111-519: Pope Pius IX was the longest-reigning pope of the Catholic church. Pie-IX may also refer to: Pope Pius IX Pope Pius IX ( Italian : Pio IX , Pio Nono ; born Giovanni Maria Mastai Ferretti ; 13 May 1792 – 7 February 1878) was head of the Catholic Church from 1846 to 1878. His reign of nearly 32 years is the longest of any pope in history. He was notable for convoking
222-840: A Venezuelan idealist and believer in independence, and joined a Masonic Lodge established by Miranda, dedicated to achieving the independence of Latin America. In 1798 O'Higgins went to Spain from Great Britain , his return to the Americas delayed by the French Revolutionary Wars . His father died in 1801, leaving O'Higgins a large piece of land, the Hacienda Las Canteras , near the Chilean city of Los Ángeles . O'Higgins returned to Chile in 1802, adopted his biological father's surname, and began life as
333-525: A "friend of light" and a reformer of Europe towards freedom and progress. He was elected without secular political influences and in the full vigor of life. He was pious, progressive, intellectual, decent, friendly, and open to all. While his political views and policies were hotly debated in the coming years, his personal lifestyle was above reproach, a model of simplicity and poverty in everyday affairs. The most notable event in Pius IX's long pontificate
444-569: A calculated, well-prepared move, Prime Minister Rossi was assassinated on 15 November 1848, and in the days following, the Swiss Guards were disarmed, making the Pope a prisoner in his palace. However, he succeeded in escaping Rome several days later. A Roman Republic was declared in February 1849. Pius responded from his exile by excommunicating all participants. After the suppression of
555-701: A cardinal instead. On 22 August 1861, the pope informed the Patriarch of Venice Angelo Ramazzotti that he would name him a cardinal, however, Ramazzoti died three days before the consistory. Also in 1861, the dean of the Sacred Rota Ignazio Alberghini declined the pope's offer of nomination into the Sacred College. In December 1863, Pius IX intended to elevate the Archbishop of Gniezno and Poznań Leon Michał Przyłuski to
666-468: A character evaluation from his parish priest to be considered. Financial administration in the Papal States under Pius IX was increasingly put in the hands of laymen. The budget and financial administration in the Papal States had long been subject to criticism even before Pius IX. In 1850, he created a government finance body ("congregation") consisting of four laymen with finance backgrounds for
777-483: A command—instead appointing him a general of Gran Colombia and making him a special court-martial judge for Chilean volunteers. Making his way back to Lima , O'Higgins heard of Sucre's victory at the Battle of Ayacucho . He returned to Bolívar for the victory celebrations, but as a civilian. "Señor", he toasted, addressing Bolívar, "America is free. From now on General O'Higgins does not exist; I am only Bernardo O'Higgins,
888-458: A constitutional government – to which he was sympathetic – but also the unification of Italy under his leadership and a war of liberation to free the northern Italian provinces from the rule of Catholic Austria. By early 1848, all of Western Europe began to be convulsed in various revolutionary movements . The Pope, claiming to be above national interests, refused to go to war with Austria, which reversed Pius' popularity in his native Italy. In
999-642: A fellow member of the Lautaro Lodge , and together the men returned to Chile in 1817 to defeat the royalists. Initially the campaign went well, with the two commanders achieving a victory at the battle of Chacabuco . San Martín sent his troops down the mountain starting at midnight of 11 February to prepare for an attack at dawn. As the attack commenced, his troops were much closer to the Spanish than anticipated, and they fought hard and heroically. Argentine General Miguel Estanislao Soler 's troops had to go down
1110-511: A few of his men, issuing the command: Those who can ride, ride! We will break through the enemy! Like Carrera and other nationalists, O'Higgins retreated to Argentina with the survivors, and remained there for three years while the royalists were in control. Mackenna, still a key supporter, was killed by Luis Carrera in a duel in 1814, deepening the feud. While in exile, O'Higgins met the Argentine General José de San Martín ,
1221-439: A friend of her father. O'Higgins used his mother's surname until the death of his father in 1801. Bernardo's father continued his professional rise and became Viceroy of Peru ; at seventeen Bernardo O'Higgins was sent to London to complete his studies. There, studying history and the arts, O'Higgins became acquainted with American ideas of independence and developed a sense of nationalist pride. He met Francisco de Miranda ,
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#17327801814211332-481: A frigate (1816), a corvette (1866), an armored cruiser (1897–1933), a light cruiser (1951–1992), and a submarine (2003–present). The SS Bernardo O'Higgins , one of the standard Liberty ships (#2168), was laid down on 23 September 1943 and launched on 13 October 1943. It was scrapped in 1959. The Chilean Base General Bernardo O'Higgins Riquelme research station in Antarctica is named in his honor. It
1443-513: A gentleman farmer. In 1806, he was appointed to the cabildo as the representative of Laja . In 1808 Napoleon took control of Spain, triggering a sequence of events in South America. In Chile, the commercial and political elite decided to form an autonomous government to rule in the name of the imprisoned king Ferdinand VII ; this was to be one of the first in a number of steps toward national independence, in which O'Higgins would play
1554-483: A gorge that formed an easily defended bottleneck. At the last hour, however, O'Higgins instead garrisoned the nationalist forces at the main square of Rancagua . Carrera did not arrive with reinforcements, and O'Higgins and his forces were promptly surrounded in October. After an entire day of fighting at the battle of Rancagua , the Spanish commander, Mariano Osorio, was victorious—but O'Higgins managed to break out with
1665-1069: A granite pedestal and was acquired by the City of Houston through FAMAE/Arcomet in 1992. There is also a bust in his honor in Merrion Square in Dublin, Ireland and in the Garavogue River Walkway in Sligo , Ireland, and a sculpture near Central Railway Station in Plaza Iberoamericana, near 58 Chalmers St, Sydney. In Buenos Aires , there is a large statue of him in the center of the Plaza República de Chile, and several localities in Argentina are named after him. A plaque has also been erected in Cádiz , Spain, in
1776-527: A junior member, continued to grow. The anti-Royalist camp in Chile was deeply split along lines of patronage and personality, by political beliefs, and by geography (between the rival regional groupings of Santiago and Concepción ). The Carrera family had already seized power several times in different coups, and supported a specifically Chilean nationalism, as opposed to the broader Latin American focus of
1887-531: A leading role. On 18 September 1810, O'Higgins joined the revolt against the now French dominated Spanish government. The criollo leaders in Chile did not support Joseph Bonaparte 's rule in Spain, and a limited self-government under the Government Junta of Chile was created, with the aim of restoring the legitimate Spanish throne. This date is now recognized as Chile's Independence Day. O'Higgins
1998-466: A majority of the votes in the early ballots but failed to achieve the required two-thirds majority. Gizzi was favoured by the French government but failed to get further support from the cardinals, and the conclave ended up ultimately as a contest between Lambruschini and Mastai Ferretti. In the meantime, Cardinal Tommaso Bernetti reportedly received information that Cardinal Karl Kajetan von Gaisruck ,
2109-635: A member of the O'Higgins family , was born in the Chilean city of Chillán in 1778, the illegitimate son of Ambrosio O'Higgins, 1st Marquis of Osorno , a Spanish officer born in County Sligo , Ireland, who became governor of Chile and later viceroy of Peru . His mother was Isabel Riquelme , a prominent local; the daughter of Don Simón Riquelme y Goycolea, a member of the Chillán Cabildo , or town council. O'Higgins spent his early years with his mother's family in central-southern Chile and
2220-414: A move that contradicted the general mood throughout Europe. On the evening of the second day of the conclave, 16 June 1846, Mastai Ferretti was elected pope. "He was a glamorous candidate, ardent, emotional with a gift for friendship and a track-record of generosity even towards anti-Clericals and Carbonari . He was a patriot, known to be critical of Gregory XVI." Because it was night, no formal announcement
2331-596: A new archaeological commission in 1853. The Papal States were a theocracy in which the Catholic Church and its members had far more rights than other religions. Pius IX's religious policies became increasingly reactionary over time. At the beginning of his pontificate, together with other liberal measures, Pius opened up the Jewish ghetto in Rome , freeing Jews to reside elsewhere. In 1850, after French troops defeated
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#17327801814212442-585: A new constitution titled the " Fundamental Statute for the Secular Government of the States of the Church ". The governmental structure of the Papal States reflected the dual spiritual-secular character of the papacy. The secular or laypersons were strongly in the majority with 6,850 persons versus 300 members of the clergy. Nevertheless, the clergy made key decisions and every job applicant had to present
2553-548: A private citizen. After Ayacucho, my American mission is over." When Andrés de Santa Cruz became head of the Peru-Bolivian Confederation in 1836, O'Higgins endorsed his integrationist policies, and wrote a letter of support to him the following year when the Confederation came under attack from the Chilean forces of Diego Portales —ultimately offering to act as a mediator in the conflict. With
2664-406: A rallying point for those discontented with O'Higgins, but the two of them never came to an armed conflict. O'Higgins' abdication was typically dramatic: baring his chest, he offered up his life should his accusers demand it of him. In return, the junta declared they held nothing against O'Higgins, and saluted him. O'Higgins was made governor of Concepción, an appointment which did not last long: it
2775-569: A secular ruler and the monarch of the Papal States , ruling over some 3 million subjects from 1846 to 1870, when the newly founded Kingdom of Italy seized the remaining areas of the Papal States by force of arms. Contention between Italy and the Papacy was only resolved legally by the 1929 Lateran Treaty ( Lateran Pacts or Lateran Accords ) between the Kingdom of Italy under Mussolini and
2886-431: A tiny path that proved long and arduous, and took longer than expected. General O'Higgins—supposedly seeing his homeland and overcome with passion—defied the plan of attack and charged along with his 1,500 troops. What happened during this theater of the battle is fiercely debated. O'Higgins claimed that the Spanish stopped their retreat and started advancing towards his troops. He said that, if he were to lead his men back up
2997-515: A £1 million loan— Chile's first foreign debt —whilst a massive earthquake in central Chile added more difficulty for the ruler. In 1822, O'Higgins established a new "controversial" constitution, which many regarded as a desperate attempt to hang on to power. The deaths of his political enemies, including Carrera and Manuel Rodríguez , returned to haunt him, with some accusing him of abusing state power. The provinces increasingly viewed him as centralising power to an excessive degree. O'Higgins
3108-642: Is also the Bernardo O'Higgins National Park . In the town of San Vicente de Cañete , situated in the Lima Region of Peru, a park and street are named after him. A statue of O'Higgins is located in a park in Guatemala City, the capital of Guatemala. There is a bust of O'Higgins in O'Higgins Square by the bridge in Richmond , south-west London. Each year the borough's mayor is joined by members of
3219-513: Is brave, follow me! Despite being injured, O'Higgins went on to pursue the royalist forces from the field. The Junta in Santiago reassigned command of the army from Carrera, who had retreated during the battle, to O'Higgins, who then appointed Juan Mackenna as commandant-general. Carrera was subsequently captured and imprisoned by the royalist forces; in his absence, in May 1814 O'Higgins supported
3330-748: The First Chilean Navy Squadron , the Academy for Young Midshipmen (the predecessor of the current Naval Academy), and the Chilean Marine Corps . O'Higgins continued in his desire to see independence across Latin America, utilising his new forces to support San Martín, sending the Liberating expedition to Perú . Bernardo O'Higgins once planned to expand Chile by liberating the Philippines from Spain and incorporating
3441-697: The First Vatican Council in 1868 and for permanently losing control of the Papal States in 1870 to the Kingdom of Italy . Thereafter, he refused to leave Vatican City , declaring himself a " prisoner in the Vatican ". At the time of his election, some considered him liberal, but no longer after the Revolutions of 1848 . Upon the assassination of his prime minister , Pellegrino Rossi , Pius fled Rome and excommunicated all participants in
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3552-704: The Hacienda Montalván in San Vicente de Cañete , near Lima . O'Higgins lived in exile for the rest of his life accompanied by his illegitimate son, Pedro Demetrio O'Higgins (1817–1868), his mother, and his half-sister, Rosa Rodríguez Riquelme (1781–1850). According to a 2001 documentary, O'Higgins also had a daughter, Petronila (born circa 1809) by Patricia Rodríguez. O'Higgins traveled to join Bolívar's army in its final liberation of Peru, but upon arrival, he found that Bolívar did not intend to give him
3663-492: The Holy See ever accepted this title. Ignaz von Döllinger , a fervent critic of Pius' infallibility dogma, considered the political regime of the pope in the Papal States "wise, well-intentioned, mild-natured, frugal and open for innovations". Yet there was controversy. In the period before the 1848 revolutions , Pius was a most ardent reformer advised by such innovative thinkers as Antonio Rosmini (1797–1855), who reconciled
3774-687: The Holy See , the latter receiving financial compensation for the loss of the Papal States and recognition of the Vatican City State as the sovereign independent territory of the Holy See. Though he was well aware upon his accession of the political pressures within the Papal States , Pius IX's first act was a general amnesty for political prisoners , despite the potential consequences. The freed revolutionaries resumed their previous political activities, and his concessions only provoked greater demands as patriotic Italian groups sought not only
3885-576: The Lautaro Lodge grouping, which included O'Higgins and the Argentine José de San Martín . José Miguel Carrera , the most prominent member of the Carrera family, enjoyed a power base in Santiago; that of de Rozas, and later O'Higgins, lay in Concepción . As a result, O'Higgins was to find himself increasingly in political and military competition with Carrera—although early on, O'Higgins
3996-499: The Law of Guarantees (13 May 1871) which gave the Pope the use of the Vatican but denied him sovereignty over this territory, nevertheless granting him the right to send and receive ambassadors and a budget of 3.25 million lira annually. Pius IX officially rejected this offer (encyclical Ubi nos , 15 May 1871), since it was a unilateral decision which did not grant the papacy international recognition and could be changed at any time by
4107-505: The Martyrs of Japan (8 June 1862), Josaphat Kuntsevych (29 June 1867), and Nicholas Pieck (29 June 1867). Pius IX further beatified 222 individuals throughout his papacy, including the likes of Benedict Joseph Labre , Peter Claver , and his two predecessors Pope Eugene III and Pope Urban V . Pius IX named three new Doctors of the Church : Hilary of Poitiers (13 May 1851, naming him " Doctor divinitatem Christi " or "Doctor of
4218-618: The Philippine Revolution and the Philippine-American War by sending an armada across the Pacific. However, the plan also did not come to fruition. In time, however, O'Higgins began to alienate important political groupings within the still-fragile Chilean nation. O'Higgins' proposed radical and liberal reforms, such as the establishment of democracy and abolition of titles of nobility , were resisted by
4329-539: The Quirinal Palace inside Rome to the Vatican, where popes have lived ever since. After defeating the Papal army on 18 September 1860 at the Battle of Castelfidardo , and on 30 September at Ancona , Victor Emmanuel II of Sardinia took all the Papal territories except Latium with Rome and took the title King of Italy . Rome itself was invaded on 20 September 1870 after a few-hours siege. Italy instituted
4440-577: The Treaty of Lircay , which promised a halt to the fighting. Once released, however, Carrera violently opposed both O'Higgins' new role and the treaty, overthrowing the Junta in a coup in July 1814 and immediately exiling Mackenna. O'Higgins turned to focus on Carrera, and their forces met at the battle of Las Tres Acequias , where Carrera's brother Luis inflicted a modest defeat on O'Higgins. Further conflict
4551-527: The 20 provinces. After joining the Latin Monetary Union in 1866, the old Roman scudo was replaced by the new Papal lira . Pius IX is credited with systematic efforts to improve manufacturing and trade by giving advantages and papal prizes to domestic producers of wool , silk and other materials destined for export. He improved the transportation system by building roads, viaducts, bridges and seaports . A series of new railway links connected
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4662-514: The 35-year-old Mastai Ferretti Archbishop of Spoleto in 1827. In 1831, the abortive revolution that had begun in Parma and Modena spread to Spoleto ; the Archbishop obtained a general pardon after it was suppressed, gaining him a reputation for being liberal. During an earthquake, he made a reputation as an efficient organizer of relief and great charity. The following year he was moved to
4773-587: The Austrian Archbishop of Milan, was on his way to the conclave to veto the election of Mastai Ferretti on behalf of the Austrian Empire and Prince Metternich . According to historian Valérie Pirie, Bernetti realized that he had only a few hours in which to stop Lambruschini's election. Faced with a deadlock and urgently persuaded by Bernetti to reject Lambruschini, liberals and moderates decided to cast their votes for Mastai Ferretti, in
4884-597: The Chilean Embassy for a ceremony, and a wreath is placed there. A blue plaque was erected in his honor at Clarence House in Richmond, where he lived while studying in London. A 1992 bronze sculpture of O'Higgins was executed by Julian Martinez, the same sculptor responsible for the nearby statue of Benito Juárez. Previously, the bust was installed at Hermann Park's International Sculpture Garden. It rests on
4995-637: The Chilean Military Academy in 1817, aiming to professionalise the officer corps. O'Higgins remained concerned about the threat of invasion, and had declared after the battle of Chacabuco that "this victory and another hundred shall be of no significance if we do not gain control of the sea". Alongside the Military Academy, he founded the modern Chilean Navy under the command of the Scottish officer Lord Cochrane , establishing
5106-621: The Church for a decade after the Franco-Prussian War . Pius IX celebrated several jubilees including the 300th anniversary of the Council of Trent . Pius celebrated the 1,800th anniversary of the martyrdom of the Apostle Peter and Apostle Paul on 29 June 1867 with 512 bishops, 20,000 priests and 140,000 lay persons in Rome. A large gathering was organized in 1871 to commemorate the 25th anniversary of his papacy. Though
5217-473: The Divinity of Christ"), Alphonsus Liguori (23 March 1871, naming him " Doctor zelantissimus " or "Most Zealous Doctor"), and Francis de Sales (19 July 1877, naming him " Doctor caritatis " or "Doctor of Charity"). Pius IX was not only pope but, until 1870, also the last sovereign ruler of the Papal States . As a secular ruler he was occasionally referred to as "king", though it is unclear whether
5328-489: The Italian government in 1870 outlawed many popular pilgrimages, the faithful of Bologna organized a nationwide "spiritual pilgrimage" to the pope and the tombs of the apostles in 1873. In 1875, Pius declared a Holy Year that was celebrated throughout the Catholic world. On the 50th anniversary of his episcopal consecration, people from all parts of the world came to see the old pontiff from 30 April 1877 to 15 June 1877. He
5439-406: The Papal States and throughout Italy, organized criminal gangs threatened commerce and travelers, engaging in robbery and murder at will. The Papal army in 1859 had 15,000 soldiers. A separate military body, the elite Swiss Guard , served as the Pope's personal bodyguard. The two papal universities in Rome and Bologna suffered much from revolutionary activities in 1848 but their standards in
5550-438: The Papal States to northern Italy. It soon became apparent that the Northern Italians were more adept at economically exploiting the modern means of communication than the inhabitants in central and Southern Italy. The justice system of the Papal States was subject to much criticism, not unlike the justice systems in the rest of Italy. Legal books were scarce, standards inconsistent, and judges were often accused of favoritism. In
5661-446: The Papal States. He also showed himself hostile to Austrian influences, delighting Italian patriots, who hailed him as the coming redeemer of Italy. "They want to make a Napoleon of me who am only a poor country parson", he once declared. In Pius' early years as pope, the government of the Papal States improved agricultural technology and productivity via farmer education in newly created scientific agricultural institutes. It abolished
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#17327801814215772-493: The Plaza de Candelaria, where he resided for four years. In 2005, a bust was erected "To the Liberator of Chile" by the Chilean Embassy in the Parque Morazan in San José, Costa Rica . There is a bust of Bernardo O'Higgins on a marble plinth on the east side of Avenida da Liberdade in downtown Lisbon , Portugal. A statue of Bernardo O'Higgins in the city of Concepción was destroyed during the 2010 earthquake in Chile. In 1949, American composer Henry Cowell composed an opera on
5883-452: The Pope reorganize the Catholic Church of the new republic – named him auditor to assist the apostolic nuncio , Monsignore Giovanni Muzi, in the first mission to post-revolutionary South America. The mission had the objective to map out the role of the Catholic Church in Chile and its relationship with the state, but when it finally arrived in Santiago in March 1824, O'Higgins had been overthrown and replaced by General Ramón Freire , who
5994-432: The Spanish government made its first attempt to reconquer Chile—sending an expedition led by Brigadier Antonio Pareja —Carrera, as a former national leader and now Commander in Chief of the Army, was by far the more prominent figure of the two, and a natural choice to lead the military resistance. O'Higgins was back on his estates in Laja , having retired from the Army the previous year due to poor health, when news came of
6105-407: The Spanish set up a defensive square around the Chacabuco Ranch. O'Higgins charged the center of the Spanish position, and Soler got into place behind the Spanish forces, effectively cutting off any chance of retreat. O'Higgins and his men overwhelmed the Spanish troops, who attempted to retreat, but Soler's men cut off their retreat and pushed towards the ranch. Hand-to-hand combat ensued in and around
6216-427: The Vatican would only be resumed when Maximilian sent the recently converted American Catholic priest Father Agustin Fischer to Rome as his envoy. Bernardo O%27Higgins Bernardo O'Higgins Riquelme ( Spanish pronunciation: [beɾˈnaɾðo oˈ(x)iɣins] ; 20 August 1778 – 24 October 1842) was a Chilean independence leader who freed Chile from Spanish rule in the Chilean War of Independence . He
6327-429: The adoption of the dogmatic constitution Pastor aeternus on papal infallibility . Gregory and the Melkite bishops ultimately subscribed to it, but added the qualifying clause used at the Council of Florence : "except the rights and privileges of Eastern patriarchs." This earned Gregory the enmity of Pius IX; during his next visit to the pontiff , before leaving Rome, when Gregory was kneeling, Pius placed his knee on
6438-509: The areas of science, mathematics, philosophy and theology were considered adequate. Pius recognized that much had to be done and instituted a reform commission in 1851. During his tenure, Catholics and Protestants collaborated to found a school in Rome to study international law and train international mediators committed to conflict resolution. There was one newspaper, Giornale di Roma , and one periodical, La Civiltà Cattolica , run by Jesuits . Like most of his predecessors, Pius IX
6549-422: The battle for Italian independence. His later turn toward profound conservatism shocked and dismayed his original supporters, while surprising and delighting the conservative old guard. The conclave of 1846, following the death of Pope Gregory XVI (1831–1846), took place in an unsettled political climate within Italy. The conclave was steeped in a factional division between right and left. The conservatives on
6660-408: The blame for the defeat, weakening his prestige with the Junta back in Santiago. O'Higgins continued to campaign against the royalists, fighting with a reckless courage that would make him famous. In October, fighting at the Battle of El Roble under Carrera, O'Higgins took effective command at a crucial moment and gave one of his more famous orders: Lads! Live with honor, or die with glory! He who
6771-431: The cardinalate, but he died before the consistory took place. In 1866, Pius IX wanted to nominate a Barnabite to the College of Cardinals before he opened the First Vatican Council. While the pope originally decided on appointing Carlo Vercellone , a noted biblical scholar, Vercellone refused due to his precarious health, instead proposing that Pius IX instead nominate Luigi Bilio . In 1868, Pius IX nominated Andre Pila to
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#17327801814216882-430: The cardinalate, however, he died the day before he would have been elevated as the only person for elevation in that April consistory. Also in 1868, Pius IX offered the cardinalate to the Bishop of Concepción José Hipólito Salas whom he had met during the First Vatican Council, inviting him to join the Roman Curia. However, the bishop preferred to live in Chile and declined the offer, while Pius IX did not offer it again in
6993-421: The child legally a Christian convert, and Papal law forbade Christians from being raised by Jews, even their own parents. The incident provoked widespread outrage amongst liberals, both Catholic and non-Catholic, and contributed to the growing anti-papal sentiment in Europe. The boy was raised in the papal household , and was eventually ordained a priest at age 21. Pius IX was the last pope who also functioned as
7104-463: The church sought relief from a friendly government after the anti-clerical actions of Benito Juárez , who had suspended payment on foreign debt and seized ecclesial property. Pius blessed Maximilian and his wife Charlotte of Belgium before they set off for Mexico to begin their reign. But the friction between the Vatican and Mexico would continue with the new emperor when Maximilian insisted on freedom of religion, which Pius opposed. Relations with
7215-435: The city of Concepción , but this was never to be. For a long time they remained in a marble coffin in the Cementerio General de Santiago , and in 1979 his remains were transferred by Augusto Pinochet to the Altar de la Patria , in front of the Palacio de La Moneda . In 2004, his body was temporarily stored at the Chilean Military School during the building of the Plaza de la Ciudadanía , before being finally laid to rest in
7326-409: The convert Henry Edward Manning ; and John McCloskey , the first American cardinal. According to Bishop Cipriano Calderón, the pope intended to make the Bishop of Michoacán , Juan Cayetano Gómez de Portugal y Solís , a cardinal in 1850 and even had Cardinal Giacomo Antonelli send a letter to him to express his intentions. He would have been the first Latin American cardinal had he not died before
7437-436: The directorate in 1820. Marching south to attack O'Higgins, now ruler of Chile, Carrera was arrested by supporters of O'Higgins and executed under questionable circumstances in 1821; his two brothers had already been killed by royalist forces in the preceding years, bringing the long-running feud to an end. The argument as to the relative contribution of these two great Chilean independence leaders, however, has continued up to
7548-413: The dogma of the Immaculate Conception , articulating a long-held Catholic belief that Mary, the Mother of God, was conceived without original sin . His 1864 Syllabus of Errors was a strong condemnation of liberalism, modernism , moral relativism , secularization , separation of church and state , and other Enlightenment ideas. Pius reaffirmed Catholic teaching in favor of making the Catholic faith
7659-458: The future. In 1875, Pius IX intended to nominate the papal almoner Xavier de Mérode to the Sacred College, however, he died just eight months before the consistory was to be held. Pius IX also decided to nominate Augusto Negroni [ pl ] , a longtime Curial official, but he declined and instead joined the Society of Jesus in mid-1874. Pope Pius IX canonized 52 saints during his pontificate. He canonized notable saints such as
7770-454: The invasion. O'Higgins mobilised his local militia and marched to Concepcion , before moving on to Talca , meeting up with Carrera, who was to take command of the new army. Carrera sent O'Higgins to cut the Spanish off at Linares ; O'Higgins' victory there resulted in his promotion to colonel. The unsuccessful Siege of Chillan followed, where O'Higgins produced a brave but unspectacular performance; however, as commander, Carrera took most of
7881-413: The islands. In this regard he tasked the Scottish naval officer, Lord Thomas Cochrane, in a letter dated on 12 November 1821, expressing his plan to conquer Guayaquil, the Galapagos Islands, and the Philippines . There were preparations, but the plan didn't push through because O' Higgins was exiled. Nevertheless, in the middle of the 19th century there was another plan by Chilean officials to also assist in
7992-416: The life of O'Higgins titled O'Higgins of Chile . The libretto was written by Elizabeth Harald, but the work was never orchestrated nor staged. In 1955, the football team O'Higgins F.C. was founded, named after him. The Order of Bernardo O'Higgins , Chile's highest award for foreign citizens, is named in honour of O'Higgins. The Chilean Navy has named several vessels in his honour . They include
8103-551: The mercy of Pius VII, who elevated him and supported his continued theological studies. Mastai was ordained a priest on 10 April 1819. The Pope had originally insisted that another priest should assist Mastai during Holy Mass, but rescinded the stipulation after the seizures became less frequent. He initially worked as the rector of the Tata Giovanni Institute in Rome. Shortly before his death, Pius VII – following Chilean leader Bernardo O'Higgins ' wish to have
8214-434: The modern day, and O'Higgins' decision not to intervene to prevent the execution coloured many Chileans' views of his reign. For six years, O'Higgins was a largely successful leader, and his government initially functioned well. Within Chile, O'Higgins established markets, courts, colleges, libraries, hospitals, and cemeteries, and began important improvements in agriculture. He undertook various military reforms. He founded
8325-467: The more prestigious Diocese of Imola , was made a cardinal in pectore in 1839, and in 1840 was publicly announced as cardinal-priest of Santi Marcellino e Pietro al Laterano . As in Spoleto, his episcopal priorities were the formation of priests through improved education and charities. He became known for visiting prisoners in jail and for programs for street children. Cardinal Mastai Ferretti
8436-461: The narrow path and retreat, they would have been massacred one by one. San Martín saw O'Higgins' early advancement, and ordered Soler to charge the Spanish flank, which took the pressure off O'Higgins and allowed his troops to stand their ground. The ensuing firefight continued into the afternoon, and the tides turned for the Patriots as Soler captured a key Spanish artillery point. At this point,
8547-491: The new free-thinking concerning human rights with the classical natural law tradition of the church's political and economic teaching on social justice . After the revolution, however, his political reforms and constitutional improvements were minimal, remaining largely within the framework of the 1850 laws mentioned above. Pius IX's liberal policies initially made him very popular throughout Italy. He appointed an able and enlightened minister, Pellegrino Rossi , to administer
8658-466: The new pope had little diplomatic experience and no curial experience at all. Pius IX was crowned on 21 June 1846. The election of the liberal Pius IX created much enthusiasm in Europe and elsewhere. "For the next twenty months after the election, Pius IX was the most popular man on the Italian peninsula, where the exclamation "Long life to Pius IX!" was often heard. English Protestants celebrated him as
8769-471: The new underground Crypt of the Liberator. O'Higgins is widely commemorated today, both in Chile and beyond. One of the administrative regions of Chile was named Libertador General Bernardo O'Higgins Region in his honour, as were other placenames such as the village of Villa O'Higgins . The main thoroughfare of the Chilean capital, Santiago , is Avenida Libertador General Bernardo O'Higgins . There
8880-581: The next consistory. According to the Benedictine monk Guy-Marie Oury, a letter addressed by Prosper Guéranger to his Benedictine colleague Léandre Fonteinne on 6 March 1856 indicated that Guéranger had learned that Pius IX wanted to name him a cardinal in November 1855, but he refused the honor because he did not want to live in Rome. As a result, Pius IX made the Bishop of La Rochelle Clément Villecourt
8991-730: The patriarch's shoulder, just saying to him: Testa dura! ( You headstrong! ). In spite of this event, Gregory and the Melkite Greek Catholic Church remained committed to their union with the Holy See. The ecclesiastical policies of Pius IX were dominated by defence of the rights of the church and the free exercise of religion for Catholics in countries such as Russia and the Ottoman Empire . He also fought against what he perceived to be anti-Catholic philosophies in countries such as Italy , Germany , and France . The German Empire sought to restrict and weaken
9102-518: The powerful large landowners . He offended the church in Chile early on—in particular, the Bishop of Santiago, Jose Rodriguez Zorrilla. Having offended the aristocracy and the church, he also lost the support of the businesspeople, his last semi-powerful ally within the country. The government became bankrupt, forcing O'Higgins to send Antonio José de Irisarri to the United Kingdom to negotiate
9213-463: The ranch, until every Spanish soldier was dead or taken captive. Five hundred Spanish soldiers were killed, and 600 were taken captive. The Patriot forces lost 12 men in the battle, but an additional 120 died of their wounds. The Second Battle of Cancha Rayada in 1818, however, was a victory for the Royalists, and it was not until the Battle of Maipú that ultimate victory was assured. San Martín
9324-583: The republic later that year, Pius appointed a conservative government of three cardinals known as the Red Triumvirate to administer the Papal States until his return to Rome in April 1850. He visited the hospitals to comfort the wounded and sick, but he seemed to have lost both his liberal tastes and his confidence in the Romans, who had turned against him in 1848. Pius decided to move his residence from
9435-526: The requirements for Jews to attend Christian services and sermons and opened the papal charities to the needy amongst them. The new pope freed all political prisoners by giving amnesty to revolutionaries, which horrified the conservative monarchies in the Austrian Empire and elsewhere. "He was celebrated in New York City , London and Berlin as a model ruler." In 1848, Pius IX released
9546-624: The revolutionary Roman Republic and returned him from exile, the Pope reversed the Republic's religious freedom laws and issued a series of anti-liberal measures, including re-instituting the Jewish ghetto. In a highly publicized case from 1858, the police of the Papal States seized a 6-year-old Jewish boy, Edgardo Mortara , from his parents. A Christian servant girl unrelated to the family claimed she had informally baptized him during an illness six years prior, fearing he would die. This had made
9657-461: The right favoured the hardline stances and papal absolutism of the previous pontificate, while liberals supported moderate reforms. The conservatives supported Luigi Lambruschini , the late pope's Cardinal Secretary of State . Liberals supported two candidates: Tommaso Pasquale Gizzi and the then 54-year-old Mastai Ferretti. During the first ballot, Mastai Ferretti received 15 votes, the rest going to Lambruschini and Gizzi. Lambruschini received
9768-702: The rise of Agustín Gamarra , O'Higgins found himself out of favour in Peru . Meanwhile, the Chilean government had begun to rehabilitate O'Higgins, reappointing him to his old rank of captain-general in the Chilean Army. From exile O'Higgins argued for the establishment of a Chilean settlement in the Strait of Magellan in his correspondence with the Minister of State. No action was taken on O'Higgins arguments, but in 1842 Chile began to organise an expedition to settle
9879-412: The secular parliament. Pius IX refused to recognize the new Italian kingdom, which he denounced as an illegitimate creation of revolution. He excommunicated the nation's leaders, including King Victor Emmanuel II, whom he denounced as "forgetful of every religious principle, despising every right, trampling upon every law," whose reign over Italy was therefore "a sacrilegious usurpation." In response to
9990-570: The short-lived Roman Republic . After its suppression by the French army and his return in 1850, his policies and doctrinal pronouncements became increasingly conservative. He was responsible for the kidnapping of Edgardo Mortara , a six-year-old taken by force from his Jewish family who went on to become a Catholic priest in his own right and unsuccessfully attempted to convert his Jewish parents. In his 1849 encyclical Ubi primum , he emphasized Mary's role in salvation. In 1854, he promulgated
10101-421: The state religion where possible. His appeal for financial support revived global donations known as Peter's Pence . He strengthened the central power of the Holy See and Roman Curia over the worldwide Catholic Church, while also formalizing the pope's ultimate doctrinal authority (the dogma of papal infallibility defined in 1870). Pope John Paul II beatified him in 2000. Giovanni Maria Mastai Ferretti
10212-690: The strait following a request by an American to be allowed to establish a tug boat service in the area. In 1842, the National Congress of Chile finally voted to allow O'Higgins to return to Chile. After travelling to Callao to embark for Chile, however, O'Higgins began to succumb to cardiac problems and was too weak to travel. His doctor ordered him to return to Lima , where on 24 October 1842, aged 64, O'Higgins died. After his death, his remains were first buried in Peru, before being repatriated to Chile in 1869. O'Higgins had wished to be buried in
10323-594: The upheavals faced by the Papal States during the 1848 revolutions, the Mexican government offered Pope Pius IX asylum, which the pope responded to by considering the creation of a Mexican cardinal and granting an award to President José Joaquín de Herrera . With French Emperor Napoleon III 's military intervention in Mexico and establishment of the Second Mexican Empire under Maximilian I in 1864,
10434-499: The war with the royalists, O'Higgins had engaged in an ongoing feud with José Miguel Carrera. After their retreat in 1814, O'Higgins had fared much better than Carrera, who found little support forthcoming from San Martín, O'Higgins' political ally. Carrera was imprisoned to prevent his involvement in Chilean affairs; after his escape, he ended up taking the winning side in the Argentine Federalist war, helping to defeat
10545-511: The young Count Mastai was engaged to the daughter of the (Protestant) Church of Ireland Bishop of Kilmore , William Foster . Certainly, if there was ever any such engagement, it did not proceed. In 1814, as a theology student in his hometown of Sinigaglia, he met Pope Pius VII , who had returned from French captivity. In 1815, he entered the Papal Noble Guard but was soon dismissed after an epileptic seizure. He threw himself on
10656-476: Was a bit shy, but he valued initiative within the church and created several new titles, rewards, and orders to elevate those who in his view deserved merit. Pius IX created 122 new cardinals, of whom 64 were alive at his death; at the time membership in the College of Cardinals was limited to 70. Noteworthy elevations included Vincenzo Pecci (his eventual successor Leo XIII ); Nicholas Wiseman of Westminster;
10767-467: Was a close friend of Juan Martínez de Rozas , an old friend of his father, and one of the more radical leaders. O'Higgins strongly recommended that a national congress be created, and was elected a deputy to the first National Congress of Chile in 1811 as a representative of the Laja district. Tensions between the royalist and increasingly pro-independence factions, to which O'Higgins remained attached as
10878-582: Was a patron of the arts. He supported architecture, painting, sculpture, music, goldsmiths , coppersmiths , and more, and handed out numerous rewards to artists. Much of his efforts went to renovate and improve churches in Rome and the Papal States. He ordered the strengthening of the Colosseum , which was feared to be on the verge of collapse. Huge sums were spent in the excavation of the Christian Catacombs of Rome , for which Pius created
10989-704: Was a wealthy landowner of Basque - Spanish and Irish ancestry. Although he was the second Supreme Director of Chile (1817–1823), he is considered one of Chile's founding fathers , as he was the first holder of this title to head a fully independent Chilean state. He was Captain General of the Chilean Army , Brigadier of the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata , General Officer of Gran Colombia and Grand Marshal of Peru . Bernardo O'Higgins,
11100-610: Was born on 13 May 1792 in Senigallia . He was the ninth child born into the noble family of Girolamo dei Conti Ferretti (1750–1833) and Caterina Antonia Maddalena Solazzei di Fano (1764–1842). He was baptized on the day of his birth with the names Giovanni Maria Battista Pietro Pellegrino Isidoro. He was educated at the Piarist College in Volterra and in Rome. An unreliable account published many years later suggests that
11211-492: Was considered a liberal during his episcopate in Spoleto and Imola because he supported administrative changes in the Papal States and sympathized with the nationalist movement in Italy. Cardinal Mastai Ferretti entered the papacy in 1846, amidst widespread expectations that he would be a champion of reform and modernization in the Papal States, which he ruled directly, and in the entire Catholic Church. Admirers wanted him to lead
11322-535: Was considered a milestone not only in his pontificate but also in ecclesiastical history through its defining of the dogma of papal infallibility . After the First Vatican Council concluded, an emissary of the Roman Curia was dispatched to secure the signatures of Patriarch Gregory II Youssef and the rest of the Melkite delegation who had voted non placet at the general congregation and left Rome prior to
11433-547: Was deposed by a conservative coup on 28 January 1823. Chile's new dictator, Ramón Freire , formerly O'Higgins' "closest ally", had slowly turned against O'Higgins in the preceding years. Freire had fought under O'Higgins at the Battle of Maipú, was promoted to colonel for his services to the independence, and finally named Intendant of Concepción . His friendship with O'Higgins started to crack by degrees, however, until in 1822 he resigned his position in disagreement. His name became
11544-502: Was given, just the signal of white smoke. On the following morning, the Cardinal protodeacon , Tommaso Riario Sforza , announced the election of Mastai Ferretti before a crowd of faithful Catholics. When Mastai Ferretti appeared on the balcony, the mood became joyous. Mastai Ferretti chose the name of Pius IX in honour of Pope Pius VII (1800–1823), who had encouraged his vocation to the priesthood despite his childhood epilepsy. However,
11655-412: Was initially offered the position of power in the newly-free Chile, but he declined, in order to continue the fight for independence in the rest of South America. O'Higgins accepted the position instead, and became the leader of an independent Chile. He was granted dictatorial powers as Supreme Director on 16 February 1817. On 12 February 1818, Chile proclaimed itself an independent republic . Throughout
11766-534: Was less well-disposed toward the Church and had already taken hostile measures such as the seizure of Church property. Having ended in failure, the mission returned to Europe. Nevertheless, Mastai had been the first future pope ever to have been in the Americas. Upon his return to Rome, the successor of Pius VII, Pope Leo XII , appointed him head of the hospital of San Michele a Ripa in Rome (1825–1827) and canon of Santa Maria in Via Lata . Pope Leo XII appointed
11877-572: Was never acknowledged by his father, and later he lived with the Albano family , who were his father's commercial partners, in Talca . At age 15, O'Higgins was sent to Lima by his father. He had a distant relationship with Ambrosio, who supported him financially and was concerned with his education, but the two never met in person. At the time of his son's birth, Ambrosio was only a junior military officer. Two years later, Isabel married Don Félix Rodríguez,
11988-423: Was nowhere near as prominent as his later rival. De Rozas initially appointed O'Higgins to a minor military position in 1812, possibly because of his illegitimate origins, poor health, or lack of military training. Much of O'Higgins' early military knowledge stemmed from Juan Mackenna , an immigrant of Irish descent and a former client of Ambrosio's, whose advice centered mainly on the use of cavalry. In 1813, when
12099-535: Was postponed by news that the royalists had decided to ignore the recent treaty , and were threatening Concepción under the leadership of General Mariano Osorio . Carrera and O'Higgins decided to reunite the army and face the common threat. Carrera's plan was to draw the Spaniards to the Angostura del Paine, while O'Higgins preferred the town of Rancagua . They decided to make a stand at the Angostura de Paine,
12210-439: Was the end of the Papal States , which lay in the middle of the "Italian boot" around the central area of Rome . In contrast, he led the worldwide Church toward an ever-increasing centralization and consolidation of power in Rome and the papacy. More than his predecessors, Pius used the papal pulpit to address the bishops of the world. The First Vatican Council (1869–1870), which he convened to consolidate papal authority further,
12321-511: Was time for him to leave Chile. After being deposed , O'Higgins embarked from the port of Valparaíso in July 1823, in the British corvette Fly , never to see Chile again. Originally destined for Ireland , while he was passing through Peru he was strongly encouraged by Simón Bolívar to join the nationalist effort there. Bolívar's government granted O'Higgins the Hacienda de Cuiva and
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