lost much of its territory, especially Finland and Pomerania. The king was overthrown by
28016-466: The middle of the 17th century, with France as a firm ally, the incompatibility between its powers and its pretensions was not so obvious. A major reason why Sweden could be so successful in wars with such a scarce number of soldiers was its advanced military tactics. Sweden was able to reform its military tactics continuously throughout the period. Prior to Gustavus Adolphus's reforms, both his father, Charles IX, and his uncle Erik XIV had tried to reform
28222-451: The money and manpower were used for offensive warfare. Indeed, when there seemed to be a real threat of invasion in 1655–1660, King Charles X Gustav asked the people to give more and to manage their own defences. Finally a balance was reached that provided a well supplied aggressive foreign policy. During the 17th century, after winning wars against Denmark, Russia, and Poland, Sweden (with scarcely more than 1 million inhabitants) emerged as
28428-764: The most successful social democratic systems in the world, including both a welfare state and extensive protections of civil liberties. When the Social Democratic Party came into power in 1932, its leaders introduced a new political decision-making process, which later became known as "the Swedish model" or the Folkhemmet ( The People's Home ). The party took a central role, but tried as far as possible to base its policy on mutual understanding and compromise. Different interest groups were always involved in official committees that preceded government decisions. Swedish Empire The Swedish Empire or
28634-583: The nation saw the emergence of three major party groups – Social Democrat , Liberal , and Conservative . The parties debated further expansion of the voting franchise. The Liberal Party, based on the middle class, put forth in 1907 a program for local voting rights later accepted in the Riksdag. The majority of Liberals wanted to require some property ownership before a man could vote, while the Social Democrats called for total male suffrage without property limitations. The strong farmer representation in
28840-473: The new population in Middle and North Ostrobothnia was one of the most notable events in the history of the Finnish population during the medieval ages. In Åland , the Turku archipelago and the coastal regions of Ostrobothnia and Nylandia there also was a Swedish -speaking population. In the medieval ages, peasants were by far the largest population group in Finland. A large part of the area of current Finland
29046-440: The north, Sweden was invaded by its enemies; Charles returned home in 1714, too late to restore his lost empire and impoverished homeland; he died in 1718. In the subsequent peace treaties, the allied powers, joined by Russia and Great Britain-Hanover, ended Sweden's reign as a great power. Russia now dominated the north. The war-weary Riksdag asserted new powers and reduced the crown to a constitutional monarchy, with power held by
29252-506: The northern part of the county of Kalmar , also called " Tjust ". The earliest images can be found in the province of Jämtland , dating from 5000 BC. They depict wild animals such as elk, reindeer, bears and seals. 2300–500 BC was the most intensive carving period , with carvings of agriculture, warfare, ships, domesticated animals, etc. Petroglyphs with themes have also been found in Bohuslän , dating from 800 to 500 BC. For centuries,
29458-433: The office from 1412 to 1450. The spiritual frälse were the educated, literate intellectuals in medieval Finland. Its members had often attended the Turku cathedral school and some had also studied in foreign universities. The Nordic Kalmar Union was founded by Queen of Denmark Margaret I in 1397. In practice, conflicts arose within the union, as the Swedish high classes with their expansion policy were interested in
29664-511: The over-taxed lower estates protested, and the Diet had to be suspended. The king intervened, not to quell the commons, as the senate insisted, but to compel the nobility to give way. He proposed a special committee to investigate the matter before the meeting of the next Riksdag and that a proportional contribution should be levied on all classes in the meantime. Both groups accepted this arrangement. Charles X Gustav had done his best to recover from
29870-520: The ownership of the Baltic lands of Estonia and Livonia. Also, a war with Denmark was fought from 1611 to 1613, resulting in a loss for Sweden. After Charles IX died, his son Gustav II Adolf inherited the throne. The realm was in a bad state and Sweden had to sign a peace treaty with Denmark in 1613. The Treaty of Stolbovo was signed with Russia in 1617, which resulted in Käkisalmi county, Nöteborg and part of Ingria being annexed into Sweden. In
30076-705: The peasants had to serve in the army and the navy, and many of them died in service. History of Sweden The history of Sweden can be traced back to the melting of the Northern Polar Ice Caps . From as early as 12000 BC, humans have inhabited this area. Throughout the Stone Age , between 8000 BC and 6000 BC, early inhabitants used stone-crafting methods to make tools and weapons for hunting, gathering and fishing as means of survival. Written sources about Sweden before AD 1000 are rare and short, usually written by outsiders. It
30282-462: The people and the nobility. Primarily a soldier, he directed his ambition towards military glory; but he was also an unusually sharp-sighted politician. While placing great emphasis on military strength, he also understood that domestic unity was necessary for a powerful foreign policy. The most pressing domestic question was the reduction , or restitution of alienated crown lands. At the Riksdag of
30488-549: The pikes were used as an offensive weapon: in close combat, they had the advantage over their foes' weapons thanks to their range. After the bayonet was introduced in the Carolean army (1700–1706), the final volley was delayed until the soldiers were inside bayonet range. Every infantry battalion had grenadiers attached. They supported the infantry attack by lobbing grenades from the flanks. They also formed units of their own. They were otherwise equipped like infantry. Thus, in
30694-549: The political as well as the religious balance of power in Europe. From bridgeheads in Stralsund (1628) and Pomerania (1630) , the Swedish army advanced to the south of the Holy Roman Empire , and in a side theater of the war deprived Denmark–Norway of Danish Estonia , Jämtland , Gotland , Halland , Härjedalen , Idre and Särna , became exempt from the Sound Dues , and established claims to Bremen-Verden , all of which
30900-550: The population had included slaves until they were freed by the Swedish government in 1847. Between 1570 and 1800, Sweden experienced two periods of urban expansion, c. 1580–1690 and in the mid-18th century, separated by relative stagnation from the 1690s to about 1720. The initial phase was the more active, including an increase in the percentage of urban dwellers in Stockholm – a pattern comparable to increasing urban populations in other European capital and port cities – as well as
31106-536: The power of the aristocracy. Charles XI felt that he could do it now that he had allies in the lower orders to support him. The Riksdag of Stockholm, October 1680, began a new era of Swedish history. On the motion of the Estate of Peasants, the question of the recovery of the alienated crown lands was brought before the Riksdag, and a resolution of the Diet directed that all countships , baronies , domains, manors and other estates producing an annual rent of more than
31312-468: The power of the crown at the expense of the nobility, while giving the nobles privileges such as exemption from taxation in exchange for military service. Sweden never had a fully developed feudal system , and its peasants were never reduced to serfdom . The Vikings from Sweden partly took part in the raids of the Western and Southern regions of Europe, but mainly traveled east to Russia, Constantinople and
31518-508: The promotion of gymnastics as a scientifically sound form of physical discipline coincided with the introduction of conscription, which gave the state a strong interest in educating children physically as well as mentally for the role of citizen soldiers. Skiing is a major recreation in Sweden and its ideological, functional, ecological, and social impact has been great on Swedish nationalism and consciousness. Swedes perceived skiing as virtuous, masculine, heroic, in harmony with nature, and part of
31724-470: The reaction from the monarchy. King Gustav III (1746–1792) came to the throne in 1771, and in 1772 led a coup d'état, with French support, that established him as an "enlightened despot", who ruled at will. The Age of Freedom and party politics was over. Precocious and well-educated, he became a patron of the arts and music. His edicts reformed the bureaucracy, repaired the currency, expanded trade, and improved defense. The population had reached two million and
31930-735: The realm changed. For four decades, the monarch's grasp of Finland was tighter than before. King Eric of Pomerania visited Finland twice, in 1403 and in 1407. With the union, the leading authorities in Finland also changed, as the king placed his own trustees to lead the castles. Abraham Broderson rose as the chief of the Turku Castle and the Danish Klaus Fleming was appointed as lawspeaker. Later, Klaus Lydekesson Djäkn [ fi ; sv ] and Krister Nilsson Vasa [ fi ; sv ] rose to significant positions. The bishop Magnus II Tavast [ fi ; sv ]
32136-452: The realm. For a time, Finns were considered by a majority of historians to be the first inhabitants of Sweden together with the Sámi. This was also believed by some Swedish historians, like Olof von Dalin (18th century), who believed them to be one of the biblical Ten Lost Tribes of Israel. This change in attitude largely stemmed from a need to create a more equal footing during the decline of
32342-432: The reason for the crusades besides spreading Catholic faith, were the numerous raids that Finnish tribes made to Sweden. Pope Alexander IV even accepted marriage between Swedish king Valdemar and Sophia , daughter of Danish king Eric IV , so they could better repel heathen attacks. By the 14th century, with the successful crusades and the partial colonization of Finnish coastline with Christian Swedish colonists , what
32548-469: The reign of Gustav Vasa, a continuous Swedish realm started to form. He managed to suppress the regional communities who had been driving their own politics. In turn, the reformation suppressed the church. The high nobility, already weakened by the bloodbath, was now attached to support royal politics. However, the governing was still done in the medieval tradition: the king had numerous noblemen and scribes to help him, but these were not really officials. Also
32754-440: The reign of king Magnus IV of Sweden . In medieval times, the historical regions of Finland Proper and Satakunta were part of the central area of the Swedish government and retained the ties to Scandinavia they had formed already during prehistory. In Southwest Finland, Tavastia, southern Karelia there was permanent agricultural population, which gradually condensed and spread to a larger area. The spreading and establishment of
32960-403: The same side as Sweden, fortunes shifted again. As the war continued, the civilian and military death toll grew, and when it was over, it had led to severe depopulation in the German states. Although exact population estimates do not exist, historians estimate that the population of the Holy Roman Empire fell by one-third as a result of the war. Sweden founded overseas colonies , principally in
33166-486: The same time , transformed from a stagnant rural society to a vibrant industrial society between the 1860s and 1910. The agricultural economy shifted gradually from a communal village to a more efficient private farm-based agriculture. There was less need for manual labor on the farm so many went to the cities and a million Swedes emigrated to the United States between 1850 and 1890. Many returned and brought word of
33372-429: The same year and took hold of the Turku and Kastelholm castles, promising to denounce his position as leader of the realm if he were to receive the whole of Finland as his county. This wish was granted, apart from Åland . However, the situation changed very quickly, and Charles VIII had to contend himself with the Vyborg slottslän . Turku returned to the power of an official appointed by the king. The king's intention
33578-458: The second half of the 13th century. At this time, Sweden consisted of most of what is today the southern part of the country (except for Scania , Blekinge , Halland and Bohuslän ), as well as parts of modern Finland . Over the following centuries, Swedish influence would expand into the North and East. In the late 14th century Sweden, Denmark and Norway were united in the Kalmar Union . During
33784-536: The secular government (such as priests, nuns and beggar brothers). The parishes of the Catholic church in the area of Finland belonged to the Archdiocese of Turku . The bishop of Turku, the head of the diocese, had as well as power over the church, a large amount of secular power, and he was a member of the Privy Council of Sweden . One of the most notable medieval bishops of Turku was Magnus II Tavast, who held
33990-604: The south-eastern part of the Finnish territories, in 1721 as a result of the Great Northern War . Sweden ceded the remainder of Old Finland in 1743 following the Hats' War . On 17 September 1809, the period of Swedish rule over the rest of Finland came to an end when the Treaty of Hamina was signed, ending the Finnish War . As a result, the eastern third of Sweden was ceded to the Russian Empire and became established as
34196-540: The start of the downfall of Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. The country was devastated, treasures stolen, and insurmountable loss of lives occurred. Sweden was able to establish control of the Eastern bank of the Sound , formalised in the Treaty of Roskilde (1658), and gain recognition of her southeastern dominions by the European great powers in the Treaty of Oliva (1660); but Sweden was barred from further expansion at
34402-422: The state to the verge of bankruptcy, and the financial difficulties caused public unrest before her abdication. The Swedish people feared that the external, artificial greatness of their country might be purchased with the loss of their civil and political liberties. The Swedish people looked to a new king to address the problem of too much power vested in the nobility. Charles X Gustav was a strong arbiter between
34608-464: The surrounding states for its lack of defence of Protestantism. Charles X Gustav's attempt to gain the favour of Brandenburg by dividing Poland not only reversed his original policy, but also created a new southern rival almost as dangerous as Denmark–Norway in the west. In 1660, after five years of warfare, Sweden had obtained peace and the opportunity to organize and develop the new vast realm. The fifteen-year regency that followed Charles X Gustav
34814-506: The taxes collected in Finland was used in the country, while the other half was transferred to Stockholm . Under Sweden, Finland was annexed as part of the Western Christian domain and the cultural, communal and economic order of Western Europe , on which the market economy , constitutional governments and legalistic principles were founded. Finland was the eastern frontier of the realm, which brought many wars and raids to
35020-580: The terms of the Kiel treaty in the last war Sweden has fought. After brief fighting , the peace established a personal union between the two states. Even though they shared the same king, Norway was largely independent of Sweden, except Sweden controlled foreign affairs. The king's rule was not well received and when Sweden refused to allow Norway to have its own diplomats, Norway rejected the King of Sweden in 1905 and selected its own king. During Charles XIV's reign,
35226-406: The throne. Erik XIV was crowned as king in 1561. He attempted to strengthen the monarchy even more in regard to the nobility and also to his brothers. To weaken their position, Erik founded new counties and baronships to divide the power of dukes. In Finland, the king's politics also resulted in new lawspeakers being appointed to the country. In 1561 the king approved the so-called Arboga articles at
35432-496: The treaty with the Holy Roman Emperor and were entrusted with carrying out its provisions, as enacted by the executive congress of Nuremberg in 1650. After the peaces of Brömsebro and Westphalia, Sweden was the third-largest area of control in Europe by land area, only surpassed by Russia and Spain. Sweden reached its largest territorial extent during this time under the rule of Charles X Gustav (1654–1660) after
35638-538: The unwillingness of the Polish nobility to fight a war considered only to be in Sigismund III's personal interest. The costly peace with Denmark and Poland–Lithuania's inability to mount a seaborne attack on the Swedish mainland gave time for Gustavus Adolphus to reform his armies. The continuation of the Polish war in 1625–1629 ended with a ceasefire in Stary Targ ( Truce of Altmark ) on 26 September 1629 that
35844-430: The war not only a military power, but also one of the largest states of Europe, possessing more than twice as much territory as modern Sweden. The land area of Sweden was 1,100,000 km . While modern Sweden is bounded by the Baltic, during the 17th century the Baltic formed a bond between various widely dispersed dominions . All the islands in the Baltic, except the Danish group, belonged to Sweden. The estuaries of all
36050-446: The warrior-king, others have criticised him as a fanatic, a bully, and a bloodthirsty warmonger. A more balanced view suggests a highly capable military ruler whose oft-reviled peculiarities seemed to have served him well, but who neglected his base in Sweden in pursuit of foreign adventure. Slow to learn the limits of Sweden's diminished strength, a party of nobles, who called themselves the " Hats ", dreamed of revenge on Russia and ruled
36256-500: The wilderness did not. Tax income could be raised by dealing out wilderness areas for permanent population. In 1409, Turku started minting its own money , which had a different value than the money used in the rest of Sweden. They were örtugs made of silver and six penny coins. In 1407, Finland got its own supreme court, the Turku land court, which was also given governmental powers. The leaders of Finland could now decide on their country's matters in their own meetings. Externally,
36462-471: The young Swedish king and the diplomatic activity of Louis XIV, a peace congress began sessions at Nijmegen in March 1677. In the beginning of April 1678, the French king dictated the terms of a peace. One of his chief conditions was the complete restitution of Sweden, as he needed a strong Swedish ally. However, Charles XI refused to go along with ceding territories to its enemies, which led the French king to negotiate on behalf of Sweden without its consent. By
36668-546: Was England , due to interactions between Scandinavians and Saxons in the Danelaw , and with Irish missionary monks . German influence was less obvious in the beginning, despite an early missionary attempt by Ansgar , but gradually emerged as the dominant religious force in the area, especially after the Norman conquest of England . Despite the close relations between Swedish and Russian aristocracy (see also Rus' ), there
36874-479: Was a Catholic , which made his position even more problematic in Lutheran Sweden. In 1593, Sigismund arrived in the country to be crowned. He took his oath as a ruler in the autumn of the next year. At the same time, he accepted the Lutheran line of the Uppsala estate and church meeting (1593). With Sigismund's coronation, a personal union between Sweden and Poland, lasting a few years, was born; Sigismund
37080-606: Was a mere skirmish , with actual casualties numbering fewer than 600 men, but it made Sweden appear vulnerable and enabled neighbouring countries to attack in the Scanian War . At this point, the empire began to crumble. In 1675, Swedish Pomerania and the Duchy of Bremen were taken by the Brandenburgers, Austrians , and Danes. In December 1677, the elector of Brandenburg captured Stettin . Stralsund fell on 15 October 1678. Greifswald , Sweden's last possession on
37286-595: Was a plan to hold a new negotiation about the borderline in 1559, but this never happened. In war times, the king had spent a long time in Finland. There he ordered an extensive investigation of misconduct by the nobility. This investigation resulted in the so-called Jakob Teit complaint list, which is a significant source of community history in the 16th century. In summer 1556, the king made Finland into its own duchy, and named his son John as its ruler. Gustav Vasa died in September 1560. Erik XIV of Sweden succeeded him on
37492-462: Was a supporter of the union power. The frälse and the clergy formed the leading political group under the union times. Finland's own frälse only rarely ruled over larger slottslän , which were mostly ruled by Swedes or Danes, sometimes even German-born men, who had however lived in Finland for decades. The Finnish frälse was mostly responsible for the lower government, military duty and especially justice. The most significant duties in
37698-454: Was a wilderness in medieval times, where people from Satakunta, Tavastia and Karelia held hunting trips, and which was inhabited by the Sámi people, at least some of which spoke Sami. The wilderness was not part of any government area in practical terms. In the early times of the Swedish rule, official government documents were often written in Latin , which emphasised the role of the clergy also in secular government. The use of old Swedish as
37904-465: Was also populated. In 1478, Novgorod was annexed to Moscow , and a new power arose beyond the eastern border. To secure the border, the Olavinlinna castle was built to protect the new settlers. The Russians viewed this as a breach of the border treaty, and open war reigned for many years until the interim peace in 1482. However, the parties could not agree on where the border was to be located. In
38110-558: Was checked by Ottoman troops. However, Turkish failure to pursue the victory enraged Charles and from that moment his relations with the Ottoman administration soured. During the same period, the behavior of his troops worsened and turned disastrous. Lack of discipline and contempt for the locals soon created an unbearable situation in Moldavia . The Swedish soldiers behaved badly, destroying, stealing, raping, and killing. Meanwhile, back in
38316-414: Was divided into two separate governmental districts. Viipuri acted as a significant, sometimes almost independent centre, whereas Turku was a more integral part of the governmental area of the central authority. According to Kauko Pirinen , "In the decentralised union nation Finland was also decentralised. In practical terms, it was not a continuous political entity." The independent position of Viipuri
38522-421: Was elected as regent, and the Finnish leaders swore their loyalty to him. In a meeting held in Turku, the people showed their support for his position. However, the unanimity was only specious, as part of the leaders of Finland supported their own political standpoint together with Sten Sture's family. Their goals have remained somewhat unclear. However, national history has emphasised the role of eastern politics in
38728-411: Was entirely remodeled; and, the recent war having demonstrated the unsuitability of Stockholm as a naval station, the construction of a new arsenal was begun at Karlskrona . After seventeen years of financial difficulties, the twofold enterprise was completed. At the death of Charles XI, Sweden could boast of a fleet of forty-three three-deckers, manned by 11,000 men and armed with 2,648 guns, and one of
38934-403: Was evident in that although Finland was divided into two separate lawspeaker areas, Southern and Northern Finland, in 1435, Viipuri had its own independent Karelian lawspeaker area already in the 1440s, with the lawspeaker probably appointed by the chief of the Viipuri Castle. However, the Karelian lawspeaker had no authority in the Turku land court. In the union age, Finland's position as part of
39140-469: Was formalized in the Treaty of Brömsebro (1645). In 1648, Sweden became a guarantor power for the Peace of Westphalia , which ended the Thirty Years' War and left her with the additional dominions of Bremen-Verden, Wismar and Swedish Pomerania . From 1638 Sweden also held the colony of New Sweden , along the Delaware River in North America . In 1655, in the Second Northern War , Charles X Gustav of Sweden invaded and occupied western Poland–Lithuania,
39346-401: Was in favour of the Swedes, to whom Poland ceded the larger part of Livonia together with its important port of Riga . The Swedes also got the right to tax Poland's trade on the Baltic (3.5% on the value of goods), and kept control of many of the cities in Royal and Ducal Prussia (including Piława ( Pillau ), Memel and Elbląg (Elbing). The Swedes later conducted a series of invasions into
39552-453: Was introduced, the pike was discarded in all armies except the Swedish and Russian by 1700. In the Swedish army tactics of that time, retreat was never covered, and they were obliged to attack or fight where they stood. This was a military doctrine that (with the advantage of hindsight) might have proven a bit rash. The infantry shock attack operated as follows. The two rear ranks of musketeers were ordered to shoot when "you could not miss,"
39758-409: Was king of Poland until 1632. After the king returned to Poland, conflicts arose among the nobility about Karl's position as a regent. In this conflict, Finland's leader Klaus Fleming sided with the king. At the Arboga diet in 1597, Karl was still named as regent. At this time, he declared his opponents, especially Klaus Fleming, to be rebels. In general, secular courts in Europe during the start of
39964-439: Was lost. Sweden had now won considerable political influence, which was lessened by the loss of moral prestige. On Charles X Gustav 's accession in 1655, Sweden's neighbours may have become allies; however, territorial loss combined with the loss of religious liberty lessened their ties to Sweden. At Charles X Gustav's death, five years later, Sweden had not only damaged its newly claimed territories but also had become hated by
40170-412: Was marked by the emergence of a liberal opposition press, the abolition of guild monopolies in trade and manufacturing in favor of free enterprise, the introduction of taxation and voting reforms, the installation of a national military service, and the rise in the electorate of three major party groups: the Social Democratic Party, the Liberal Party, and the Conservative Party. Sweden, much like Japan at
40376-452: Was meanwhile employed in a defensive manner, relying on their superior firepower to break enemy attacks. Smaller musketeer detachments (~200 men) were used during the Polish war to support the cavalry against the superior Polish-Lithuanian cavalry. Gustavus Adolphus earned the title "father of modern warfare" because of his revolutionary tactics during the Thirty Years' War, which later inspired other nations and became standard tactics. He became
40582-400: Was mortally wounded during the siege of Fredriksten Fortress in Fredrikshald, today's Halden . With his death, Swedish war efforts mostly came to a halt, although Russia continued to harass the civilian population of the Swedish coastal areas until the concluding Treaty of Nystad was finally signed in 1721. Sweden would remain a regional power of varying success until the 19th century, but
40788-616: Was named heir to the throne. The crown's local government concentrated in the hands of officials after land grants had been revoked. Their jobs were numerous, but collecting taxes was one of the most important ones. During Gustav Vasa's reign, tax collecting switched to literal government; first, systematic land documents (of ownership of land) were kept to help in taxation, other kinds of catalogues and literal accounts soon followed. The officials were also responsible for repopulating vacated houses, providing transport and roads. The officials also had to prevent illegal trade and handwork practiced in
40994-444: Was not accepted in the union countries, and the councils took power into their own hands. In 1483 Sten Sture received power over three counties in Finland: Viipuri, Savonlinna and Hämeenlinna. The former realm of the Axelssons became the regent's support area and Finland became an even more integral part of the central government; especially as even Raseborg came to the power of Sten Sture's supporter Knut Posse . Sture did not distribute
41200-410: Was not so much part of a national union or a province as "the eastern half of the realm which was practically destroyed in 1809, when both parts went on along their separate ways." Englund thinks that the period of Sweden as a superpower was the common "property" of Sweden and Finland, because the rise as a superpower would have been impossible for a poor nation without the resources of the eastern part of
41406-433: Was noted for sloth and carelessness leading to a general neglect of business. Additionally, government corruption led Sweden to be hired by foreign powers. This "subsidy policy" dates from the Treaty of Fontainebleau of 1661, through which Sweden, in exchange for a considerable sum of money, supported the French candidate for the Polish throne. Sweden was torn between Louis XIV of France and his adversaries in plans to control
41612-420: Was on the side of the rebels, both old supporters of John and Erik's trusted men. The Turku Castle fell under the power of the rebels. Erik spent the next years in prison, until he was sentenced to death and poisoned in 1577. Under the reign of John III of Sweden , the border conflicts at the border of Kexholm County led to a new war (1570–1595), which is known in Finnish historiography as the Long Wrath or
41818-405: Was the Swedish–Norwegian War (1814) . Sweden was victorious in this war, leading to the Danish king being forced to cede Norway to Sweden. Norway was then forced to enter into a personal union with Sweden that lasted until 1905. Since 1814, Sweden has been at peace, adopting a non-aligned foreign policy in peacetime and neutrality in wartime. During World War I , Sweden remained neutral, but let
42024-434: Was the paternal grandson of King Magnus Ladulås of Sweden and the maternal grandson of King Haakon V of Norway . On 21 July 1336, Magnus was crowned king of Sweden and Norway in Stockholm. In 1332 the king of Denmark, Christopher II , died as a "king without a country" after he and his older brother and predecessor had divided Denmark into smaller polities. King Magnus took advantage of his neighbours' weakness, purchasing
42230-429: Was to prevent the forming of a continuous Finland. After Christopher died in 1448, Charles VIII sailed from Vyborg to Stockholm with 800 armed men, where he was elected king (1448 to 1457), apparently because of his military superiority. His term was marked by a war with Christian I of Denmark , which caused taxes to rise also in Finland. During this period, Finland was the king's most significant support area. In 1457,
42436-457: Was unable to manoeuvre through the situation it faced. The administration was internally divided and hindered by the lack of unity and talent among its statesmen. The two major rivals were the military-aristocratic party headed by Magnus de la Gardie and the party of peace and economy led by Johan Gyllenstierna . The aristocratic group prevailed and brought with it a decline of morality which made it notorious to its neighbours. The administration
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