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195-801: Perdiccas was born to Macedonian nobility. A supporter, somatophylax and Hetairoi of Alexander, he took part in Alexander's campaign against the Achaemenid Persian Empire , distinguishing himself in Thebes and Gaugamela , and followed Alexander into India . When Alexander died in 323 BC, Perdiccas rose to become supreme commander of the imperial army, as well as regent for Alexander's vast empire, ruling on behalf of Alexander's intellectually disabled heir, King Philip III Arrhidaeus and his infant son, King Alexander IV of Macedon . Perdiccas gained supreme power but also inherited

390-587: A "complete and decisive victory for Alexander". Similarities between the battle fought at Thermopylae and the Persian Gates have been recognized by ancient and modern authors. The Persian Gates played the role "of a Persian Thermopylae and like Thermopylae it fell." The Battle of the Persian Gates served as a kind of reversal of the Battle of Thermopylae, fought in Greece in 480 BC in an attempt to hold off

585-606: A Greek cultural and political center in the Mediterranean region along with Ptolemaic Egypt , the Seleucid Empire , and the Attalid kingdom . Important cities such as Pella , Pydna , and Amphipolis were involved in power struggles for control of the territory. New cities were founded, such as Thessalonica by the usurper Cassander (named after his wife Thessalonike of Macedon ). Macedonia's decline began with

780-583: A Hellenic league in the same vein as Philip   II's League of Corinth, he managed to defeat Sparta at the Battle of Sellasia in 222   BC. Sparta was occupied by a foreign power for the first time in its history, restoring Macedonia's position as the leading power in Greece. Antigonus died a year later, perhaps from tuberculosis , leaving behind a strong Hellenistic kingdom for his successor Philip   V. Philip V of Macedon ( r.  221–179 BC ) faced immediate challenges to his authority by

975-547: A brother and cousin of Perdiccas   II who had rebelled against him. Thus, two separate wars were fought against Athens between 433 and 431   BC. The Macedonian king retaliated by promoting the rebellion of Athens' allies in Chalcidice and subsequently won over the strategic city of Potidaea . After capturing the Macedonian cities Therma and Beroea , Athens besieged Potidaea but failed to overcome it; Therma

1170-595: A campaign in Magna Graecia (i.e. southern Italy ) against the Roman Republic known as the Pyrrhic War , followed by his invasion of Sicily . Ptolemy Keraunos secured his position on the Macedonian throne by giving Pyrrhus five thousand soldiers and twenty war elephants for this endeavor. Pyrrhus returned to Epirus in 275   BC after the ultimate failure of both campaigns, which contributed to

1365-576: A coalition against Perdiccas in a civil war initiated by Ptolemy's seizure of the hearse of Alexander the Great . Perdiccas was assassinated in 321   BC by his own officers during a failed campaign in Egypt against Ptolemy, where his march along the Nile River resulted in the drowning of 2,000 of his men. Although Eumenes of Cardia managed to kill Craterus in battle, this had little to no effect on

1560-553: A crossing, but the force of the river broke it apart. It is possible that Perdiccas' invasion occurred while the Nile was flooding. In any case, the destruction of the dam led some officers in Perdiccas' camp to defect; Perdiccas, in response, successfully inspired his army with gifts and titles to continue the war effort. Perdiccas then decamped, not informing his soldiers where he intended to march. He travelled swiftly upstream to find

1755-543: A force of 40,000 infantry and 700 cavalry and faced a Macedonian force of over 10,000. However, some modern historians have claimed these figures for the Achaemenid force to be grossly exaggerated and implausible. Encyclopædia Iranica suggests defenders, as few as 700, and no more than 2000, based on the maximum number of troops likely at Ariobarzanes' disposal, but it notes that most modern historians follow Arrian, Curtius, and Diodorus unreservedly. The Persian Gate

1950-399: A great man was merely on loan from the gods to the world so that, when his duty to it was complete, they might swiftly reclaim him for their family. Accordingly, since nothing remains of him apart from the material which is excluded from immortality, let us perform the due ceremonies to his corpse and his name, bearing in mind that the city we are in, the people we are among and the qualities of

2145-683: A large degree of autonomy and was never made a satrapy (i.e. province) of the Achaemenid Empire, it was expected to provide troops for the Achaemenid army . Alexander   I provided Macedonian military support to Xerxes I ( r.  486–465 BC ) during the Second Persian invasion of Greece in 480–479 BC, and Macedonian soldiers fought on the side of the Persians at the 479   BC Battle of Platea . Following

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2340-409: A leader has failed, the very qualities that made him a leader suddenly appear as flaws. Perdiccas' arrogance and bloody-mindedness were no more pronounced than Alexander's ... but Alexander, unlike the hapless Perdiccas, knew little of failure". Perdiccas' death and the transferring of the regency to Antipater has been seen as marking the end "for the empire as Alexander had envisioned it", as Perdiccas

2535-429: A male who, with the gods' approval, will assume the throne when he comes of age. Meanwhile, designate those you want as your leaders. This meant that Perdiccas would be the regent and effectively the ruler of Alexander's empire until the boy was old enough to rule on his own. Though his later actions would show Perdiccas had ambitions to be king, during the assembly, when Aristonous proclaimed he should be made king and

2730-940: A means of gaining supreme power". Upon learning of this, in the early summer of 322 BC Perdiccas marched the imperial army towards Asia Minor to reassert his dominance as regent, install Eumenes in Cappadocia, and confront Antigonus. It also allowed him to "complete the conquest of Alexander's empire" as Alexander had ignored Cappadocia. In a single campaigning season, Perdiccas defeated Ariarathes I and his large army (30,000 infantry, 15,000 cavalry) in two decisive pitched battles , capturing more than 5,000 soldiers and killing 4,000 others, allowing his supporter Eumenes to claim his satrapy. This greatly contributed to Perdiccas' prestige; Perdiccas took Ariarathes captive, tortured and killed him, and apparently impaled most of his family. Perdiccas ordered Leonnatus to appear before him to stand trial for disobedience, but Leonnatus died during

2925-535: A month. However, through captured prisoners of war or a local shepherd, Alexander found a path around to flank the Persian troops from the rear, allowing him to capture half of Persia proper in another decisive victory against the Achaemenid Empire . The Achaemenid Empire suffered a series of defeats against the Macedonian forces at Granicus (334 BC), Issus (333 BC) and Gaugamela (331 BC), and by

3120-525: A new regent (since Philip   III was considered mentally unstable), in effect bypassing the council of the army as well. Forming an alliance with Ptolemy, Antigonus, and Lysimachus , Cassander had his officer Nicanor capture the Munichia fortress of Athens' port town Piraeus in defiance of Polyperchon's decree that Greek cities should be free of Macedonian garrisons, sparking the Second War of

3315-625: A possible second wife Gygaea: Archelaus, Arrhidaeus, and Menelaus . Philip   II had Archelaus put to death in 359   BC, while Philip   II's other two half brothers fled to Olynthos, serving as a casus belli for the Olynthian War (349–348   BC) against the Chalcidian League. While Athens was preoccupied with the Social War (357–355 BC) , Philip   II retook Amphipolis from them in 357   BC and

3510-561: A pro-Athenian democracy , the Athenian navy was able to form a blockade against Macedonian seaports and invade Chalcidice in 417   BC. Perdiccas   II sued for peace in 414   BC, forming an alliance with Athens that was continued by his son and successor Archelaus   I ( r.  413–399 BC ). Athens then provided naval support to Archelaus   I in the 410   BC Macedonian siege of Pydna , in exchange for timber and naval equipment. Although Archelaus I

3705-724: A resurgent Rome should seek revenge against either Macedonia or Carthage. Although the Macedonians were perhaps only interested in safeguarding their newly conquered territories in Illyria, the Romans were nevertheless able to thwart whatever grand ambitions Philip   V had for the Adriatic region during the First Macedonian War (214–205   BC). In 214   BC, Rome positioned a naval fleet at Oricus , which

3900-514: A reversal of his ascendancy; "His officers grew increasingly suspicious of his aspirations, the common soldier was alienated by his acts of barbarity". Perdiccas' army was furious at Cynane's murder and effectively mutinied . This widespread discontent compelled Perdiccas to spare Eurydice II and marry her to Philip III after all, eroding his control over the royal family. Though Perdiccas was able to regain overall control, this incident probably demonstrated to him that "the marriage to Cleopatra, despite

4095-565: A revolt against Macedonian authority known as the Chremonidean War (267–261   BC). By 265   BC, Athens was surrounded and besieged by Antigonus   II's forces, and a Ptolemaic fleet was defeated in the Battle of Cos . Athens finally surrendered in 261   BC. After Macedonia formed an alliance with the Seleucid ruler Antiochus II , a peace settlement between Antigonus   II and Ptolemy II Philadelphus of Egypt

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4290-645: A shortage of provisions in winter. In 424 BC, Arrhabaeus , a local ruler of Lynkestis in Upper Macedonia, rebelled against his overlord Perdiccas, and the Spartans agreed to help in putting down the revolt. At the Battle of Lyncestis the Macedonians panicked and fled before the fighting began, enraging the Spartan general Brasidas , whose soldiers looted the unattended Macedonian baggage train . Perdiccas then changed sides and supported Athens, and he

4485-710: A staged banquet of reconciliation between Persians and Macedonians. Alexander perhaps undercut his own rule by demonstrating signs of megalomania . While utilizing effective propaganda such as the cutting of the Gordian Knot , he also attempted to portray himself as a living god and son of Zeus following his visit to the oracle at Siwah in the Libyan Desert (in modern-day Egypt) in 331   BC. His attempt in 327   BC to have his men prostrate before him in Bactra in an act of proskynesis borrowed from

4680-528: A story of his fondness for exercise, along with his fellow Orestian and successor, Craterus . As the commander of a battalion of the Macedonian phalanx ( heavy infantry ), Perdiccas fought in the Illyrian campaigns of Alexander and distinguished himself during the conquest of Thebes (335 BC), where he was severely wounded, leading a contingent which stormed the rear gate of the city. Plutarch reports

4875-400: A suitable point to cross, soon coming across a ford which led to the cities of Tanis and Avaris on the other side of the Nile. However, a fort defended by a Ptolemaic force known as the 'Camel's Rampart' ( Kamelon Teichos ) inhibited his advance. Perdiccas then ordered his army to attack, leading a "daring" assault on the fortress at dawn. Perdiccas' deployed his war elephants first, then

5070-423: A time this "clever" strategy worked, enabling a sizeable contingent of Perdiccas's army, led by Perdiccas himself, to cross the river and reach an island at its center. Many drowned in the attempt, however, and soon the elephants began to sink in the mud of the riverbed, and the currents rose quickly. This proved to be a disaster for Perdiccas, as he had to abandon the crossing, leaving many of his infantry stranded on

5265-431: A victim of his own success and the envy of others". Satrap at Partition of Babylon; possibly Nicanor of Stageira Satrap at Partition of Babylon Macedonia (ancient kingdom) Macedonia ( / ˌ m æ s ɪ ˈ d oʊ n i ə / MASS -ih- DOH -nee-ə ; Greek : Μακεδονία , romanized :  Makedonía ), also called Macedon ( / ˈ m æ s ɪ d ɒ n / MASS -ih-don ),

5460-485: Is boldness. Although Perdiccas was evidently a capable leader and effective soldier, a "military man", he is seen to have lacked the qualities his position as regent required. His rule was authoritarian and abrasive, winning him little love from the rank and file, and his punishments were often brutal. Anson believes that Perdiccas "was not a man to be crossed" and that "most acceded to his demands in his presence rather than incur his wrath". Conversely, Romm writes that "When

5655-529: Is known of Perdiccas' youth, but he was probably brought to the Macedonian court in Pella to serve as page like many other young nobles alongside Alexander. When Pausanias assassinated King Philip II of Macedon in 336 BC, Alexander the Great's father, Perdiccas was among those who chased the assassin down and killed him. An anecdote reports that Perdiccas once went into the cave of a lioness who had recently gave birth, and stole two of its cubs. Another tells

5850-527: Is not known. The ancient accounts are largely negative toward Perdiccas, claiming that, though "outstanding on the battlefield", he was arrogant, high-handed, and imperious. Diodorus Siculus calls him phonikos (φονικος), a "man of slaughter". This may be due to the "surpassing rivalry" and enmity Perdiccas had with Ptolemy, whose now lost account served as the basis for the surviving sources (chiefly Arrian ) we have for Perdiccas' career. The other characteristic regularly ascribed to Perdiccas by ancient sources

6045-505: The tagus (supreme Thessalian military leader) Alexander of Pherae , capturing the city of Larissa . The Thessalians, desiring to remove both Alexander   II and Alexander of Pherae as their overlords , appealed to Pelopidas of Thebes for aid; he succeeded in recapturing Larissa and, in the peace agreement arranged with Macedonia, received aristocratic hostages including Alexander   II's brother and future king Philip   II ( r.  359–336 BC ). When Alexander

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6240-538: The Aegean Sea . He improved Macedonia's currency by minting coins with a higher silver content as well as issuing separate copper coinage . His royal court attracted the presence of well-known intellectuals such as the Athenian playwright Euripides . When Archelaus   I was assassinated (perhaps following a homosexual love affair with royal pages at his court), the kingdom was plunged into chaos, in an era lasting from 399 to 393   BC that included

6435-535: The Balkans , the Persian general Megabazus used diplomacy to convince Amyntas   I to submit as a vassal of the Achaemenid Empire , ushering in the period of Achaemenid Macedonia . Achaemenid Persian hegemony over Macedonia was briefly interrupted by the Ionian Revolt (499–493   BC), yet the Persian general Mardonius brought it back under Achaemenid suzerainty . Although Macedonia enjoyed

6630-616: The Battle of Cynoscephalae . Rome then ratified a treaty that forced Macedonia to relinquish control of much of its Greek possessions outside of Macedonia proper, if only to act as a buffer against Illyrian and Thracian incursions into Greece. Although some Greeks suspected Roman intentions of supplanting Macedonia as the new hegemonic power in Greece, Flaminius announced at the Isthmian Games of 196   BC that Rome intended to preserve Greek liberty by leaving behind no garrisons and by not exacting tribute of any kind. His promise

6825-577: The Cadmea , Alexander left the Illyrian front and marched to Thebes, which he placed under siege . After breaching the walls, Alexander's forces killed 6,000 Thebans, took 30,000 inhabitants as prisoners of war , and burned the city to the ground as a warning that convinced all other Greek states except Sparta not to challenge Alexander again. Throughout his military career, Alexander won every battle that he personally commanded. His first victory against

7020-693: The Danube , forcing their surrender on Peuce Island . Shortly thereafter, the Illyrian chieftain Cleitus , son of Bardylis , threatened to attack Macedonia with the aid of Glaucias , king of the Taulantii , but Alexander took the initiative and besieged the Illyrians at Pelion (in modern Albania ). When Thebes had once again revolted from the League of Corinth and was besieging the Macedonian garrison in

7215-467: The Dardanian Kingdom , invaded Macedonia and defeated an army of Demetrius   II shortly before his death in 229   BC. Although his young son Philip immediately inherited the throne, his regent Antigonus III Doson ( r.  229–221 BC ), nephew of Antigonus   II, was proclaimed king by the army, with Philip as his heir, following a string of military victories against

7410-584: The Gallic ruler Bolgios and driving out the raiding party of Brennus , Sosthenes died and left a chaotic situation in Macedonia. The Gallic invaders ravaged Macedonia until Antigonus Gonatas , son of Demetrius, defeated them in Thrace at the 277   BC Battle of Lysimachia and was then proclaimed king Antigonus II of Macedon ( r.  277–274, 272–239 BC ). In 280 BC, Pyrrhus embarked on

7605-518: The Greek victory at Salamis in 480   BC, Alexander   I was employed as an Achaemenid diplomat to propose a peace treaty and alliance with Athens , an offer that was rejected. Soon afterwards, the Achaemenid forces were forced to withdraw from mainland Europe , marking the end of Persian control over Macedonia. Although initially a Persian vassal, Alexander   I of Macedon fostered friendly diplomatic relations with his former Greek enemies,

7800-465: The Hellespont in anticipation of an invasion into Achaemenid Anatolia . In 342   BC, Philip   II conquered a Thracian city in what is now Bulgaria and renamed it Philippopolis (modern Plovdiv ). War broke out with Athens in 340   BC while Philip   II was engaged in two ultimately unsuccessful sieges of Perinthus and Byzantion , followed by a successful campaign against

7995-621: The Indus River (a task which required coordination) by Alexander and did so without issue. Perdiccas was part of the cavalry under Alexander's control at the Battle of the Hydaspes in 326 BC and crossed the river with him in said battle. Perdiccas later plundered around Sangala , and assaulted and sacked the Mallian towns. Alexander was wounded in this campaign, having been shot in the chest with an arrow; some traditions say Perdiccas

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8190-613: The Italian peninsula . In 216   BC, Philip   V sent a hundred light warships into the Adriatic Sea to attack Illyria, a move that prompted Scerdilaidas of the Ardiaean Kingdom to appeal to the Romans for aid. Rome responded by sending ten heavy quinqueremes from Roman Sicily to patrol the Illyrian coasts, causing Philip   V to reverse course and order his fleet to retreat, averting open conflict for

8385-605: The King of Epirus and the Molossians . This marriage would bear a son who would later rule as Alexander   III (better known as Alexander the Great ) and claim descent from the legendary Achilles by way of his dynastic heritage from Epirus . It is unclear whether or not the Achaemenid Persian kings influenced Philip   II's practice of polygamy, although his predecessor Amyntas   III had three sons with

8580-517: The Lamian War before the order reached him. At some time during the first year of his reign, Perdiccas crowned Alexander IV, Roxana and Alexander's child, as king alongside Philip III. Having settled Cappadocia, Perdiccas planned to send Eumenes to subdue the Satrapy of Armenia , which was being mismanaged by Neoptolemus . He marched with Eumenes to Cilicia in the autumn of 322 BC and added

8775-836: The Macedonian Wars and the rise of Rome as the leading Mediterranean power. At the end of the Third Macedonian War in 168   BC, the Macedonian monarchy was abolished and replaced by Roman client states . A short-lived revival of the monarchy during the Fourth Macedonian War in 150–148   BC ended with the establishment of the Roman province of Macedonia . The Macedonian kings, who wielded absolute power and commanded state resources such as gold and silver, facilitated mining operations to mint currency , finance their armies and, by

8970-460: The Nile . Ptolemy had been fortifying his satrapy for two years, believing war with Perdiccas was highly likely, and this greatly contributed to Perdiccas' difficulties and ultimate defeat. Perdiccas reached the most easterly tributary of the Nile near Pelusium , and discovered that the opposite side was garrisoned. He had his troops construct a dam, probably intending to lower the water levels to ease

9165-475: The Partition of Triparadisus lasted only a few years, shorter than Perdiccas' regency. Heckel's view is that "Perdiccas' career is an unfortunate tale of lofty ideals combined with excessive ambition and political myopia", but also that Perdiccas' attempts at keeping Alexander's empire united are "to be admired" and "suggests that he understood Alexander's policies". In sum, that he was "a great but flawed man,

9360-643: The Persian Gates , a narrow mountain pass that lent itself easily to ambush. During his advance, Alexander subdued the Uxii , a local hill people that had demanded the same tribute from him they used to receive from the Persian kings for safe passage. As he passed into the Persian Gates, he met with no resistance. Believing that he would not encounter any more enemy forces during his march, Alexander neglected to send scouts ahead of his vanguard and thus walked into Ariobarzanes' ambush. The valley leading up to

9555-817: The Pythian Games . Athens initially opposed his membership on the council and refused to attend the games in protest, but they eventually accepted these conditions, perhaps after some persuasion by Demosthenes in his oration On the Peace . Over the next few years, Philip II reformed local governments in Thessaly, campaigned against the Illyrian ruler Pleuratus I , deposed Arybbas in Epirus in favor of his brother-in-law Alexander   I (through Philip   II's marriage to Olympias), and defeated Cersebleptes in Thrace. This allowed him to extend Macedonian control over

9750-599: The Roman Republic negotiated the Treaty of Phoenice in 205   BC, ending the war and allowing the Macedonians to retain some captured settlements in Illyria. Although the Romans rejected an Aetolian request in 202   BC for Rome to declare war on Macedonia once again, the Roman Senate gave serious consideration to the similar offer made by Pergamon and its ally Rhodes in 201   BC. These states were concerned about Philip   V's alliance with Antiochus III

9945-467: The Roman consul Titus Quinctius Flamininus managed to expel Philip   V from Macedonia in 198   BC, forcing his men to take refuge in Thessaly. When the Achaean League switched their loyalties from Macedonia to Rome, the Macedonian king sued for peace, but the terms offered were considered too stringent, and so the war continued. In June 197   BC, the Macedonians were defeated at

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10140-604: The Seleucid Empire , and Lysimachus ( r.  306–281 BC ), King of Thrace , defeated the Antigonids at the Battle of Ipsus in 301   BC, killing Antigonus and forcing Demetrius into flight. Cassander died in 297 BC, and his sickly son Philip   IV died the same year, succeeded by Cassander's other sons Alexander V of Macedon ( r.  297–294 BC ) and Antipater II of Macedon ( r.  297–294 BC ), with their mother Thessalonike of Macedon acting as regent. While Demetrius fought against

10335-728: The Strymon River near the Kingdom of Macedonia, where the colonial city of Amphipolis was founded in 437/436   BC so that it could provide Athens with a steady supply of silver and gold as well as timber and pitch to support the Athenian navy . Initially Perdiccas II did not take any action and might have even welcomed the Athenians, as the Thracians were foes to both of them. This changed due to an Athenian alliance with

10530-687: The Susa weddings in 324   BC. Meanwhile, in Greece, the Spartan king Agis III attempted to lead a rebellion of the Greeks against Macedonia. He was defeated in 331   BC at the Battle of Megalopolis by Antipater, who was serving as regent of Macedonia and deputy hegemon of the League of Corinth in Alexander's stead. Before Antipater embarked on his campaign in the Peloponnese , Memnon,

10725-444: The Thracian Odrysian kingdom through conquest and diplomacy. With a reformed army containing phalanxes wielding the sarissa pike, Philip   II defeated the old powers of Athens and Thebes in the Battle of Chaeronea in 338   BC. Philip   II's son Alexander the Great , leading a federation of Greek states , accomplished his father's objective of commanding the whole of Greece when he destroyed Thebes after

10920-414: The Upper Satrapies , however, specifically in Bactria , a rebellion had begun consisting of 23,000 Greek mercenaries who had heard of Alexander's death and now wanted to return home. In response, Perdiccas tasked Peithon , another of Alexander's somatophylakes and satrap of Media , with quelling it, and sent orders for the eastern satraps to contribute troops as well. Peithon may have intended to recruit

11115-517: The comitia centuriata finally voted in approval of the Roman Senate's declaration of war in 200   BC and handed their ultimatum to Philip   V, demanding that a tribunal assess the damages owed to Rhodes and Pergamon, the Macedonian king rejected it. This marked the beginning of the Second Macedonian War (200–197   BC), with Publius Sulpicius Galba Maximus spearheading military operations in Apollonia. The Macedonians successfully defended their territory for roughly two years, but

11310-506: The commander-in-chief ( strategos autokrator ) of a forthcoming campaign to invade the Achaemenid Empire. Philip's plan to punish the Persians for the suffering of the Greeks and to liberate the Greek cities of Asia Minor as well as perhaps the panhellenic fear of another Persian invasion of Greece, contributed to his decision to invade the Achaemenid Empire. The Persians offered aid to Perinthus and Byzantion in 341–340   BC, highlighting Macedonia's strategic need to secure Thrace and

11505-496: The diadochi were declared kings of their respective territories. The beginning of Hellenistic Greece was defined by the struggle between the Antipatrid dynasty , led first by Cassander ( r.  305–297 BC ), son of Antipater, and the Antigonid dynasty , led by the Macedonian general Antigonus I Monophthalmus ( r.  306–301 BC ) and his son, the future king Demetrius   I ( r.  294–288 BC ). Cassander besieged Athens in 303   BC, but

11700-480: The hypaspists and Silver Shields , leading the cavalry in the rear in case Ptolemy arrived. When a large army under Ptolemy then arrived to reinforce the fort, denying Perdiccas an easy victory, Perdiccas, undaunted, renewed the assault. His infantry attempted to escalade the walls while his elephants destroyed Ptolemaic defenses. The fighting continued inconclusively for a considerable amount of time, with heavy losses for both sides, before Perdiccas finally broke off

11895-476: The legend that the Macedonian kings of the Argead dynasty were descendants of Temenus , king of Argos , and could therefore claim the mythical Heracles as one of their ancestors as well as a direct lineage from Zeus , chief god of the Greek pantheon . Contradictory legends state that either Perdiccas I of Macedon or Caranus of Macedon were the founders of the Argead dynasty, with either five or eight kings before Amyntas   I. The assertion that

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12090-415: The region of Macedonia in modern Greece . It gradually expanded into the region of Upper Macedonia , inhabited by the Greek Lyncestae and Elimiotae tribes, and into regions of Emathia , Eordaia , Bottiaea , Mygdonia , Crestonia , and Almopia , which were inhabited by various peoples such as Thracians and Phrygians . Macedonia's non-Greek neighbors included Thracians, inhabiting territories to

12285-463: The rise of Rome because Greek cities in southern Italy such as Tarentum now became Roman allies. Pyrrhus invaded Macedonia in 274   BC, defeating the largely mercenary army of Antigonus   II at the 274   BC Battle of Aous and driving him out of Macedonia, forcing him to seek refuge with his naval fleet in the Aegean. Pyrrhus lost much of his support among the Macedonians in 273   BC when his unruly Gallic mercenaries plundered

12480-489: The tyrannies installed in Greece were to be abolished and Greek freedom was to be restored. When Alexander the Great died at Babylon in 323   BC, his mother Olympias immediately accused Antipater and his faction of poisoning him, although there is no evidence to confirm this. With no official heir apparent , the Macedonian military command split, with one side proclaiming Alexander's half-brother Philip   III Arrhidaeus ( r.  323–317 BC ) as king and

12675-474: The war elephants of King Porus of the Pauravas threatened Alexander's troops, he had them form open ranks to surround the elephants and dislodge their handlers by using their sarissa pikes. When his Macedonian troops threatened mutiny in 324   BC at Opis , Babylonia (near modern Baghdad , Iraq ), Alexander offered Macedonian military titles and greater responsibilities to Persian officers and units instead, forcing his troops to seek forgiveness at

12870-443: The Aegean Sea against increasing Achaemenid encroachment, as the Persian king Artaxerxes III further consolidated his control over satrapies in western Anatolia . The latter region, yielding far more wealth and valuable resources than the Balkans, was also coveted by the Macedonian king for its sheer economic potential. When Philip II married Cleopatra Eurydice , niece of general Attalus , talk of providing new potential heirs at

13065-457: The Antipatrid forces in Greece, Antipater   II killed his own mother to obtain power. His desperate brother Alexander   V then requested aid from Pyrrhus of Epirus ( r.  297–272 BC ), who had fought alongside Demetrius at the Battle of Ipsus, but was sent to Egypt as a hostage as part of an agreement between Demetrius and Ptolemy   I. In exchange for defeating the forces of Antipater   II and forcing him to flee to

13260-444: The Argeads descended from Temenus was accepted by the Hellanodikai authorities of the Ancient Olympic Games , permitting Alexander I of Macedon ( r.  498–454 BC ) to enter the competitions owing to his perceived Greek heritage. Little is known about the kingdom before the reign of Alexander   I's father Amyntas I of Macedon ( r.  547–498 BC ) during the Archaic period . The kingdom of Macedonia

13455-433: The Athenian and Spartan -led coalition of Greek city-states. His successor Perdiccas   II ( r.  454–413 BC ) led the Macedonians to war in four separate conflicts against Athens, leader of the Delian League , while incursions by the Thracian ruler Sitalces of the Odrysian kingdom threatened Macedonia's territorial integrity in the northeast. The Athenian statesman Pericles promoted colonization of

13650-419: The Black in 328   BC is described as "vengeful and reckless" by Dawn L. Gilley and Ian Worthington. Continuing the polygamous habits of his father, Alexander encouraged his men to marry native women in Asia, leading by example when he wed Roxana , a Sogdian princess of Bactria. He then married Stateira II , eldest daughter of Darius   III, and Parysatis II , youngest daughter of Artaxerxes III , at

13845-442: The Chalcidice, and Amphipolis in return for the release of the enslaved Athenians as well as guarantees that Philip   II would not attack Athenian settlements in the Thracian Chersonese . Meanwhile, Phocis and Thermopylae were captured by Macedonian forces, the Delphic temple robbers were executed, and Philip   II was awarded the two Phocian seats on the Amphictyonic Council and the position of master of ceremonies over

14040-822: The Cypriot kings who had allied themselves to Ptolemy. As he was heading south, Perdiccas, having heard that Alcetas and Neoptolemus were refusing to work under Eumenes, ordered them once again to subordinate themselves to him. Finally, a third fleet led by Attalus, his brother-in-law, carried Perdiccas' sister Atalantê and shadowed Perdiccas' army on their southward march. Docimus conquered Babylon and killed Archon in battle, while Perdiccas reached Damascus and deposed Laomedon , satrap of Syria for Ptolemaic sympathies. Soon after arriving in Egypt, Perdiccas may have heard of Eumenes' victory over Neoptolemus, who had defected to Antipater and Craterus. With this boost in morale, and when further reinforcements joined him, Perdiccas marched towards

14235-516: The Diadochi (319–315   BC). Given a string of military failures by Polyperchon, in 317   BC, Philip   III, by way of his politically engaged wife Eurydice II of Macedon , officially replaced him as regent with Cassander. Afterwards, Polyperchon desperately sought the aid of Olympias in Epirus. A joint force of Epirotes, Aetolians, and Polyperchon's troops invaded Macedonia and forced

14430-614: The Great of the Seleucid Empire, which invaded the war-weary and financially exhausted Ptolemaic Empire in the Fifth Syrian War (202–195   BC) as Philip   V captured Ptolemaic settlements in the Aegean Sea. Although Rome's envoys played a critical role in convincing Athens to join the anti-Macedonian alliance with Pergamon and Rhodes in 200   BC, the comitia centuriata (people's assembly) rejected

14625-451: The Great's second wife, Stateira , was murdered by Perdiccas, possibly at the urging of Roxana. Perdiccas also procured Alexander's "Last Plans" through the help of Eumenes, read the plans out before the army, and rejected them. This was done because not only were the plans extraordinarily expensive and grand, but because Perdiccas probably did not want to anger Antipater by replacing him with Craterus . Alexander's wife Roxana gave birth (in

14820-480: The Greeks and betray Perdiccas. When the armies met, the Greeks surrendered and were then treacherously slaughtered wholesale by Peithon's army. Perdiccas is said to have given the order for the massacre in order to ensure Peithon did not gain an army and to punish the rebels. Despite success in the east, Perdiccas' authority as regent was then challenged in the west. Here, Perdiccas had appointed Leonnatus , another somatophylax , as satrap of Hellespontine Phrygia on

15015-720: The Illyrian Dardani and Aetolian League. Philip   V and his allies were successful against the Aetolians and their allies in the Social War (220–217 BC) , yet he made peace with the Aetolians once he heard of incursions by the Dardani in the north and the Carthaginian victory over the Romans at the Battle of Lake Trasimene in 217   BC. Demetrius of Pharos is alleged to have convinced Philip   V to first secure Illyria in advance of an invasion of

15210-591: The Illyrians in the north and the Aetolians in Thessaly. Aratus sent an embassy to Antigonus III in 226   BC seeking an unexpected alliance now that the reformist king Cleomenes III of Sparta was threatening the rest of Greece in the Cleomenean War (229–222   BC). In exchange for military aid, Antigonus   III demanded the return of Corinth to Macedonian control, which Aratus finally agreed to in 225   BC. In 224   BC, Antigonus   III's forces took Arcadia from Sparta. After forming

15405-575: The Lamian War, deferred the decision regarding the Samian exiles to Perdiccas; they were allowed to return to Samos on Perdiccas' order. Perdiccas decided, however, that he wished to win the Macedonian throne, and had designed a plan for this; marriage to Cleopatra, and the return of Alexander's body, son (Alexander IV), and brother (Philip III) to Macedonia with Olympias' approval which, combined, would have made him "invincible" and virtually guaranteed

15600-480: The Macedonian invasion altogether. Ariobarzanes held the pass for a month, but Alexander succeeded in encircling the Persians in a pincer attack with Ptolemy and Perdiccas and broke through the Persian defenses. Alexander and his elite contingent then attacked Ariobarzanes from above in a surprise attack until the Persians could no longer block the pass. Accounts of how he did so vary widely. Curtius and Arrian both report that prisoners of war led Alexander through

15795-405: The Macedonian lines. One account states that Ariobarzanes was killed in the last charge, while Arrian 's version reports that Ariobarzanes escaped to the north, where he finally surrendered to Alexander with his companions. Modern historian J. Prevas maintains that Ariobarzanes and his forces retreated to Persepolis, where they found the city gates closed by Tiridates, a Persian noble and guardian of

15990-523: The Macedonian throne), while Antipater, who was besieged at Lamia as part of the Lamian War , asked Leonnatus for urgent assistance. Leonnatus told Eumenes of his plan to head west, attempting to convince him to join him; Eumenes refused and departed to Perdiccas' court, informing him of Leonnatus' intentions. For this information, Perdiccas elevated Eumenes to the ruling council of the Empire. This incident may have been what made Perdiccas "regard Cleopatra as

16185-476: The Macedonian throne, angered critical generals—including Antipater , Craterus and Antigonus —who decided to revolt against the regent in the First War of the Diadochi . In response to this formidable coalition and a provocation from another general, Ptolemy , Perdiccas invaded Egypt, but his soldiers mutinied and killed him in 321/320 BC when the invasion foundered. According to Arrian , Perdiccas

16380-460: The Macedonian throne. Amyntas III was forced to flee his kingdom in either 393 or 383   BC (based on conflicting accounts), owing to a massive invasion by the Illyrians led by Bardylis . The pretender to the throne Argaeus ruled in his absence, yet Amyntas   III eventually returned to his kingdom with the aid of Thessalian allies. Amyntas   III was also nearly overthrown by

16575-459: The Macedonians. Demetrius   II also lost an ally in Epirus when the monarchy was toppled in a republican revolution . Demetrius   II enlisted the aid of the Illyrian king Agron to defend Acarnania against Aetolia, and in 229   BC, they managed to defeat the combined navies of the Aetolian and Achaean Leagues at the Battle of Paxos . Another Illyrian ruler, Longarus of

16770-699: The Persian Gate in 330 BC. When Philotas was in suspicion by Alexander, Perdiccas was among the close companions who joined Alexander in discussing what should be done. When Alexander attempted to kill Cleitus the Black in 328 BC, Perdiccas was among those who held the king back. Subsequently, he held an important command in the Indian campaigns of Alexander. Perdiccas and Hephaestion , Alexander's closest companion, were generally compatible and seemed to have got along well, as both were selected to ford

16965-416: The Persian Gate is wide, allowing the Macedonian army to enter the mountains at a full march. Ariobarzanes occupied a position near the modern-day village of Cheshmeh Chenar. The road curves to the southeast (to face the rising sun) and narrows considerably at that point, making the terrain particularly treacherous, thus well suited for Ariobarzanes's purposes. According to the historian Arrian, Ariobarzanes had

17160-423: The Persian kings was rejected as religious blasphemy by his Macedonian and Greek subjects after his court historian Callisthenes refused to perform this ritual. When Alexander had Parmenion murdered at Ecbatana (near modern Hamadan , Iran ) in 330   BC, this was "symptomatic of the growing gulf between the king's interests and those of his country and people", according to Errington. His murder of Cleitus

17355-531: The Persians in Asia Minor at the Battle of the Granicus in 334   BC used a small cavalry contingent as a distraction to allow his infantry to cross the river followed by a cavalry charge from his companion cavalry . Alexander led the cavalry charge at the Battle of Issus in 333   BC, forcing the Persian king Darius III and his army to flee. Darius   III, despite having superior numbers,

17550-537: The Roman Senate decided in 184/183   BC to force Philip   V to abandon Aenus and Maronea , since these had been declared free cities in the Treaty of Apamea. This assuaged the fear of Eumenes   II that Macedonia could pose a threat to his lands in the Hellespont. Perseus of Macedon ( r.  179–168 BC ) succeeded Philip   V and executed his brother Demetrius , who had been favored by

17745-415: The Roman Senate's proposal for a declaration of war on Macedonia. Meanwhile, Philip   V conquered territories in the Hellespont and Bosporus as well as Ptolemaic Samos , which led Rhodes to form an alliance with Pergamon , Byzantium , Cyzicus , and Chios against Macedonia. Despite Philip   V's nominal alliance with the Seleucid king, he lost the naval Battle of Chios in 201   BC and

17940-555: The Romans but was charged by Perseus with high treason . Perseus then attempted to form marriage alliances with Prusias II of Bithynia and Seleucus IV Philopator of the Seleucid Empire, along with renewed relations with Rhodes that greatly unsettled Eumenes   II. Although Eumenes   II attempted to undermine these diplomatic relationships, Perseus fostered an alliance with the Boeotian League , extended his authority into Illyria and Thrace , and in 174   BC, won

18135-690: The Scythians along the Danube and Macedonia's involvement in the Fourth Sacred War against Amphissa in 339   BC. Thebes ejected a Macedonian garrison from Nicaea (near Thermopylae) , leading Thebes to join Athens, Megara , Corinth, Achaea , and Euboea in a final confrontation against Macedonia at the Battle of Chaeronea in 338   BC. After the Macedonian victory at Chaeronea, Philip   II installed an oligarchy in Thebes, yet

18330-765: The Seleucids in the 191   BC Battle of Thermopylae as well as the Battle of Magnesia in 190   BC, forcing the Seleucids to pay a war indemnity , dismantle most of its navy, and abandon its claims to any territories north or west of the Taurus Mountains in the 188   BC Treaty of Apamea . With Rome's acceptance, Philip   V was able to capture some cities in central Greece in 191–189   BC that had been allied to Antiochus   III, while Rhodes and Eumenes II ( r.  197–159 BC ) of Pergamon gained territories in Asia Minor. Failing to please all sides in various territorial disputes,

18525-461: The Seleucids by divorcing Stratonice of Macedon . Although the Aetolians formed an alliance with the Achaean League as a result, Demetrius   II was able to invade Boeotia and capture it from the Aetolians by 236   BC. The Achaean League managed to capture Megalopolis in 235   BC, and by the end of Demetrius   II's reign most of the Peloponnese except Argos was taken from

18720-528: The Upper Macedonian aristocracy as well as the Illyrian princess Audata to ensure a marriage alliance. To establish an alliance with Larissa in Thessaly, he married the Thessalian noblewoman Philinna in 358   BC, who bore him a son who would later rule as Philip III Arrhidaeus ( r.  323–317 BC ). In 357   BC, he married Olympias to secure an alliance with Arybbas ,

18915-781: The authority of his government and Perdiccas wanted to rectify this. In response Antigonus, fearing confrontation with the regent, fled to Antipater's court in Macedon, bringing news of not only Perdiccas' murder of Cynane, but his kingly aspirations and intention to marry Cleopatra instead of Nicaea. Craterus and Antipater, having subdued most of Greece in the Lamian War, were infuriated by Antigonus' news. They suspended their plans for more campaigns in Greece and prepared to march into Asia and depose Perdiccas. In late 321 and early 320 BC, as part of his kingly aspirations, Perdiccas intended to send Alexander's body back to Aegae in Macedonia ,

19110-603: The behest of Larissa ended in two disastrous defeats by the Phocian general Onomarchus . Philip   II in turn defeated Onomarchus in 352   BC at the Battle of Crocus Field , which led to Philip   II's election as leader ( archon ) of the Thessalian League, provided him a seat on the Amphictyonic Council, and allowed for a marriage alliance with Pherae by wedding Nicesipolis , niece of

19305-638: The body, but Ptolemy defeated this force and successfully brought Alexander's remains back to Egypt, where they were housed in the city of Memphis . Since the Partition of Babylon, Ptolemy had conquered Cyrenaica without Perdiccas' approval, and within a year of gaining his satrapy had unlawfully executed Cleomenes, the officer Perdiccas had attached to him. Perdiccas, who already distrusted Ptolemy, regarded his diverting of Alexander's body as an unacceptable provocation, "an act of war", and after convening his officers decided to invade Egypt. Perdiccas' strategy

19500-456: The child be chosen as the new king. Quintus Curtius Rufus provides Perdiccas' apparent speech to the assembly: For my part, I return to you the ring handed to me by Alexander, the seal of which he would use on documents as symbol of his royal and imperial authority. The anger of the gods can devise no tragedy to equal this with which we have been afflicted; and yet, considering the greatness of Alexander's achievements, one could believe that such

19695-802: The city and treated the inhabitants cordially, unlike the Potidaeans, who had been enslaved. Philip II then involved Macedonia in the Third Sacred War (356–346   BC). It began when Phocis captured and plundered the temple of Apollo at Delphi instead of submitting unpaid fines, causing the Amphictyonic League to declare war on Phocis and a civil war among the members of the Thessalian League aligned with either Phocis or Thebes. Philip   II's initial campaign against Pherae in Thessaly in 353   BC at

19890-417: The city revolted. During Alexander's subsequent campaign of conquest , he overthrew the Achaemenid Empire and conquered territory that stretched as far as the Indus River . For a brief period, his Macedonian Empire was the most powerful in the world – the definitive Hellenistic state, inaugurating the transition to a new period of Ancient Greek civilization . Greek arts and literature flourished in

20085-429: The city to siege , cutting off the supply lines . Meleager's powerbase began to diminish, and he was eventually convinced by Eumenes of Cardia , Alexander's former secretary, to reconcile with the generals, perhaps in collusion with Perdiccas. Perdiccas announced Philip III and the unborn child of Alexander's wife Roxana (the future Alexander IV of Macedon ) would be recognized as joint kings to placate Meleager. While

20280-541: The court of Lysimachus in Thrace, Pyrrhus was awarded the westernmost portions of the Macedonian kingdom. Demetrius had his nephew Alexander   V assassinated and was then proclaimed king of Macedonia, but his subjects protested against his aloof, Eastern-style autocracy . War broke out between Pyrrhus and Demetrius in 290   BC when Lanassa, wife of Pyrrhus , daughter of Agathocles of Syracuse , left him for Demetrius and offered him her dowry of Corcyra . The war dragged on until 288   BC, when Demetrius lost

20475-547: The empire when his authority was weak, Perdiccas had agreed to marry Nicaea, the daughter of Antipater , the regent of Macedon. But now, in the winter of 322-321 BC, with his position greatly strengthened, Perdiccas was reconsidering the engagement. Furthermore, Olympias, mother of Alexander the Great, offered him the hand of Cleopatra of Macedon, who was residing at Sardis . Eumenes urged Perdiccas to marry Cleopatra, while Perdiccas' brother Alcetas advised marriage to Nicaea. Alcetas' faction believed that Perdiccas, in control of

20670-554: The end of 331 BC Alexander had advanced to Babylon and Susa . A Royal Road connected Susa (the first Persian capital city in Elam ) with the more eastern capitals of Persepolis and Pasargadae in Persis , and was the natural avenue for Alexander's continued campaign. Meanwhile, King Darius III was trying to raise a new army at Ecbatana . Ariobarzanes was charged with preventing the Macedonian advance into Persis. He relied heavily on

20865-403: The ensuing battle, broke through the Macedonian forces and retreated to Persepolis, but were denied entrance into the capital, at which point they returned to fight Alexander's army to the death. A few historians regard the Battle of the Persian Gate as the most serious challenge to Alexander's conquest of Persia. Michael Wood has called the battle decisive and A. B. Bosworth refers to it as

21060-412: The estate he had assigned him. Some others of his friends did the like... Perdiccas led his battalion at the battles of Granicus, Issus , and Gaugamela , where he again distinguished himself and was wounded. Perdiccas became somatophylax (bodyguard) of Alexander following this, and his influence probably grew steadily thereafter. Perdiccas' battalion was used by Alexander to flank and win the Battle of

21255-553: The extent to which his ideas were influenced by his adolescent years of captivity in Thebes as a political hostage during the Theban hegemony , especially after meeting with the general Epaminondas . The Macedonians, like the other Greeks, traditionally practiced monogamy , but Philip   II practiced polygamy and married seven wives with perhaps only one that did not involve the loyalty of his aristocratic subjects or new allies. His first marriages were to Phila of Elimeia of

21450-448: The following conversation between Perdiccas and Alexander prior to the Battle of Granicus , when Alexander was allotting out lands and properties to his followers: So that at last [Alexander] had portioned out or engaged almost all the royal property; which giving Perdiccas an occasion to ask him what he would leave himself, he replied, his hopes. "Your soldiers," replied Perdiccas, "will be your partners in those," and refused to accept of

21645-469: The following year recaptured Pydna and Potidaea, the latter of which he handed over to the Chalcidian League as promised in a treaty. In 356   BC, he took Crenides , refounding it as Philippi , while his general Parmenion defeated the Illyrian king Grabos II of the Grabaei . During the 355–354   BC siege of Methone, Philip   II lost his right eye to an arrow wound, but managed to capture

21840-462: The forces of the Chalcidian city of Olynthos , but with the aid of Teleutias , brother of the Spartan king Agesilaus II , the Macedonians forced Olynthos to surrender and dissolve their Chalcidian League in 379   BC. Alexander II ( r.  370–368 BC ), son of Eurydice   I and Amyntas   III, succeeded his father and immediately invaded Thessaly to wage war against

22035-617: The formation of the Achaean League in 251   BC pushed Macedonian forces out of much of the Peloponnese and at times incorporated Athens and Sparta. While the Seleucid Empire aligned with Antigonid Macedonia against Ptolemaic Egypt during the Syrian Wars , the Ptolemaic navy heavily disrupted Antigonus   II's efforts to control mainland Greece. With the aid of the Ptolemaic navy, the Athenian statesman Chremonides led

22230-483: The formidable Silver Shields to his army. Perdiccas then gave Eumenes his orders, and marched to Pisidia . The native Isaurians and Larandians living here had revolted, murdering Alexander's satrap. Perdiccas campaigned against them next, easily conquering and destroying their cities in "short and brutal struggles", acquiring great amounts of plunder and prestige; "Victorious in the field ... Perdiccas now enjoyed his greatest success". To strengthen his control over

22425-525: The general Craterus was officially declared "Guardian of the Royal Family", Perdiccas effectively held this position, as the joint kings were with him in Babylon. Antipater was confirmed as viceroy of Macedon and Greece . To formalize the reconciliation between the generals and infantry, Perdiccas announced a lustration (a religious purification ritual) and review of the army, convincing Meleager and

22620-438: The generals united under Perdiccas' authority. After a brief scuffle, Perdiccas ordered a tactical retreat and the generals fled Babylon, but Perdiccas remained for a time hoping to regain the allegiance of the infantry. Meleager sent assassins to kill him. Despite only having page boys with him, Perdiccas met the assassins openly, and taunted and terrified them into fleeing. Perdiccas joined the generals outside of Babylon and put

22815-484: The governor of Thrace, was dissuaded from rebellion by use of diplomacy. Antipater deferred the punishment of Sparta to the League of Corinth headed by Alexander, who ultimately pardoned the Spartans on the condition that they submit fifty nobles as hostages. Antipater's hegemony was somewhat unpopular in Greece due to his practice (perhaps by order of Alexander) of exiling malcontents and garrisoning cities with Macedonian troops, yet in 330   BC, Alexander declared that

23010-424: The incident left the chiliarch and regent Perdiccas "suspected by all and full of suspicions". Through the Partition of Babylon , a compromise was reached under which Perdiccas was to serve as "Regent of the Empire" ( epimelētēs ) for the disabled Philip III and infant Alexander IV, as well as supreme commander ( Strategos ) of the imperial army. Perdiccas soon showed himself intolerant of any rivals and, acting in

23205-477: The increased authority the marriage would bring, but she refused, not knowing who would win the war to come. Perdiccas marched to Cilicia first, deposing the satrap Philotas due to his friendship with Craterus, replacing him with one Philoxenus. He prepared a fleet there while sending Docimus to Babylon to supplant the satrap Archon for collusion with Ptolemy. Perdiccas also prepared another fleet, led by Sosigenes of Rhodes and Aristonous , to conquer Cyprus and

23400-572: The induction of Corinth into the Achaean League. Antigonus   II made peace with the Achaean League in 240   BC, ceding the territories that he had lost in Greece. Antigonus   II died in 239   BC and was succeeded by his son Demetrius II of Macedon ( r.  239–229 BC ). Seeking an alliance with Macedonia to defend against the Aetolians, the queen mother and regent of Epirus, Olympias II , offered her daughter Phthia of Macedon to Demetrius   II in marriage. Demetrius II accepted her proposal, but he damaged relations with

23595-465: The infantry to attend. As he controlled all the cavalry, when the infantry accepted and marched outside Babylon, Perdiccas held a clear military advantage. He then sent Philip III to order the capture the rebellious leaders of the infantry, except for Meleager. Perdiccas had these 300 men killed by trampling from his war elephants . Soon afterward, having cowed the infantry, Perdiccas had Meleager executed as well. Though successful in resecuring his power,

23790-426: The institution of the army, while a few municipalities within the Macedonian commonwealth enjoyed a high degree of autonomy and even had democratic governments with popular assemblies . The name Macedonia ( Greek : Μακεδονία , Makedonía ) comes from the ethnonym Μακεδόνες ( Makedónes ), which itself is derived from the ancient Greek adjective μακεδνός ( makednós ), meaning "tall, slim", also

23985-421: The invading Persian forces. Here, on Alexander's campaign to exact revenge for the Persian invasion of Greece, he faced the same situation from the Persians. There are also accounts that an Iranian shepherd led Alexander's forces around the Persian defenses, just as a local Greek showed the Persian forces a secret path around the pass at Thermopylae. The defeat of Ariobarzanes' forces at the Persian Gate removed

24180-472: The island. Perdiccas had no choice but to return with his men. Most of this contingent drowned trying to make it back to the eastern bank, many being eaten by crocodiles . Perdiccas' losses totaled 2,000, including prominent officers. Following what was so far a disastrous campaign, a mutiny broke out amongst Perdiccas' soldiers, who were disheartened by his failure to make progress in Egypt. Angry at his incompetence and probably colluding with Ptolemy, Perdiccas

24375-409: The kingship. Given the intellectual disability of Philip III and the limited acceptance of the infant, Alexander IV , due to his mother being a Persian, the marriage in particular would have given Perdiccas a claim as Alexander's true successor as king, not merely as regent. Feeling "full of confidence and well able to handle all his rivals," Perdiccas set about planning his march on Macedon. At around

24570-464: The last military obstacle between Alexander and Persepolis. Upon his arrival at the city of Persepolis , Alexander appointed a general named Phrasaortes as successor of Ariobarzanes. Alexander seized the treasury of Persepolis, which at the time held the largest concentration of wealth in the world, and guaranteed himself financial independence from the Greek states. Four months later, Alexander allowed

24765-569: The late summer or early fall of 323 BC) and Perdiccas took guardianship over Alexander IV . As his authority was unstable, Perdiccas negotiated marriage with Nicaea of Macedon , the daughter of Antipater, to ally himself with the viceroy (possibly as early as the Siege of Babylon), acknowledging Antipater's rule in Europe while improving his own position in Asia. During the winter of 323 BC in

24960-407: The leader and king of whom we have been deprived. Comrades, we must discuss and consider how we can maintain the victory we have won among the people over whom we have won it. We need a leader; whether it should be one man or more is up to you. But you must realize this: a military unit without a chief is a body without a soul. This is the sixth month of Roxana's pregnancy. We pray that she has produced

25155-604: The mountains to the rear of the Persian position, while a token force remained in the Macedonian camp under the command of Craterus . Diodorus and Plutarch generally concur with this assessment, although their numbers vary widely. Modern historians W. Heckel and Stein also lend credence to this argument. Although precise figures are unavailable, some historians say that this engagement cost Alexander his greatest losses in his campaign to conquer Persia. According to some accounts, Ariobarzanes and his surviving companions were trapped, but rather than surrender, they charged straight into

25350-751: The name of a people related to the Dorians ( Herodotus ), and possibly descriptive of Ancient Macedonians . It is most likely cognate with the adjective μακρός ( makrós ), meaning "long" or "tall" in Ancient Greek . The name is believed to have originally meant either "highlanders", "the tall ones", or "high grown men". Linguist Robert S. P. Beekes claims that both terms are of Pre-Greek substrate origin and cannot be explained in terms of Indo-European morphology, however Filip De Decker rejects Beekesʼ arguments as insufficient. The Classical Greek historians Herodotus and Thucydides reported

25545-467: The name of the two kings, sought to hold the empire together under his own hand. Perdiccas oversaw the distribution of satrapies to the other generals, sending away officers who threatened his authority. Perdiccas probably attached Cleomenes of Naucratis to Ptolemy in Egypt to limit his power. The men who remained at court with Perdiccas were probably those he could trust: his brother Alcetas, his brother-in-law Attalus, Seleucus , and Aristonous. Alexander

25740-420: The new conquered lands and advances in philosophy , engineering , and science spread across the empire and beyond. Of particular importance were the contributions of Aristotle , tutor to Alexander, whose writings became a keystone of Western philosophy . After Alexander's death in 323   BC, the ensuing wars of the Diadochi , and the partitioning of Alexander's short-lived empire, Macedonia remained

25935-408: The news of Eumenes' victory over Craterus had arrived sooner, the entire history of the post-Alexander era might have been dramatically altered; Perdiccas might have emerged supreme, the successor of Alexander and the ruler of the vast Macedonian empire, with the inauguration of a new royal family". What became of Alexander's signet ring that Perdiccas carried, and even whether he brought it into Egypt,

26130-461: The northeast, Illyrians to the northwest, and Paeonians to the north, while the lands of Thessaly to the south and Epirus to the west were inhabited by Greeks with similar cultures to that of the Macedonians. A year after Darius I of Persia ( r.  522–486 BC ) launched an invasion into Europe against the Scythians , Paeonians , Thracians , and several Greek city-states of

26325-550: The other siding with the infant son of Alexander and Roxana, Alexander   IV ( r.  323–309 BC ). Except for the Euboeans and Boeotians, the Greeks also immediately rose up in a rebellion against Antipater known as the Lamian War (323–322   BC). When Antipater was defeated at the 323   BC Battle of Thermopylae , he fled to Lamia where he was besieged by the Athenian commander Leosthenes . A Macedonian army led by Leonnatus rescued Antipater by lifting

26520-458: The outcome of the 321   BC Partition of Triparadisus in Syria where the victorious coalition settled the issue of a new regency and territorial rights. Antipater was appointed as regent over the two kings. Before Antipater died in 319   BC, he named the staunch Argead loyalist Polyperchon as his successor, passing over his own son Cassander and ignoring the right of the king to choose

26715-467: The possible role of Alexander   III "the Great" and his mother Olympias in the assassination of Philip   II, noting the latter's choice to exclude Alexander from his planned invasion of Asia, choosing instead for him to act as regent of Greece and deputy hegemon of the League of Corinth, and the potential bearing of another male heir between Philip   II and his new wife, Cleopatra Eurydice. Alexander   III ( r.  336–323 BC )

26910-440: The problems of Alexander's quickly conquered and unstable empire. To consolidate power and retain authority, Perdiccas crushed numerous revolts, like that of Ariarathes , and assassinated rivals, like Meleager . Perdiccas' position as regent was never fully secure, however, and his authority was repeatedly contested by other generals. His attempt to marry Cleopatra of Macedon , Alexander's sister, which would have given him claim to

27105-490: The reconquest of Cappadocia, allowing Eumenes to hire mercenaries. Antigonus refused Perdiccas' order. Leonnatus accepted, mustering an army and marching to Cappadocia, arriving in the spring of 322 BC. Leonnatus, however, received a letter from Macedon from Cleopatra , Alexander the Great's full sister, and Antipater, both asking him to come west – Cleopatra (probably influenced by her mother Olympias ) offered herself as Leonnatus' bride (which would give Leonnatus claim to

27300-466: The reign of Philip   II, a Macedonian navy. Unlike the other diadochi successor states , the imperial cult fostered by Alexander was never adopted in Macedonia, yet Macedonian rulers nevertheless assumed roles as high priests of the kingdom and leading patrons of domestic and international cults of the Hellenistic religion . The authority of Macedonian kings was theoretically limited by

27495-475: The reign of four different monarchs: Orestes , son of Archelaus   I; Aeropus   II , uncle, regent , and murderer of Orestes; Pausanias , son of Aeropus   II; and Amyntas   II , who was married to the youngest daughter of Archelaus   I. Very little is known about this turbulent period; it came to an end when Amyntas   III ( r.  393–370 BC ), son of Arrhidaeus and grandson of Amyntas   I, killed Pausanias and claimed

27690-541: The risks involved, was essential if the empire was to remain intact". Eumenes, accordingly, was sent by Perdiccas to Cleopatra with gifts to discuss marriage once again, and plans were set in place for the marriage to go forward. Perdiccas had, in the meantime, ordered Antigonus to stand trial for insubordination (failing to help Eumenes in Cappadocia) and other charges. Antigonus was an entrenched and powerful satrap in Asia Minor; his refusal of Perdiccas' order undermined

27885-731: The role of managing the Temple of Apollo at Delphi as a member of the Amphictyonic Council . Battle of the Persian Gate The Battle of the Persian Gate took place as part of the Wars of Alexander the Great . In the winter of 330 BC, Ariobarzanes of Persis led a last stand with his outnumbered Persian army at the Persian Gate , near Persepolis , and held back the Macedonian army for approximately

28080-565: The royal cemetery of Aigai. Pyrrhus pursued Antigonus   II in the Peloponnese, yet Antigonus   II was ultimately able to recapture Macedonia. Pyrrhus was killed while besieging Argos in 272   BC, allowing Antigonus   II to reclaim the rest of Greece. He then restored the Argead dynastic graves at Aigai and annexed the Kingdom of Paeonia . The Aetolian League hampered Antigonus   II's control over central Greece , and

28275-443: The royal family, King Alexander   IV and the queen mother Roxana. The conflict that followed lasted until the winter of 312/311   BC, when a new peace settlement recognized Cassander as general of Europe, Antigonus as "first in Asia", Ptolemy as general of Egypt, and Lysimachus as general of Thrace. Cassander had Alexander   IV and Roxana put to death in the winter of 311/310   BC, and between 306 and 305   BC

28470-409: The royal treasury under Darius III, who had been in secret contact with Alexander the Great. Tiridates considered resisting Alexander's forces to be futile, and so allowed Alexander to massacre Ariobarzanes and his troops right outside the city walls rather than fight. This is in agreement with Curtius' account which states that the Persian force, after both inflicting and suffering heavy casualties in

28665-468: The royals, imperial army, and treasuries, could afford to wait for Antipater's death (he was very old) instead of incurring his wrath; Eumenes' faction argued Perdiccas ought to begin to formally rule and that the dual kingship of Philip III and Alexander IV was a sham. Rejecting Nicaea here would begin war with Antipater; as Perdiccas had yet to deal with Antigonus, he married Nicaea for the time being. During this winter, Antipater, having subdued Athens in

28860-424: The same time, Cynane , Alexander's half-sister and widow of Amyntas IV , arranged for her daughter, Eurydice II , to marry the king, Philip III. Perdiccas, knowing this marriage would undermine his control over Philip III, sent an army under his brother Alcetas to order Cynane to return to Macedon. Cynane refused, and Alcetas' army killed her. Whether Perdiccas ordered this killing or not is debated, but it initiated

29055-399: The siege and marched back to his camp. That same night, Perdiccas broke camp again and marched to another ford, this one near Memphis . Here, Perdiccas placed his elephants upstream of this new crossing, so as to block the currents that would otherwise sweep away his men, and his cavalry downstream, to catch any unlucky enough to be swept away regardless of the elephants' makeshift dam. For

29250-478: The siege. Antipater defeated the rebellion, yet his death in 319   BC left a power vacuum wherein the two proclaimed kings of Macedonia became pawns in a power struggle between the diadochi , the former generals of Alexander's army. A council of the army convened in Babylon immediately after Alexander's death, naming Philip   III as king and the chiliarch Perdiccas as his regent. Antipater, Antigonus Monophthalmus , Craterus , and Ptolemy formed

29445-430: The southwest, Illyria to the northwest, Paeonia to the north, Thrace to the east and Thessaly to the south. Before the 4th century BC, Macedonia was a small kingdom outside of the area dominated by the great city-states of Athens , Sparta and Thebes , and briefly subordinate to Achaemenid Persia . During the reign of the Argead king Philip   II (359–336 BC), Macedonia subdued mainland Greece and

29640-448: The suggestion was met with approval, Perdiccas hesitated to accept the position. Ptolemy proposed a joint board of generals to rule the Empire, perhaps as a slight against Perdiccas as such a scheme would greatly decrease his current authority. Other proposals were considered, but despite misgivings amongst the other generals, most accepted Perdiccas' proposal of waiting until the birth of Alexander IV of Macedon . The agreed upon arrangement

29835-524: The support of the Macedonians and fled the country. Macedonia was then divided between Pyrrhus and Lysimachus, the former taking western Macedonia and the latter eastern Macedonia. By 286   BC, Lysimachus had expelled Pyrrhus and his forces from Macedonia. In 282   BC, a new war erupted between Seleucus   I and Lysimachus; the latter was killed in the Battle of Corupedion , allowing Seleucus   I to take control of Thrace and Macedonia. In two dramatic reversals of fortune, Seleucus   I

30030-538: The surrender of Philip   III and Eurydice's army, allowing Olympias to execute the king and force his queen to commit suicide. Olympias then had Nicanor and dozens of other Macedonian nobles killed, but by the spring of 316   BC, Cassander had defeated her forces, captured her, and placed her on trial for murder before sentencing her to death. Cassander married Philip II's daughter Thessalonike and briefly extended Macedonian control into Illyria as far as Epidamnos (modern Durrës , Albania). By 313   BC, it

30225-487: The terrace of Persepolis, including its palaces and royal audience halls, to be burned before he left to find Darius III. Sources disagree as to why he ordered the destruction: it could have been a deliberate act of revenge for the burning of the Acropolis of Athens during the second Persian invasion of Greece , an impulsive, drunken act, or it could have been out of Alexander's supposed anger over not being recognized as

30420-537: The terrain Alexander needed to pass through. There were only a few possible routes through the Zagros Mountains , which were made more hazardous by winter's onset. After the conquest of Susa, Alexander split the Macedonian army into two parts. Alexander's general, Parmenion , took one half along the Royal Road, and Alexander himself took the route towards Persis. Passing into Persis required traversing

30615-651: The time being. In 215 BC, at the height of the Second Punic War with the Carthaginian Empire , Roman authorities intercepted a ship off the Calabrian coast holding a Macedonian envoy and a Carthaginian ambassador in possession of a treaty composed by Hannibal declaring an alliance with Philip   V. The treaty stipulated that Carthage had the sole right to negotiate the terms of Rome's hypothetical surrender and promised mutual aid if

30810-426: The time of his death, and possessing the signet ring Alexander gave him. The infantry, also wanting to listen to the discussion, broke into the room. Perdiccas, having placed the ring he received from Alexander on the throne, along with the royal robes and diadem , proposed that a final decision wait until Alexander's wife Roxana , who was pregnant, had given birth; if the child was a boy, then Perdiccas proposed that

31005-711: The traditional place of burial for the Macedonian Argead Royal Family. The officer Arrhidaeus (not the king) was chosen to escort the body back to Macedonia , having constructed an elaborate funeral carriage. Perdiccas had informed Arrhidaeus of his plans, but Arrhidaeus began conveying Alexander's body to Egypt instead of Macedon, and met no resistance as he did so. Ptolemy, who had already come to an understanding with Antipater and Craterus, had probably colluded with Arrhidaeus and Archon , satrap of Babylon in order to have Alexander's body go to Egypt. Perdiccas, enraged by this news, sent an army to recover

31200-453: The troops to loot Persepolis, kill all its men and enslave all its women, perhaps as a way to fulfill the expectations of his army and the Greek citizens, or perhaps as a final act of vengeance towards the Persians. This destruction of the city can be viewed as unusual, as its inhabitants had surrendered without a fight and Alexander had earlier left Persian cities he conquered, such as Susa, relatively untouched. In May 330 BC, Alexander ordered

31395-399: The tyrant Jason of Pherae . Philip II had some early involvement with the Achaemenid Empire, especially by supporting satraps and mercenaries who rebelled against the central authority of the Achaemenid king. The satrap of Hellespontine Phrygia Artabazos II , who was in rebellion against Artaxerxes III , was able to take refuge as an exile at the Macedonian court from 352 to 342 BC. He

31590-584: The unity of Alexander's empire. Anson disbelieves this, citing Perdiccas' duplicitous communications with the Aetolian League against Antipater. Whether for ambition or loyalty, it is agreed that Perdiccas sought to "hold Alexander's legacy intact". Tarn writes that "Perdiccas ... was a brave and good soldier; he was probably loyal to Alexander's house, and meant to keep the empire together; but he saw that someone must exercise power, and he meant it to be himself". The regime that succeeded Perdiccas following

31785-436: The wedding altogether and exiled Alexander's advisors Ptolemy , Nearchus , and Harpalus . To reconcile with Olympias, Philip   II had their daughter Cleopatra marry Olympias' brother (and Cleopatra's uncle) Alexander   I of Epirus, but Philip   II was assassinated by his bodyguard, Pausanias of Orestis , during their wedding feast and succeeded by Alexander in 336   BC. Modern scholars have argued over

31980-449: The wedding feast infuriated Philip   II's son Alexander, a veteran of the Battle of Chaeronea, and his mother Olympias. They fled together to Epirus before Alexander was recalled to Pella by Philip   II. When Philip   II arranged a marriage between his son Arrhidaeus and Ada of Caria , daughter of Pixodarus , the Persian satrap of Caria , Alexander intervened and proposed to marry Ada instead. Philip   II then cancelled

32175-422: The western coast of Asia Minor . At the Partition of Babylon, Perdiccas' supporter Eumenes was given the satrapies of Cappadocia and Paphlagonia , but both were unconquered. Perdiccas thus used his authority as regent of the joint kings to order Leonnatus and Antigonus (satrap of Phrygia , Pamphylia and Lycia ) to aid Eumenes in securing his satrapy. Perdiccas probably gave Eumenes 5000 talents of gold for

32370-469: Was Perdiccas and Leonnatus as rulers in Asia, and Craterus and Antipater controlling Europe. However, the infantry commander, Meleager , disagreed with Perdiccas' plans. Meleager argued in favour of Alexander's intellectually disabled half brother, Philip III Arrhidaeus , whom he considered first in succession. The infantry supported this proposal with Meleager's troops willing to fight in favour of Philip III, who they crowned. The infantry began to riot, and

32565-570: Was able to put down Arrhabaeus's revolt. Brasidas died in 422 BC, the year Athens and Sparta struck an accord, the Peace of Nicias , that freed Macedonia from its obligations as an Athenian ally. Following the 418   BC Battle of Mantinea , the victorious Spartans formed an alliance with Argos , a military pact Perdiccas   II was keen to join given the threat of Spartan allies remaining in Chalcidice. When Argos suddenly switched sides as

32760-538: Was accompanied in exile by his family and by his mercenary general Memnon of Rhodes . Barsine , daughter of Artabazos, and future wife of Alexander the Great, grew up at the Macedonian court. After campaigning against the Thracian ruler Cersobleptes , in 349   BC, Philip   II began his war against the Chalcidian League, which had been reestablished in 375   BC following a temporary disbandment. Despite an Athenian intervention by Charidemus , Olynthos

32955-408: Was again forced to flee the Battle of Gaugamela in 331   BC. The Persian king was later captured and executed by his own satrap of Bactria and kinsman, Bessus , in 330   BC. The Macedonian king subsequently hunted down and executed Bessus in what is now Afghanistan , securing the region of Sogdia in the process. At the 326   BC Battle of the Hydaspes (modern-day Punjab ), when

33150-569: Was also able to make peace with the Illyrians who had threatened his borders . Philip II spent his initial years radically transforming the Macedonian army . A reform of its organization, equipment, and training, including the introduction of the Macedonian phalanx armed with long pikes (i.e. the sarissa ), proved immediately successful when tested against his Illyrian and Paeonian enemies. Confusing accounts in ancient sources have led modern scholars to debate how much Philip   II's royal predecessors may have contributed to these reforms and

33345-480: Was also entrusted with the responsibility of transferring Hephaestion's corpse to Babylon for burning and burial. As Alexander lay dying in his bed, he gave his signet ring to Perdiccas. Following the death of Alexander the Great on the 11 June 323 BC in Babylon , his generals met to discuss their next steps. Perdiccas was very influential at this point, as a close friend of Alexander, his second-in-command at

33540-495: Was an ancient kingdom on the periphery of Archaic and Classical Greece , which later became the dominant state of Hellenistic Greece . The kingdom was founded and initially ruled by the royal Argead dynasty , which was followed by the Antipatrid and Antigonid dynasties. Home to the ancient Macedonians , the earliest kingdom was centered on the northeastern part of the Greek peninsula , and bordered by Epirus to

33735-631: Was assassinated by his brother-in-law Ptolemy of Aloros , the latter acted as an overbearing regent for Perdiccas   III ( r.  368–359 BC ), younger brother of Alexander   II, who eventually had Ptolemy executed when reaching the age of majority in 365   BC. The remainder of Perdiccas III's reign was marked by political stability and financial recovery. However, an Athenian invasion led by Timotheus , son of Conon , managed to capture Methone and Pydna, and an Illyrian invasion led by Bardylis succeeded in killing Perdiccas   III and 4,000 Macedonian troops in battle. Philip II

33930-400: Was assassinated in 281   BC by his officer Ptolemy Keraunos , son of Ptolemy   I and grandson of Antipater, who was then proclaimed king of Macedonia before being killed in battle in 279   BC by Celtic invaders in the Gallic invasion of Greece . The Macedonian army proclaimed the general Sosthenes of Macedon as king, although he apparently refused the title. After defeating

34125-568: Was assaulted along with Apollonia by Macedonian forces. When the Macedonians captured Lissus in 212   BC, the Roman Senate responded by inciting the Aetolian League, Sparta, Elis , Messenia , and Attalus I ( r.  241–197 BC ) of Pergamon to wage war against Philip   V, keeping him occupied and away from Italy. The Aetolian League concluded a peace agreement with Philip   V in 206   BC, and

34320-509: Was blockaded at Bargylia by the Rhodian and Pergamene navies. While Philip V was busy fighting Rome's Greek allies, Rome viewed this as an opportunity to punish this former ally of Hannibal with a war that they hoped would supply a victory and require few resources. The Roman Senate demanded that Philip   V cease hostilities against neighboring Greek powers and defer to an international arbitration committee for settling grievances. When

34515-536: Was captured by Philip   II in 348   BC, and its inhabitants were sold into slavery , including some Athenian citizens . The Athenians, especially in a series of speeches by Demosthenes known as the Olynthiacs , were unsuccessful in persuading their allies to counterattack and in 346   BC concluded a treaty with Macedonia known as the Peace of Philocrates . The treaty stipulated that Athens would relinquish claims to Macedonian coastal territories,

34710-559: Was delayed by negotiations with the Spartan king Nabis , who had meanwhile captured Argos, yet Roman forces evacuated Greece in 194   BC. Encouraged by the Aetolian League and their calls to liberate Greece from the Romans, the Seleucid king Antiochus   III landed with his army at Demetrias , Thessaly, in 192   BC, and was elected strategos by the Aetolians. Macedonia, the Achaean League, and other Greek city-states maintained their alliance with Rome. The Romans defeated

34905-411: Was faced with some internal revolts and had to fend off an invasion of Illyrians led by Sirras of Lynkestis, he was able to project Macedonian power into Thessaly where he sent military aid to his allies. Although he retained Aigai as a ceremonial and religious center, Archelaus   I moved the capital of the kingdom north to Pella , which was then positioned by a lake with a river connecting it to

35100-562: Was finally struck in 255   BC. In 251 BC, Aratus of Sicyon led a rebellion against Antigonus   II, and in 250   BC, Ptolemy   II declared his support for the self-proclaimed King Alexander of Corinth . Although Alexander died in 246   BC and Antigonus was able to score a naval victory against the Ptolemies at Andros , the Macedonians lost the Acrocorinth to the forces of Aratus in 243   BC, followed by

35295-649: Was for his supporters to hold Asia Minor against Antipater and Craterus while he brought the royal army, and kings (Philip III and Alexander IV), south to eliminate Ptolemy. Perdiccas gave Eumenes of Cardia supreme command (as autokrator ) to hold the Hellespont , and ordered Alcetas and Neoptolemus to obey Eumenes. Cleitus the White was ordered to aid Eumenes navally. Perdiccas probably expected to be able to defeat Ptolemy and then turn to combat Antipater and Craterus. Before Perdiccas left Pisidia, he attempted once more to entreat Cleopatra of Macedon to marry him, now needing

35490-571: Was forced to leave his dead behind to save the rest of his army—a great mark of disgrace to the Macedonians and to other Greeks , who valued highly the recovery and proper burial of their fallen. Ariobarzanes had some reason to believe that success here could change the course of the war. Preventing Alexander's passage through the Persian Gates would force the Macedonian army to use other routes to invade Persia proper, all of which would allow Darius more time to field another army and possibly stop

35685-417: Was forced to retreat to Macedonia when Demetrius invaded Boeotia to his rear, attempting to sever his path of retreat. While Antigonus and Demetrius attempted to recreate Philip   II's Hellenic league with themselves as dual hegemons, a revived coalition of Cassander, Ptolemy I Soter ( r.  305–283 BC ) of Egypt's Ptolemaic dynasty , Seleucus I Nicator ( r.  305–281 BC ) of

35880-476: Was immediately proclaimed king by an assembly of the army and leading aristocrats, chief among them being Antipater and Parmenion. By the end of his reign and military career in 323   BC, Alexander would rule over an empire consisting of mainland Greece , Asia Minor , the Levant , ancient Egypt , Mesopotamia , Persia , and much of Central and South Asia (i.e. modern Pakistan ). Among his first acts

36075-472: Was lenient toward Athens, wishing to utilize their navy in a planned invasion of the Achaemenid Empire. He was then chiefly responsible for the formation of the League of Corinth that included the major Greek city-states except Sparta. Despite the Kingdom of Macedonia's official exclusion from the league, in 337   BC, Philip   II was elected as the leader ( hegemon ) of its council ( synedrion ) and

36270-473: Was murdered by his officers ( Peithon , Antigenes , and Seleucus ), probably in the summer of 320 BC, roughly three years after he had assumed the regency. His officers and the rest of his army defected to Ptolemy . News of Eumenes' victory at the Battle of the Hellespont in 320 BC where Craterus and Neoptolemus were killed, which would have instantly restored Perdiccas' authority, arrived in Egypt one day after his assassination. Anson notes that "if

36465-429: Was not only quite close to Alexander but, like Alexander, had chosen to centre the empire at Babylon. Waterfield believes that since Perdiccas represented direct succession from Alexander himself, his assassination was a "momentous step". Perdiccas' motives are debated, though he is typically held to have acted from ambition. Some, such as Romm, believe he may have acted out of a desire to protect Alexander IV and maintain

36660-490: Was only a couple of meters wide at the ambush point. Once the Macedonian army had advanced far enough into the narrow pass, the Persians rained down boulders on them from the northern slopes. From the southern slope, Persian archers launched their projectiles. Alexander's army initially suffered heavy casualties, losing entire platoons at a time. The Macedonians attempted to withdraw, but the terrain and their still-advancing rear guard made an orderly retreat impossible. Alexander

36855-591: Was retaken by the Illyrian king Glaucias of Taulantii . By 316   BC, Antigonus had taken the territory of Eumenes and managed to eject Seleucus Nicator from his Babylonian satrapy, leading Cassander, Ptolemy, and Lysimachus to issue a joint ultimatum to Antigonus in 315   BC for him to surrender various territories in Asia. Antigonus promptly allied with Polyperchon, now based in Corinth, and issued an ultimatum of his own to Cassander, charging him with murder for executing Olympias and demanding that he hand over

37050-476: Was returned to Macedonia and much of Chalcidice to Athens in a peace treaty brokered by Sitalces, who provided Athens with military aid in exchange for acquiring new Thracian allies. Perdiccas   II sided with Sparta in the Peloponnesian War (431–404 BC) between Athens and Sparta, and in 429 BC Athens retaliated by persuading Sitalces to invade Macedonia, but he was forced to retreat owing to

37245-521: Was situated along the Haliacmon and Axius rivers in Lower Macedonia , north of Mount Olympus . Historian Robert Malcolm Errington suggests that one of the earliest Argead kings established Aigai (modern Vergina ) as their capital in the mid-7th century   BC. Before the 4th century   BC, the kingdom covered a region corresponding roughly to the western and central parts of

37440-405: Was the burial of his father at Aigai. The members of the League of Corinth revolted at the news of Philip   II's death, but were soon quelled by military force alongside persuasive diplomacy, electing Alexander as hegemon of the league to carry out the planned invasion of Achaemenid Persia. In 335 BC, Alexander fought against the Thracian tribe of the Triballi at Haemus Mons and along

37635-422: Was the one who cut the arrow out with a sword and saved the king's life. In 324 BC, at the nuptials celebrated at Susa , Perdiccas married the daughter of the satrap of Media , a Persian named Atropates . When Hephaestion unexpectedly died the same year, Perdiccas was appointed his successor as commander of the Companion cavalry and chiliarch , effectively becoming Alexander's second-in-command. He

37830-411: Was the son of the Macedonian nobleman, Orontes, a descendant of the independent princes of the Macedonian province of Orestis . While his actual date of birth is unknown, he would seem to have been of a similar age to Alexander. He had a brother called Alcetas and a sister, Atalantê, who married Attalus . Perdiccas may have had, through some distant relation, blood of the Argead royal family. Little

38025-453: Was twenty-four years old when he acceded to the throne in 359   BC. Through the use of deft diplomacy, he was able to convince the Thracians under Berisades to cease their support of Pausanias , a pretender to the throne, and the Athenians to halt their support of another pretender . He achieved these by bribing the Thracians and their Paeonian allies and establishing a treaty with Athens that relinquished his claims to Amphipolis. He

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