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91-764: Macedonius I , the founder of the Pneumatomachi, was installed into the See of Constantinople by the Arians (342 AD), and enthroned by Emperor Constantius II , who had for the second time expelled Paul, the orthodox bishop. He is known in history for his persecution of Novatians and Catholics, as both maintained the consubstantiality of Christ, the Son, with the Father. He not only expelled those who refused to hold communion with him, but also imprisoned some and brought others before

182-593: A brief retirement before his death, possibly before the sect fully emerged. Pneumatomachian doctrine was embraced by Eleusius and Marathonius, the latter a major protagonist, and it gained traction in Constantinople, Thrace, Bithynia, and the Hellespont . Under the Emperor Julian , 361 to 363 AD, who personally rejected Christianity in favor of Neoplatonic paganism , and who sought to return

273-469: A council at Alexandria , which resulted in the first formal condemnation of the Pneumatomachi. A synodal letter was sent to the people of Antioch advising them to require of all converts from Arianism a condemnation against "those who say that the Holy Spirit is a creature and separate from the essence of Christ. For those who while pretending to cite the faith confessed at Nicaea, venture to blaspheme

364-613: A cruel bigot. The Novatianists suffered perhaps even more fearfully than the orthodox and some of them were stung into a desperate resistance: those of Constantinople removing the materials of their church to a distant suburb of the city; those at Mantinium in Paphlagonia daring to face the imperial soldiers sent to expel them from their home. "The exploits of Macedonius," says Socrates Scholasticus , "on behalf of Christianity , consisted of murders , battles , incarcerations , and civil wars ". An act of presumption finally lost him

455-489: A darkness of the mind in mystic contemplation of the God who cannot be comprehended. Gregory was one of the earlier proponents of Christian universalism . Gregory argues that when Paul says that God will be "all in all" (1 Cor. 15:28), this means that though some may need to undergo a long period of purification, eventually "no being will remain outside the number of the saved" and that "no being created by God will fall outside

546-452: A reflection of Christ. Gregory, in stark contrast to most thinkers of his age, saw great beauty in the Fall : from Adam's sin from two perfect humans would eventually arise myriad. Gregory was the first voice in the ancient world known to write against all forms of slavery, declaring the institution inherently sinful. If [man] is in the likeness of God, ... who is his buyer, tell me? Who

637-554: A reputation as an unconventional thinker whose thought arguably prefigures postmodernism . Major figures in contemporary research include Sarah Coakley , John Zizioulas and Robert Jenson. In 2003, theologian David Bentley Hart published a book seemingly influenced by Gregory. In 787 AD, the Second Council of Nicea , the seventh Ecumenical Council of the Church , honored Gregory of Nyssa: Let us then, consider who were

728-572: A revival of the study and translation of Greek patristic works. Against this background, some of Gregory of Nyssa’s works which remained unknown to the West during the medieval centuries received their first Latin translations by leading representatives of Italian and Byzantine culture." These include the early Renaissance translations of De vita Moysis by George of Trebizond in 1446, of De vita Macrinae and De anima et resurrectione by Pietro Balbi between 1465 and 1473, and of De oratione dominica by

819-478: A stay of several months, a substitute was found—possibly Gregory's brother Peter, who was bishop of Sebaste from 381—and Gregory returned home to Nyssa to write books I and II of Against Eunomius . Gregory participated in the First Council of Constantinople (381), and perhaps gave there his famous sermon In suam ordinationem . He was chosen to eulogise at the funeral of Meletius, which occurred during

910-541: A treatise on the true doctrine of the Holy Ghost. This he did, and his treatise is the classical work on the subject (peri tou hagiou II. M. 32). It is that he influenced his brother Gregory of Nyssa to write his treatise against the Macedonians, of which only a part has come down to us and which appears to be based on the words: "Lord and life-giver who proceeds from the Father." These words, apparently taken from

1001-546: Is controversial, however, and other commentators suggest that Theosebia the Deaconess was one of Gregory's sisters. In 371, the Emperor Valens split Cappadocia into two new provinces, Cappadocia Prima and Cappadocia Secunda. This resulted in complex changes in ecclesiastical boundaries, during which several new bishoprics were created. Gregory was elected bishop of the new see of Nyssa in 372, presumably with

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1092-427: Is his seller? To God alone belongs this power; or rather, not even to God himself. [...] God would not therefore reduce the human race to slavery, since [God] himself, when we had been enslaved to sin, spontaneously recalled us to freedom. But if God does not enslave what is free, who is he that sets his own power above God's? Gregory used Plato's definition of virtue as ‘something that admits of no master [ἀδέσποτον]’ in

1183-560: Is no further reference to Cappadocia in the rest of the New Testament . Early Christianity arose in Cappadocia relatively late, with no evidence of a Christian community before the late second century AD. Alexander of Jerusalem was the first bishop of the province in the early to mid third century, a period in which Christians suffered persecution from the local Roman authorities. The community remained very small throughout

1274-533: Is observed on 10 January. The Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod commemorates Gregory along with the other Cappadocian Fathers on 10 January. Gregory is remembered (with Macrina ) in the Church of England with a lesser festival on 19 July. Gregory is revered as a saint. However, unlike the other Cappadocian fathers, he is not a Doctor of the Church . He is venerated chiefly in the East. His relics were held by

1365-584: Is often due to the lack of systematic structure and the presence of terminological inconsistencies in Gregory's work. Gregory, following Basil, defined the Trinity as "one essence [ οὐσία ] in three persons [ ὑποστάσεις ]", the formula adopted by the Council of Constantinople in 381. Like the other Cappadocian Fathers, he was a homoousian , and Against Eunomius affirms the truth of the consubstantiality of

1456-463: Is that he was an orthodox Trinitarian theologian , who was influenced by the Neoplatonism of Plotinus and believed in universal salvation following Origen . However, as a highly original and sophisticated thinker, Gregory is difficult to classify, and many aspects of his theology are contentious among both conservative Eastern Orthodox theologians and Western academic scholarship. This

1547-539: Is the Good is also Beauty. Eastern Orthodox theologians are generally critical of the theory that Gregory was influenced by neoplatonism. For example, Metropolitan Hierotheos of Nafpaktos argues in Life After Death that Gregory opposed all philosophical (as opposed to theological) endeavour as tainted with worldliness. This view is supported by Against Eunomius , where Gregory denounces Eunomius for placing

1638-454: Is to be preferred to that which has existed in such sin. For, as to the latter, on account of the depth of the ingrained evil, the chastisement in the way of purgation will be extended into infinity". However, Ramelli renders the original Greek "εἰς ἄπειρον παρατείνεται ἡ διὰ τῆς καθάρσεως κόλασις" as "the punishment provided for the purpose of purification will tend to an indefinite duration." Additional sources are needed to interpret correctly

1729-595: Is what Gregory believed and taught is affirmed by most scholars. A minority of scholars have argued that Gregory only affirmed the universal resurrection. In the Life of Moses , Gregory writes that just as the darkness left the Egyptians after three days, perhaps redemption [ ἀποκατάστασις ] will be extended to those suffering in hell [ γέεννα ]. This salvation may not only extend to humans; following Origen , there are passages where he seems to suggest (albeit through

1820-527: The Creed of Jerusalem , had been used by St. Epiphanius of Salamis in his "Ancoratus" when combating the (374 AD). Amphilochius of Iconium, as Metropolitan of Lycaonia , wrote in concurrence with his bishops a synodal letter to the bishops of Lycia (another part of Asia Minor), which contains a statement of the orthodox doctrine (377 AD). In Constantinople (379) Gregory of Nazianzus pronounced his theological oration on this subject. The West likewise upheld

1911-481: The Great Catechism , Gregory suggests that while every human will be resurrected , salvation will only be accorded to the baptised , although he also states that others driven by their passions can be saved after being purified by fire. While he believes that there will be no more evil in the hereafter, it is arguable that this does not preclude a belief that God might justly damn sinners for eternity. Thus,

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2002-545: The Vatican until 2000, when a portion of them were translated to the Greek Orthodox church of St. Gregory of Nyssa, San Diego , California . Professor of theology, Natalie Carnes wrote: "One reason Gregory was not taken up into the theological stream in the West is that he was little translated into Latin. John Scotus Eriugena (c. 800–c. 877) should be greatly credited for the influence Gregory did have. Not only

2093-503: The stoics never questioned the institution of slavery, which was considered an ordinary part of daily life in the ancient world; and other ancient philosophers such as Plato and Aristotle also supported slavery. Gregory of Nyssa's critique was the first and only sustained critique of the institution of slavery itself made in the ancient world. There are many similarities between Gregory's theology and neoplatonist philosophy , especially that of Plotinus . Specifically, they share

2184-595: The "same essence" ( homoousios ) as that of God the Father . The Macedonians supported the Homoiousian creeds of Antioch and Seleucia and condemned the Homoian creeds of Ariminum and Constantinople , and they called new synods to gain support for their views and condemn their opponents. The Pneumatomachi were denounced in 374 by Pope Damasus I . In 381 AD, the Pneumatomachian concept that

2275-548: The 6th-century Latin translation of De opificio hominis by Dionysius Exiguus was very widespread in the Medieval period, and Francisco Bastitta Harriet argues that Nyssen's conceptions of indeterminate human nature and ontological freedom were among the core influences on Renaissance anthropology, particularly on the works of Nicholas of Cusa and Giovanni Pico della Mirandola . "The renewed enthusiasm of 15th-century philosophers and humanists for classical antiquity also led to

2366-650: The Byzantine scholar Athanasius Chalkeopoulos around 1465. In part due to the scholarship of Balthasar and Jean Daniélou , by the 1950s Gregory had become the subject of much serious theological research, with a critical edition of his work published ( Gregorii Nysseni Opera ), and the founding of the International Colloquium on Gregory of Nyssa. This attention has continued to the present day. Modern studies have focused on Gregory's eschatology rather than his more dogmatic writings, and he has gained

2457-673: The Catholic teaching in a synod held in Illyria and mentioned by Theodoret (H. E., IV, 8) and by Pope Damasus in his letter to Paulinus of Antioch . The sect was condemned in the First Council of Constantinople , and internal divisions soon led to its demise. Socrates (H. E., V, 24) states that a certain Macedonian presbyter, Eutropius, held conventicles of his own while others followed Bishop Carterius. Eustathius of Sebaste, Sabinus and Eleusius of Cyzicus seem to have been leaders whom

2548-537: The Christians of Cappadocia were devout, with the veneration of the Forty Martyrs of Sebaste and Saint George being particularly significant and represented by a considerable monastic presence. There were some adherents of heretical branches of Christianity, most notably Arians, Encratites and Messalians . Gregory was born around 335, probably in or near the city of Neocaesarea , Pontus . His family

2639-577: The Elder , is also revered as a saint and his maternal grandfather was a martyr, as Gregory put it "killed by Imperial wrath" under the persecution of the Roman Emperor Maximinus II . Between the 320s to the early 340s, the family rebuilt its fortunes, with Gregory's father working in the city of Neocaesarea as an advocate and rhetorician. Gregory's temperament is said to have been quiet and meek, in contrast to his brother Basil who

2730-652: The Father, the Holy Spirit as proceeding from the Father, and the Father by his role as progenitor. However, this doctrine would seem to subordinate the Son to the Father, and the Holy Spirit to the Son. Robert Jenson suggests that Gregory implies that each member of the Godhead has an individual priority: the Son has epistemological priority , the Father has ontic priority and the Spirit has metaphysical priority . Other commentators disagree: Morwenna Ludlow , for instance, argues that epistemic priority resides primarily in

2821-495: The Holy Spirit respectively). Macedonius I of Constantinople Macedonius ( Greek : Μακεδόνιος; died after 360) was a Greek bishop of Constantinople from 342 up to 346, and from 351 until 360. He inspired the establishment of the Pneumatomachi (also called Macedonians), a sect later declared heretical . After Bishop Alexander 's death in 336, his orthodox followers supported Paul I of Constantinople . On

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2912-702: The Holy Spirit was a creation of the Son, and a servant of the Father and the Son, prompted the First Council of Constantinople (also termed the Second Ecumenical Council) to add, "And in the Holy Spirit, the Lord, the Giver of Life, Who proceedeth from the Father, Who with the Father and the Son is equally worshipped and glorified, Who spake by the Prophets," into the Nicene Creed. As a result of

3003-522: The Holy Spirit, deny Arianism in words only, while in thought they return to it." Nevertheless, during the following decade the heresy seems to have gone on without being offered almost any resistance except in the Patriarchate of Antioch where at a synod held in 363, Meletius had proclaimed the orthodox faith. In the East, the moving spirit for the repression of the sect was Amphilochius of Iconium, who in 374 besought St. Basil of Caesarea to write

3094-617: The Kingdom of God". Due to the unity of human nature in Christ "all, thanks to the union with one another, will be joined in communion with the Good, in Jesus Christ Our Lord". Christ's incarnation, death and resurrection results in "total salvation for human nature". Gregory also described God's work this way: "His [God's] end is one, and one only; it is this: when the complete whole of our race shall have been perfected from

3185-406: The Macedonians. Church sources ascribe Bishop Macedonius I as the founder. The writings of Macedonius himself, as well as the Pneumatomachi, have all been lost, and what is asserted regarding their doctrine comes from polemic refutations by church leaders, who regarded them as a heretical sect. Macedonius more fully developed his theological views toward the end of his life including during

3276-475: The Martyr , the excited populace met in the church and churchyard; so frightful a carnage ensued that the place was filled with blood and slaughtered bodies. Constantius's anger was great against Macedonius because of the slaughter, but even more because he had removed the body without consulting him. When Macedonius presented himself at the council of Seleucia in 359, it was ruled that being under accusation it

3367-527: The Nyssen taught that due to God's infinitude, a created being can never reach an understanding of God, and thus for man in both life and the afterlife there is a constant progression [ἐπέκτασις] towards the unreachable knowledge of God, as the individual continually transcends all which has been reached before. In the Life of Moses , Gregory speaks of three stages of this spiritual growth: initial darkness of ignorance , then spiritual illumination , and finally

3458-566: The Protector of the Council of Nicaea , and led to a conflict between Arians and anti-Arians, which filled the church and neighbourhood with carnage. As the disinterment had taken place without imperial sanction, Macedonius fell into disgrace, and Roman Emperor Flavius Julius Constantius caused him to be deposed by the Acacian party and succeeded by Eudoxius in 360. This deposition, however,

3549-555: The Roman Empire to its original religious eclecticism , the Pneumatomachi had enough power to declare their independence from both Arians and orthodox. Pneumatomachi beliefs were distinct from, but in some regards reminiscent of, Arianism . Church commentators assert that they denied the divinity of the Holy Spirit , and regarded the substance of Jesus Christ as being of "similar substance" ( homo i ousios ) but not of

3640-487: The Second Ecumenical Council, homoousios has become the accepted definition of Orthodox Christianity . Thereafter, the Macedonians were suppressed by the emperor Theodosius I . Three prominent 4th-century saints, Athanasius of Alexandria , Basil of Caesarea , and Basil’s younger brother Gregory of Nyssa, wrote polemics against Macedonianism ( Letters to Serapion , On the Holy Spirit , and On

3731-462: The Spirit in Gregory's theology. Modern proponents of social trinitarianism often claim to have been influenced by the Cappadocians' dynamic picture of the Trinity. However, it would be fundamentally incorrect to identify Gregory as a social Trinitarian, as his theology emphasises the unity of God's will, and he clearly believes that the identities of the Trinity are the three persons, not

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3822-476: The West, induced Constantius to reinstate Paul; and Macedonius had to retire to a private church. The murder of Constans in 350 placed the East under the sole control of Constantius, and Paul was at once exiled. Imperial edicts followed, which permitted the Arians to claim to be the dominant faction in the church. Macedonius is said to have signalled his return to power by acts which, if truly reported, brand him as

3913-506: The West. No writings of Macedonius are extant, but Pneumatomachian writings are mentioned by Didymus the Blind , who wrote an excellent treatise on the Holy Ghost in thirty-six chapters (translated into Latin by St. Jerome at the command of Pope Damasus), and who refers in his later work (379) on the Trinity (II, 7, 8, 10) to some "Brief Expositions" of Macedonian doctrines which he possessed. On this subject matter Saint Gregory of Nyssa wrote

4004-545: The academic community, particularly involving universal salvation , which has resulted in challenges to many traditional interpretations of his theology. The Book of Acts depicts that on the Day of Pentecost there were visiting Jews who were "residents of ... Cappadocia " in attendance. In the First Epistle of Peter , written after AD 65, the author greets Christians who are "exiles scattered throughout…Cappadocia". There

4095-468: The administrative ability of his brother Basil or the contemporary influence of Gregory of Nazianzus, but he was an erudite Christian theologian who made significant contributions to the doctrine of the Trinity and the Nicene Creed . Gregory's philosophical writings were influenced by Origen . Since the mid-twentieth century, there has been a significant increase in interest in Gregory's works from

4186-545: The appropriate length of time." That we can choose either to accept or ignore this purification is confirmed by the saint's many exhortations that we freely undertake the virtuous path." Dr. Ilaria Ramelli has made the observation that for Gregory free will was compatible with universal salvation, since every person would eventually accept the good having gone through purification. Nevertheless, some interpret Gregory as conceding that Judas and similar sinners will never be completely purified when he wrote, "that which never existed

4277-448: The city to quell discontent. In 375, Desmothenes of Pontus convened a synod at Ancyra to try Gregory on charges of embezzlement of church funds and irregular ordination of bishops. He was arrested by imperial troops in the winter of the same year, but escaped to an unknown location. The synod of Nyssa, which was convened in the spring of 376, deposed him. However, Gregory regained his see in 378, perhaps due to an amnesty promulgated by

4368-527: The commentary on 30 May in the Acta Sanctorum , for example, initially states that they were nine, before describing Peter as the tenth child. It has been established that this confusion occurred due to the death of one son in infancy, leading to ambiguities in Gregory's own writings. Gregory's parents had suffered persecution for their faith: he writes that they "had their goods confiscated for confessing Christ." Gregory's paternal grandmother, Macrina

4459-524: The council. The council sent Gregory on a mission to Arabia, perhaps to ameliorate the situation in Bostra where two men, Agapius and Badagius, claimed to be bishop. If this is the case, Gregory was unsuccessful, as the see was still contested in 394. He then travelled to Jerusalem where Cyril of Jerusalem faced opposition from local clergy due to the fact that he had been ordained by Acacius of Caesarea , an Arian heretic. Gregory's attempted mediation of

4550-440: The discovery of mystical theology, or rather with the perception that darkness is an appropriate symbol under which God can be discussed. There is much truth in this....Gregory seems to have been the first Christian writer to have made this important point. J. Kameron Carter writes about Gregory's stance on slavery, in the book Race a Theological Account (2008): What interests me is the defining features of Gregory's vision of

4641-528: The dispute was unsuccessful, and he himself was accused of holding unorthodox views on the nature of Christ . His later reign in Nyssa was marked by conflict with his metropolitan, Helladius. Gregory was present at a 394 synod convened at Constantinople to discuss the continued problems in Bostra. While the year of his death is unknown, it is generally accepted that he died in 394. The traditional view of Gregory

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4732-458: The divinity of the Holy Spirit. Gregory of Nyssa Autocephaly recognized by some autocephalous Churches de jure : Autocephaly and canonicity recognized by Constantinople and 3 other autocephalous Churches: Spiritual independence recognized by Georgian Orthodox Church: Semi-Autonomous: Gregory of Nyssa , also known as Gregory Nyssen ( ‹See Tfd› Greek : Γρηγόριος Νύσσης or Γρηγόριος Νυσσηνός; c. 335 – c. 394),

4823-603: The early Fathers, the Macedonians were able to justify and propagate their views. The majority of this sect were clearly orthodox on the Consubstantiality of the Son; they had sent a deputation from the Semi-Arian council of Lampsacus (364 AD) to Pope Liberius , who after some hesitation acknowledged the soundness of their faith; but with regard to the Third Person, both pope and bishops were satisfied with

4914-575: The first man to the last—some having at once in this life been cleansed from evil, others having afterwards in the necessary periods been healed by the Fire, others having in their life here been unconscious equally of good and of evil—to offer to every one of us participation in the blessings which are in Him, which, the Scripture tells us, 'eye hath not seen, nor ear heard,' nor thought ever reached." That this

5005-524: The fourth century, and was completed by Augustine in the fourth and fifth centuries. ...[Gregory] taught that Creation was potential. God imparted to matter its fundamental properties and laws. The objects and completed forms of the Universe developed gradually out of chaotic material. Anthony Meredith writes of Gregory's mystical and apophatic writings in his book Gregory of Nyssa (The Early Church Fathers) (1999): Gregory has often been credited with

5096-587: The human being is exceptional, being created in the image of God . Humanity is theomorphic both in having self-awareness and free will , the latter which gives each individual existential power, because to Gregory, in disregarding God one negates one's own existence. In the Song of Songs , Gregory metaphorically describes human lives as paintings created by apprentices to a master: the apprentices (the human wills) imitate their master's work (the life of Christ) with beautiful colors ( virtues ), and thus man strives to be

5187-404: The idea that the reality of God is completely inaccessible to human beings and that man can only come to see God through a spiritual journey in which knowledge [ γνῶσις ] is rejected in favour of meditation . Gregory does not refer to any neoplatonist philosophers in his work, and there is only one disputed passage which may directly quote Plotinus. Considering this, it seems possible that Gregory

5278-483: The identification of Macedonians and Pneumatomachians, although that identity is asserted by Socrates , a contemporary historian living at Constantinople. The Council of Nicaea had used all its energies in defending the Homoousion of the Son and with regard to the Spirit had already added the words: "We believe in the Holy Ghost" without any qualification. Because of the vagueness and hesitancy of statement in some of

5369-459: The imperial favor in 358. The Sepulchre containing the body of Constantine I was in danger of falling to pieces, and Macedonius determined to remove them. The question was made a party one. The orthodox assailed as sacrilege "the disinterment of the supporter of the Nicene faith," the Macedonians pleaded the necessities of structural repair. When the remains were conveyed to the church of Acacius

5460-475: The just society: his unequivocal stance against 'the peculiar institution of slavery' and his call for the manumission of all slaves. I am interested in reading Gregory as a fourth century abolitionist intellectual....His outlook surpassed not only St. Paul's more moderate (but to be fair to Paul, in his moment, revolutionary) stance on the subject but also those of all ancient intellectuals -- Pagan, Jewish and Christian - from Aristotle to Cicero and from Augustine in

5551-490: The limited minds of created beings. In Life of Moses , Gregory writes: "...every concept that comes from some comprehensible image, by an approximate understanding and by guessing at the Divine nature, constitutes an idol of God and does not proclaim God." Gregory's theology was thus apophatic : he proposed that God should be defined in terms of what we know He is not rather than what we might speculate Him to be. Accordingly,

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5642-787: The main difference between Gregory's conception of ἀποκατάστασις and that of Origen would be that Gregory believes that mankind will be collectively returned to sinlessness, whereas Origen believes that personal salvation will be universal. This interpretation of Gregory has been criticized recently, however. After all, at the end of chapter XXXV of the Great Catechism Gregory writes that those who have not been purified by water through baptism "must needs be purified by fire" so that "after long succeeding ages, their nature may be restored pure again to God". Attempting to reconcile these disparate positions, Eastern Orthodox theologian Dr. Mario Baghos notes that "when taken at face value

5733-700: The new emperor, Gratian . In the same year Basil died, and despite the relative unimportance of Nyssa, Gregory took over many of his brother's former responsibilities in Pontus. He was present at the Synod of Antioch in April 379, where he unsuccessfully attempted to reconcile the followers of Meletius of Antioch with those of Paulinus . After visiting the village of Annisa to see his dying sister Macrina, he returned to Nyssa in August. In 380 he travelled to Sebaste , in

5824-436: The other hand, the Arians rallied round Macedonius. The former was ordained bishop, but did not hold his bishopric long. The Semi-Arian emperor Constantius II came to Constantinople, convened a synod of Arian bishops, banished Paul I, and, to the disappointment of Macedonius, translated Eusebius of Nicomedia to the vacant see . This was thought to have been in 338. Eusebius's death in 341 restarted hostilities between

5915-573: The partisans of Paul and Macedonius. Paul returned, and was introduced into the Irene church of Constantinople; Arian bishops immediately ordained Macedonius in St. Paul's church. So violent did the tumult become that Constantius sent his general Hermogenes to eject Paul for a second time. His soldiers met with open resistance; the general was killed and his body dragged through the city. Constantius at once left Antioch and punished Constantinople by depriving

6006-522: The people of half their daily allowance of corn . Paul was expelled; Macedonius was severely blamed for his part in these disturbances, and for allowing himself to be ordained without imperial sanction; but over all the Arians triumphed. Macedonius was permitted to officiate the church in which he had been consecrated. Paul went to Rome, and he and Athanasius of Alexandria and other orthodox bishops expelled from their sees were sent back by Pope Julius I with letters rebuking those who had deposed them. Philip

6097-470: The phrase: "We believe in the Holy Ghost". While hiding in the desert during his third exile, Athanasius learned from his friend Serapion of Thumis of Alexandrian believers acknowledging Nicaea, and yet declaring the Holy Ghost a mere creature and a ministering angel (on the strength of Hebrews 1:14). Athanasius wrote at once to Serapion in defence of the Nicene faith, and on his return from exile (362 AD) held

6188-418: The prefect executed the fresh orders of the emperor in hurrying Paul into exile to Thessalonica , and in reinstating Macedonius, but not without bloodshed. Macedonius held the see for about six years, while letters and delegates, the pope and the emperors, synods and counter-synods, were debating and disputing the treatment of Paul and Athanasius. In 349 the alternative of war offered by Constans , emperor of

6279-416: The province of Armenia Prima , to support a pro-Nicene candidate for the election to the bishopric. To his surprise, he himself was elected to the seat, perhaps due to the population's association of him with his brother. However, Gregory deeply disliked the relatively unhellenized society of Armenia, and he was confronted by an investigation into his orthodoxy by local opponents of the Nicene theology. After

6370-466: The questioned chapter. Gregory's anthropology is founded on the ontological distinction between the created and uncreated. Man is a material creation, and thus limited, but infinite in that his immortal soul has an indefinite capacity to grow closer to the divine. Gregory believed that the soul is created simultaneous to the creation of the body (in opposition to Origen, who believed in preexistence ), and that embryos were thus persons. To Gregory,

6461-485: The relations between them. Gregory was one of the first theologians to argue that God is infinite . His main argument for the infinity of God, found in Against Eunomius , is that God's goodness is limitless, and as God's goodness is essential , God is also limitless. An important consequence of Gregory's belief in the infinity of God is his belief that God, as limitless, is essentially incomprehensible to

6552-477: The rest of the Apostles and prophets". While his brothers Basil and Naucratius lived as hermits from c.  355 , Gregory initially pursued a non-ecclesiastical career as a rhetorician . He did, however, act as a lector . He is known to have married a woman named Theosebia during this period, who is sometimes identified with Theosebia the Deaconess , venerated as a saint by Orthodox Christianity. This

6643-531: The results of his systematic Aristotelean philosophy above the traditional teachings of the Church. The Eastern Orthodox and Eastern Catholic Churches commemorate Gregory of Nyssa on 10 January. The Roman Martyrology and the Episcopal Church commemorate his death on 9 March. In modern Roman Catholic calendars which include the feast of St. Gregory, such as the Benedictines , his feast day

6734-627: The saint seems to be contradicting himself in these passages; on the one hand he asserted the salvation of all and the complete eradication of evil, and, on the other, that the fire needed to purge evil is 'sleepless', i.e. everlasting. The only solution to this inconsistency is to view any allusion to universal salvation in St Gregory as an expression of God's intention for humanity, which is in fact attested to when his holy sister states that God has "one goal ... some straightway even in this life purified from evil, others healed hereafter through fire for

6825-565: The sect repudiated (for Eustathis, see Basil, Ep., CCLXIII, 3). In June 383, Emperor Theodosius I tried by means of a conference to bring the Arian factions to submission. Eleusius handed in his symbol of faith as representing the Macedonians, as he had represented them with Marcianus of Lampsacus at the Ecumenical Council of Constantinople. After this fruitless attempt at reconciliation the Macedonians with other heretics incurred all

6916-538: The service of his own theological arguments against slavery: (1) each human is an image of God and therefore free, (2) the equality of all humans reflects the equality of the divine Persons and (3) just as the divine nature cannot be divided into slavery (δουλεία) and mastery (δυναστεία, κυριότης), neither can human nature; the whole creation is a slave, but of God alone. Although the stoic Seneca had criticized cruel slave masters and advised slave masters to treat slaves with kindness (or at least those of good character),

7007-529: The severities of the Theodosian code and within a generation disappeared from history. Socrates and Sozomus mention a certain Marathonius, made Bishop of Nicomedia by Macedonius, who obtained such a leading position in the sect that they were often styled after him Marathonians. Through St. Jerome , St. Augustine , St. Damasus and Rufinus , the name Macedonians became the customary designation in

7098-484: The support of his brother Basil, who was metropolitan of Caesarea . Gregory's early policies as bishop often went against those of Basil; for instance, while his brother condemned the Sabellianist followers of Marcellus of Ancyra as heretics , Gregory may have tried to reconcile them with the church. Gregory faced opposition to his reign in Nyssa and, in 373, Amphilochius , bishop of Iconium , had to visit

7189-582: The third century: when Gregory Thaumaturgus acceded to the bishopric in c. 250, according to his namesake, the Nyssen, there were only seventeen members of the Church in Caesarea. Cappadocian bishops were among those at the First Council of Nicaea . Because of the broad distribution of the population, rural bishops (χωρεπίσκοποι) were appointed to support the Bishop of Caesarea . During the late fourth century there were around 50 of them. In Gregory's lifetime,

7280-427: The treaty entitled On the Holy Spirit against the Pneumatomachi of Macedonius . Gregory refers to God the Holy Spirit "as good and holy, princely, principal, quickening, governing, and sanctifying of all creation." This allows him to present the Spirit as a correlative of both the Father and the Son. The Pneumatomachi (from Greek for "spirit" and "fighters", combining as "Combators against the Spirit") are also known as

7371-473: The tribunals. In many cases he used torture to compel the unwilling to communicate, forced baptism on unbaptized women and children and destroyed many churches. At last, his cruelty provoked a rebellion of the Novatians at Mantinium , in Paphlagonia , in which four imperial cohorts were defeated and nearly all slain. His disinterment of the body of Emperor Constantine I was looked upon as an indignity to

7462-449: The trinity over Eunomius' Aristotelian belief that the Father's substance is unengendered, whereas the Son's is engendered. According to Gregory, the differences between the three persons of the Trinity reside in their differing hypostatic origin, and the triune nature of God is revealed through divine action (despite the unity of God in His action). The Son is therefore defined as begotten of

7553-534: The venerable doctors and indomitable champions of the Church [including] Gregory Primate of Nyssa, who all have called the father of fathers. Henry Fairfield Osborn wrote in his work on the history of evolutionary thought , From the Greeks to Darwin (1894): Among the Christian Fathers the movement towards a partly naturalistic interpretation of the order of Creation was made by Gregory of Nyssa in

7644-413: The voice of Macrina) that even the demons will have a place in Christ's "world of goodness". Gregory's interpretations of 1 Corinthians 15:28 ("And when all things shall be subdued unto him ...") and Philippians 2:10 ("That at the name of Jesus every knee should bow, of things in heaven, and things in earth, and things under the earth") support this understanding of his theology. Nevertheless, in

7735-568: Was Eriugena himself influenced by Gregory, but he also translated On the Making of the Human into Latin." Gregory's work received little scholarly attention in the West until the mid-twentieth century, and he was historically treated as a minor figure in comparison to Basil the Great or Gregory of Nazianzus. As late as 1942, Hans Urs von Balthasar wrote that his work was virtually unknown. However,

7826-542: Was an early Roman Christian prelate who served as Bishop of Nyssa from 372 to 376 and from 378 until his death in 394. He is venerated as a saint in Eastern Orthodoxy , Catholicism , Oriental Orthodoxy , Anglicanism , and Lutheranism . Gregory, his elder brother Basil of Caesarea , and their friend Gregory of Nazianzus are collectively known as the Cappadocian Fathers . Gregory lacked

7917-460: Was aristocratic and Christian—according to Gregory of Nazianzus , his mother was Emmelia of Caesarea , and his father, a rhetorician, has been identified either as Basil the Elder or as a Gregory. Among his eight siblings were St. Macrina the Younger , St. Naucratius , St. Peter of Sebaste and St. Basil of Caesarea . The precise number of children in the family was historically contentious:

8008-475: Was familiar with Plotinus and perhaps other figures in neoplatonism. However, some significant differences between neoplatonism and Gregory's thought exist, such as Gregory's statement that beauty and goodness are equivalent, which contrasts with Plotinus' view that they are two different qualities. However Plotinus does say " And Beauty, this Beauty which is also the Good " implying the Platonist One which

8099-574: Was known to be much more outspoken. Gregory was first educated at home, by his mother Emmelia and sister Macrina. Little is known of what further education he received. Apocryphal hagiographies depict him studying at Athens , but this is speculation probably based on the life of his brother Basil. It seems more likely that he continued his studies in Caesarea , where he read classical literature , philosophy and perhaps medicine . Gregory himself claimed that his only teachers were Basil, "Paul, John and

8190-576: Was not for doctrinal reasons, but on the ground that he had caused much bloodshed and had admitted to communion a deacon guilty of fornication . Macedonius continued for some time to live near Constantinople and cause trouble. He died about 364. It is thought that during these last years he formulated his rejection of the Divinity of the Holy Ghost and founded his sect. His intimacy with Eunomius of Cyzicus makes this probable. Some scholars reject

8281-467: Was not proper for him to remain (Socr. ii. 40). His opponents, Acacius , Eudoxius, and others, followed him to Constantinople, and, availing themselves of the emperor's indignation, deposed him in 360 on the ground of cruelty and canonical irregularities. Macedonius retired to a suburb of the city, and died there. He is said to have elaborated the views with which his name is connected in his retirement. The " Macedonians ", his followers, did not believe in

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