141-537: Contemporary Latin is the form of the Literary Latin used since the end of the 19th century. Various kinds of contemporary Latin can be distinguished, including the use of Neo-Latin words in taxonomy and in science generally, and the fuller ecclesiastical use in the Catholic Church – but Living or Spoken Latin (the use of Latin as a language in its own right as a full-fledged means of expression)
282-453: A broader range of courses relating to urban professions such as law and medicine. All universities required Latin proficiency, obtained in local grammar schools, to obtain admittance as a student. Throughout the period, Latin was the dominant language of university education, where rules were enforced against the use of vernacular languages. Lectures and debates took place in Latin, and writing
423-667: A century later when Pope Benedict XVI encouraged the Latin Mass . The Church of England permits some services to be conducted in Latin at the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge. Most recently a Latin edition of the 1979 USA Anglican Book of Common Prayer has been produced. In parts of Central Europe, composition of serious Latin poetry continued, such as those by Antonius Smerdel and Jan Novák . In Smerdel's case, his free verse written in Latin has modernist as well as classical and Christian elements. His choice of Latin as
564-528: A cornerstone article called "Latin or Babel" in which he proposed Latin as an international spoken language. Capelle was called "the soul of the movement" when in 1956 the first International Conference for Living Latin ( Congrès international pour le Latin vivant ) took place in Avignon , marking the beginning of a new era of the active use of Latin. About 200 participants from 22 different countries took part in that foundational conference. The essentials of
705-444: A dynamic for purification and ossification of Latin, and thus its decline from a more productive medieval background. Modern Neo-Latin scholars tend to reject this, as for instance word formation and even medieval uses continued; but some see a kernel of truth, in that the standards of Latin were set very high, making it hard to achieve the necessary confidence to use Latin. In any case, other factors are certainly at play, particularly
846-532: A focus of Neo-Latin studies. For instance, stylistic borrowings flowed from Latin to the Dutch vernacular, where models were lacking in the latter. Holy See The Holy See ( Latin : Sancta Sedes , lit. 'Holy Chair ', Ecclesiastical Latin : [ˈsaŋkta ˈsedes] ; Italian : Santa Sede [ˈsanta ˈsɛːde] ), also called the See of Rome , Petrine See or Apostolic See ,
987-414: A high level in international conferences until the mid twentieth century. Over time, and especially in its later phases after its practical value had severely declined, education that included strong emphasis on Latin and Greek became associated with elitism and as a deliberate class barrier for entry to educational institutions. Post-classical Latin, including medieval, Renaissance and Neo-Latin, makes up
1128-454: A high standard. Even in this period, an excessive focus on grammar and poor teaching methods were seen by reformers as a barrier to the acquisition of Latin. Comenius for instance was credited with significant attempts to make Latin more accessible through use of parallel Latin and native language texts, and more interesting through acquisition of vocabulary and the use of modern and more relevant information in texts. Others worried whether it
1269-516: A key feature of the humanist movement. Through comparison with Latin of the Classical period , scholars from Petrarch onwards promoted a standard of Latin closer to that of the ancient Romans, especially in grammar, style, and spelling. The term Neo-Latin was however coined much later, probably in Germany in the late eighteenth century, as Neulatein , spreading to French and other languages in
1410-687: A kind of bridge of communication across religious as well as linguistic divides in the Res Publica Litterarum . One exception to the general rule of vernacular services in Protestant countries can be observed in the Anglican Church , where with the publication of the Book of Common Prayer of 1559, a Latin edition was published in 1560 for use in universities such as Oxford and the leading grammar and " public schools " (in
1551-550: A longer period. In Poland, it was used as a vehicle of local government. This extended to those parts of Poland absorbed by Germany. Latin was used as a common tongue between parts of the Austrian Empire, particularly Hungary and Croatia, at least until the 1820s. Croatia maintained a Latin poetry tradition through the nineteenth century. Latin also remained the language of the Catholic Church and of oral debate at
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#17327721270721692-451: A medium reflects both the relative local relevance of Latin, which had a strong poetic tradition into the late nineteenth century, and a means to evade the attention of political censors. Some Latin texts were written for specific musical cases, for instance classical music pieces, such as Stravinsky's 1927 opera Oedipus Rex . Latin has also survived to some extent in the context of classical scholarship . Some classical periodicals, like
1833-531: A month, until 1913, one year before the outbreak of World War I . The early 20th century, marked by tremendous technological progress, as well as drastic social changes, saw few advances in the use of Latin outside academia. Following the beginnings of the re-integration of postwar Europe , however, Latin revivalism gained some ground. One of its main promoters was the former dean of the University of Nancy (France), Prof. Jean Capelle , who in 1952 published
1974-687: A papal official in Rome, manages this portion of the Holy See's assets—consisting of British investments, other European holdings and a currency trading arm. The Guardian newspaper described Mennini and his role in the following manner: "... Paolo Mennini, who is in effect the Pope's merchant banker . Mennini heads a special unit inside the Vatican called the extraordinary division of APSA – Amministrazione del Patrimonio della Sede Apostolica – which handles
2115-476: A purified Classical Latin vocabulary. Recent study tends to identify a style of Latin that was closer to Classical Latin in grammar, sometimes influenced by vernaculars in syntax especially in more everyday writing, but eclectic in choice of vocabulary and generation of new words. Some authors including C. S. Lewis have criticised the Neo-Latin and classicising nature of humanistic Latin teaching for creating
2256-598: A spoken language, both throughout the year and over the summer, in Europe and in America. Less academic summer encounters wholly carried out in Latin are the ones known as Septimanæ Latinæ Europææ (European Latin Weeks), celebrated in Germany and attracting people of various ages from all over Europe. At the present time, several periodicals and social networking web sites are published in Latin. In France, immediately after
2397-457: A strong role in education and writing in early colonial Mexico, Brazil and in other parts of Catholic Americas. Catholicism also brought Latin to India, China and Japan. Neo-Latin began in Italy with the rise of Renaissance Latin and humanist reform of Latin education, then brought to prominence in northern Europe by writers such as Erasmus , More , and Colet . Medieval Latin had been
2538-574: A symbolic level in many mottos that are still being used and even coined in Latin to this day. Old mottos like E pluribus unum , found in 1776 on the Seal of the United States , along with Annuit cœptis and Novus ordo seclorum , and adopted by an Act of Congress in 1782, are still in use. Similarly, current pound sterling coins are minted with the Latin inscription CHARLES III·D·G·REX·F·D ( Dei Gratia Rex Fidei Defensor , i.e. By
2679-552: A vocabulary for specialised fields such as anatomy and law which has become part of the normal, non-technical vocabulary of various European languages. Latin continues to be used to form international scientific vocabulary and classical compounds . Separately, more than 56% of the vocabulary used in English today derives ultimately from Latin, either directly (28.24%) or through French (28.30%). The Catholic Church has continued to use Latin. Two main areas can be distinguished. One
2820-580: A week on Wednesdays for 15 minutes; the broadcast is called Erfordia Latina . In 2015, the Italian startup pptArt launched its catalogue ( Catalogus ) and its registration form for artists ( Specimen ad nomina signanda ) in Latin and English. In 2016, ACEM ( Enel executives' cultural association) organized with Luca Desiata and Daniel Gallagher the first Business Latin course for managers ( Congressus studiorum – Lingua Latina mercatoria ). The government of Finland , during its presidencies of
2961-473: A wider audience using the same ideas with more practical applications. Over time, the use of Latin continued where international communication with specialist audiences was paramount. Later, where some of the discourse moved to French, English or German, translations into Latin would allow texts to cross language boundaries, while authors in countries with much smaller language populations or less known languages would tend to continue to compose in Latin. Latin
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#17327721270723102-416: Is a member-state in various intergovernmental international organizations , and that it is: "respected by the international community of sovereign States and treated as a subject of international law having the capacity to engage in diplomatic relations and to enter into binding agreements with one, several, or many states under international law that are largely geared to establish and preserving peace in
3243-606: Is administered by the Roman Curia (Latin for "Roman Court"), which is the central government of the Catholic Church. The Roman Curia includes various dicasteries , comparable to ministries and executive departments, with the Cardinal Secretary of State as its chief administrator. Papal elections are carried out by part of the College of Cardinals . Although the Holy See is often metonymically referred to as
3384-455: Is an effort to revive Latin as a spoken language and as the vehicle for contemporary communication and publication. Involvement in this Latin revival can be a mere hobby or extend to more serious projects for restoring its former role as an international auxiliary language . After the decline of Latin at the end of the Neo-Latin era started to be perceived, there were attempts to counteract
3525-498: Is from a natural to stylised word order. Unlike medieval schools, however, Italian Renaissance methods focused on Classical models of Latin prose style, reviving texts from that period, such as Cicero's De Inventione or Quintilian 's Institutio Oratoria . Teaching of specific, gradually harder Latin authors and texts followed rhetorical practice and learning. In Italy, during the medieval period, at different periods, Classical and Christian authors competed for attention, but
3666-611: Is its use for the official version of all documents issued by the Holy See , which has remained intact to the present. Although documents are first drafted in various vernaculars (mostly Italian), the official version is written in Latin by the Latin Letters Office . The other is its use for the liturgy, which has diminished after the Second Vatican Council of 1962–1965, but to some degree resurged half
3807-595: Is listed in the Annuario Pontificio under "Holy See", not under "State of Vatican City". At the end of 2005, the Guard had 134 members. Recruitment is arranged by a special agreement between the Holy See and Switzerland. All recruits must be Catholic, unmarried males with Swiss citizenship who have completed basic training with the Swiss Armed Forces with certificates of good conduct, be between
3948-565: Is seen as a vital context for understanding the vernacular cultures in the periods when Latin was in widespread productive use. Additionally, Classical reception studies have begun to assess the differing ways that Classical culture was understood in different nations and times. Classicists use the term "Neo-Latin" to describe the Latin that developed in Renaissance Italy as a result of renewed interest in classical civilization in
4089-774: Is the See's equivalent of a prime minister. Archbishop Paul Gallagher , Secretary of the Section for Relations with States of the Secretariat of State, acts as the Holy See's minister of foreign affairs . Parolin was named in his role by Pope Francis on 31 August 2013. The Secretariat of State is the only body of the Curia that is situated within Vatican City. The others are in buildings in different parts of Rome that have extraterritorial rights similar to those of embassies. Among
4230-575: Is the central governing body of the Catholic Church and the Vatican City State . It encompasses the office of the pope as the bishop of the Apostolic episcopal see of Rome and serves as the spiritual and administrative authority of the worldwide Catholic Church and the city-state. Under international law , the Holy See holds the status of a sovereign juridical entity . According to Catholic tradition and historical records, it
4371-411: Is the primary subject of this article. Latin is still present in words or phrases used in many languages around the world, as a relic of the great importance of Neo-Latin , which was the formerly dominant international lingua franca down to the 19th century in a great number of fields. Some minor communities also use Latin in their speech. The official use of Latin in previous eras has survived at
Contemporary Latin - Misplaced Pages Continue
4512-489: Is the well-known Lingua Latina per se illustrata by the Danish linguist Hans Henning Ørberg . It was first published in 1955 and improved in 1990. It is composed fully in Latin and requires no other language of instruction, thus it can be used to teach students of many different languages. Others support the revival of Latin as a language of international communication in academic, scientific, or diplomatic spheres (as it
4653-417: Is to this day published wholly in Latin four times a year in the University of Saarbrücken . In Belgium, the magazine Melissa created in 1984 by Gaius Licoppe is still published six times a year completely in Latin. Hebdomada aenigmatum is a free online magazine of crosswords, quizzes, and other games in Latin language. It is published by the Italian cultural Association Leonardo in collaboration with
4794-778: The Fundatio Melissa for the promotion of Latin teaching and use for communication. In Germany, Marius Alexa and Inga Pessarra-Grimm founded in September 1987 the Latinitati Vivæ Provehendæ Associatio (LVPA, or Association for the Promotion of Living Latin). The first Septimana Latina Amoeneburgensis (Amöneburg Latin Week) was organized in 1989 at Amöneburg, near Marburg in Germany, by Mechtild Hofmann and Robertus Maier. Since then
4935-685: The Institutum Studiis Latinis Provehendis (known in English as the Institute of Latin Studies), which awards Graduate Certificates in Latin Studies addressed at those with a special interest gaining "a thorough command of the Latin language in reading, writing and speaking, along with a wide exposure to the cultural riches of the Latin tradition in its totality". This is the only degree-conferring program in
5076-612: The Camerlengo of the Holy Roman Church , who administers the temporalities ( i.e. , properties and finances) of the See of St. Peter during this period. The government of the See, and therefore of the Catholic Church, then falls to the College of Cardinals . Canon law prohibits the College and the Camerlengo from introducing any innovations or novelties in the government of the church during this period. In 2001,
5217-516: The Canon law of the Catholic Church . The Holy See is thus viewed as the central government of the Catholic Church and Vatican City. The Catholic Church, in turn, is the largest non-government provider of education and health care in the world. The Holy See maintains bilateral diplomatic relations with 183 sovereign states, signs concordats and treaties, and performs multilateral diplomacy with multiple intergovernmental organizations , including
5358-634: The Cardinal Secretary of State ), through the Section for Relations with States. There are 12 internationally recognized states with which the Holy See does not have relations. The Holy See is the only European subject of international law that has diplomatic relations with the government of the Republic of China (Taiwan) as representing China, rather than the government of the People's Republic of China (see Holy See–Taiwan relations ). The British Foreign and Commonwealth Office speaks of Vatican City as
5499-667: The European Union , issued official newsletters in Latin on top of the official languages of the Union. Neo-Latin Neo-Latin (sometimes called New Latin or Modern Latin ) is the style of written Latin used in original literary, scholarly, and scientific works, first in Italy during the Italian Renaissance of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, and then across northern Europe after about 1500, as
5640-720: The Kingdom of Italy and the Holy Roman Empire were at times strained, reaching from the Diploma Ottonianum and Libellus de imperatoria potestate in urbe Roma regarding the " Patrimony of Saint Peter " in the 10th century, to the Investiture Controversy in 1076–1122, and settled again by the Concordat of Worms in 1122. The exiled Avignon Papacy during 1309–1376 also put a strain on
5781-612: The Non-Aligned Movement (NAM), Organization of American States , International Organization for Migration and in the United Nations and its agencies FAO , ILO , UNCTAD , UNEP , UNESCO , UN-HABITAT , UNHCR , UNIDO , UNWTO , WFP , WHO , WIPO . and as a full member in IAEA , OPCW , Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE). Although the Holy See is closely associated with Vatican City,
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5922-576: The Palestine Liberation Organization ; 69 of the diplomatic missions accredited to the Holy See are situated in Rome. The Holy See maintains 180 permanent diplomatic missions abroad, of which 74 are non-residential, so that many of its 106 concrete missions are accredited to two or more countries or international organizations. The diplomatic activities of the Holy See are directed by the Secretariat of State (headed by
6063-645: The Pontifical Palace at Castel Gandolfo . The same authority is extended under international law over the Apostolic Nunciature of the Holy See in a foreign country. Though, like various European powers, earlier popes recruited Swiss mercenaries as part of an army, the Pontifical Swiss Guard was founded by Pope Julius II on 22 January 1506 as the personal bodyguards of the Pope and continues to fulfill that function. It
6204-473: The Savoyard era (which made the Pope a " prisoner in the Vatican " from 1870 to 1929), its international legal subject was "constituted by the ongoing reciprocity of diplomatic relationships" that not only were maintained but multiplied. The Lateran Treaty on 11 February 1929 between the Holy See and Italy recognised Vatican City as an independent city-state , along with extraterritorial properties around
6345-741: The United Nations and its agencies, the Council of Europe , the European Communities , the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe , and the Organization of American States . The word "see" comes from the Latin word sedes , meaning 'seat', which refers to the episcopal throne ( cathedra ). The term " Apostolic See " can refer to any see founded by one of the Twelve Apostles, but, when used with
6486-782: The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR). The Holy See is also a permanent observer in various international organizations, including the United Nations General Assembly , the Council of Europe , UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization), the World Trade Organization (WTO), and the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). The Holy See participates as an observer to African Union , Arab League , Council of Europe ,
6627-640: The University of Cambridge makes a speech in Latin marking the achievements of each of the honorands at the annual Honorary Degree Congregations, as does the Public Orator at the Encaenia ceremony at the University of Oxford . Harvard and Princeton also have Latin Salutatory commencement addresses every year. The Charles University in Prague and many other universities around the world conduct
6768-664: The apostolic see of Diocese of Rome was established in the 1st century by Saint Peter and Saint Paul . The legal status of the Catholic Church and its property was recognised by the Edict of Milan in 313 by Roman emperor Constantine the Great , and it became the state church of the Roman Empire by the Edict of Thessalonica in 380 by Emperor Theodosius I . After the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476,
6909-400: The methodologies of instructors of modern languages. In the United Kingdom, the Association for the Reform of Latin Teaching (ARLT, still in existence as the Association for Latin Teaching) was founded in 1913 by the classical scholar W. H. D. Rouse . It arose from summer schools which Rouse organised to train Latin teachers in the direct method of language teaching , which entailed using
7050-515: The rules of nomenclature used today allow the construction of names which may deviate considerably from historical norms. Botanical descriptions were mandated to be written entirely in Botanical Latin from 1935 to 2012 and are still allowed to be written so. Another continuation is the use of Latin names for the constellations and celestial objects (used in the Bayer designations of stars), as well as planets and satellites, whose surface features have been given Latin selenographic toponyms since
7191-405: The " Vatican ", the Vatican City State was distinctively established with the Lateran Treaty of 1929, between the Holy See and Italy, to ensure the temporal , diplomatic, and spiritual independence of the papacy. As such, papal nuncios , who are papal diplomats to states and international organizations, are recognized as representing the Holy See and not the Vatican City State, as prescribed in
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#17327721270727332-402: The "capital" of the Holy See, although it compares the legal personality of the Holy See to that of the Crown in Christian monarchies and declares that the Holy See and the state of Vatican City are two international identities. It also distinguishes between the employees of the Holy See (2,750 working in the Roman Curia with another 333 working in the Holy See's diplomatic missions abroad) and
7473-445: The 'patrimony of the Holy See'." The orders, decorations, and medals of the Holy See are conferred by the Pope as temporal sovereign and fons honorum of the Holy See, similar to the orders awarded by other heads of state . The Holy See has been recognized, both in state practice and in the writing of modern legal scholars, as a subject of public international law , with rights and duties analogous to those of States . Although
7614-423: The 1,909 employees of the Vatican City State. The British Ambassador to the Holy See uses more precise language, saying that the Holy See "is not the same as the Vatican City State. ... (It) is the universal government of the Catholic Church and operates from the Vatican City State." This agrees exactly with the expression used by the website of the United States Department of State, in giving information on both
7755-424: The 14th and 15th centuries. Scientific nomenclatures sometimes prefer the term "New Latin", to show where their terms were coined in the same period. Neo-Latin describes the use of the Latin language for any purpose, scientific or literary, during and after the Renaissance. The beginning of the period cannot be precisely identified. The spread of secular education, the acceptance of humanistic literary norms, and
7896-431: The 17th century. Symbols for many of those chemical elements known in ancient times reflect and echo their Latin names, like Au for aurum ( gold ) and Fe for ferrum ( iron ). Latin abbreviations are widely used in medical prescriptions . In some countries, medical prescriptions are still written entirely in Latin, except for the signature (inscription directed towards the patient). Latin has also contributed
8037-463: The 1800s among linguists and scientists . Neo-Latin can be said to be the current style of Latin writing, but different periods in its evolution can be seen. Neo-Latin writings were seen as less relevant and deserving of less attention than Classical Latin during the 1800s, as Classical models were asserted as the prime focus for study. Productive use of Latin for most purposes ended in the early 1800s. While Latin remained an actively used language,
8178-408: The CAELVM ( Cursus Aestivus Latinitatis Vivae Matritensis ), a Latin summer program in Madrid. In 2012, the Studium Angelopolitanum was founded in Puebla, Mexico, by Prof. Alexis Hellmer , in order to promote the study of Latin in that country, where only one university grants a degree in Classics. Most of these groups and institutions organise seminars and conferences where Latin is used as
8319-425: The Catholic Church through the Roman Curia . The Curia consists of a complex of offices that administer church affairs at the highest level, including the Secretariat of State , nine Congregations , three Tribunals , eleven Pontifical Councils, and seven Pontifical Commissions. The Secretariat of State, under the Cardinal Secretary of State , directs and coordinates the Curia. The incumbent, Cardinal Pietro Parolin,
8460-434: The Catholic church affirmed their commitment to Latin in the liturgy and as a working language within the hierarchy at the Council of Trent in 1545–63. Jesuit schools were particularly well known for their production of Latin plays , exclusive use of spoken Latin and emphasis on classical written style. However, the standards ultimately achieved by the whole school system were uneven. Not all students would acquire Latin to
8601-460: The Conventiculum Lexintoniense has inspired similar conferences throughout the United States. In October 1996, the Septentrionale Americanum Latinitatis Vivæ Institutum (SALVI, or North American Institute for Living Latin Studies) was founded in Los Angeles, by a group of professors and students of Latin literature concerned about the long-term future of classical studies in the US. In the University of Kentucky , Prof. Terence Tunberg founded
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#17327721270728742-437: The Economic Affairs of the Holy See coordinates the finances of the Holy See departments and supervises the administration of all offices, whatever be their degree of autonomy, that manage these finances. The most important of these is the Administration of the Patrimony of the Apostolic See . The Prefecture of the Papal Household is responsible for the organization of the papal household, audiences, and ceremonies (apart from
8883-505: The German Celtis . In the late 1400s, some schools in the Low Countries were using the new Italian standards of Latin. Erasmus and other pupils promoted the new learning and Latin standards. The Low Countries established itself as a leading centre of humanism and Neo-Latin; Rotterdam and Leuven were especially well known for these intellectual currents. Neo-Latin developed in advance of and in parallel with vernacular languages, but not necessarily in direct competition with them. Frequently
9024-468: The German Hermes , to this day accept articles in Latin for publication; Mnemosyne did so at least until 2017. Latin is used in most of the introductions to the critical editions of ancient authors in the Oxford Classical Texts series, and it is also nearly always used for the apparatus criticus of Ancient Greek and Latin texts. The scientific journal Theoretica Chemica Acta accepted articles written in Latin until 1998. The University Orator at
9165-512: The Grace of God, King, Defender of the Faith). Monarchs before Elizabeth II used a Latin form of their names on currency, e.g. Georgius and Edwardus for George and Edward respectively. The official motto of the multilingual European Union, adopted as recently as 2000, is the Latin In varietate concordia . Similarly, in officially bilingual Canada the motto on the Canadian Victoria Cross is Pro Valore . Some common phrases that are still in use in many languages have remained fixed in Latin, like
9306-425: The Holy See and the Vatican City State: it too says that the Holy See "operates from the Vatican City State". The Holy See is a member of various international organizations and groups including the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), International Telecommunication Union , the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE), the Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW) and
9447-439: The Holy See had a revenue of 422.098 billion Italian lire (about US$ 202 million at the time), and a net income of 17.720 billion Italian lire (about US$ 8 million). According to an article by David Leigh in the Guardian newspaper, a 2012 report from the Council of Europe identified the value of a section of the Vatican's property assets as an amount in excess of €680m (£570m); as of January 2013, Paolo Mennini,
9588-422: The Holy See, as distinct from the Vatican City State, does not fulfill the long-established criteria in international law of statehood —having a permanent population, a defined territory, a stable government, and the capacity to enter into relations with other states —its possession of full legal personality in international law is shown by the fact that it maintains diplomatic relations with 180 states, that it
9729-501: The Latin Weeks were offered every year. In addition, members of the supporting association Septimanae Latinae Europaeae ( European Latin Weeks ) published a text book named Piper Salve that contains dialogues in modern everyday Latin. At the Accademia Vivarium Novum located in Rome, Italy, all classes are taught by faculty fluent in Latin or Ancient Greek, and resident students speak in Latin or Greek at all times outside class. Most students are supported by scholarships from
9870-438: The Latin language and a Latin state to be founded"). In the late 19th century, Latin periodicals advocating the revived use of Latin as an international language started to appear. Between 1889 and 1895, Karl Heinrich Ulrichs published in Italy his Alaudæ . This publication was followed by the Vox Urbis: de litteris et bonis artibus commentarius , published by the architect and engineer Aristide Leonori from 1898, twice
10011-502: The Mnemosyne foundation and spend one or two years in residence to acquire fluency in Latin. The living Latin movement eventually crossed the Atlantic, where it continues to grow. In the summer of 1996, at the University of Kentucky , Prof. Terence Tunberg established the first Conventiculum, an immersion conference in which participants from all over the world meet annually to exercise the active use of Latin to discuss books and literature, and topics related to everyday life. The success of
10152-581: The Neo-Latin period is likewise indeterminate, but Latin as a regular vehicle of communicating ideas became rare following the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire and after the Congress of Vienna , where French replaced Latin as the language of diplomacy. By 1900, Latin survived primarily in international scientific vocabulary and taxonomy , or more actively, in the upper echelons of the Catholic Church . The term "Neo-Latin" came into use during
10293-479: The Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons , a binding agreement for negotiations for the total elimination of nuclear weapons. A difference between the two coats of arms is that the arms of the Holy See have the gold key in bend and the silver key in bend sinister (as in the sede vacante coat of arms and in the external ornaments of the papal coats of arms of individual popes), while the reversed arrangement of
10434-672: The Renaissance and Neo-Latin period saw a decisive move back to authors from the Classical period, and away from non-Classical 'minor' authors such as Boethius , whose language was simpler. The changes to schooling in Northern Europe were more profound, as methods had not evolved as quickly. Adopting Italian innovations, changes to the teaching of grammar and rhetoric were promoted by reformers including Calvin , Melanchthon and Luther . Protestants needed Latin to promote and disseminate their ideas, so were heavily involved with
10575-464: The Vatican City was created by the Lateran Treaty in 1929 to "ensure the absolute and visible independence of the Holy See" and "to guarantee to it indisputable sovereignty in international affairs." Archbishop Jean-Louis Tauran , the Holy See's former Secretary for Relations with States, said that Vatican City is a "minuscule support-state that guarantees the spiritual freedom of the Pope with
10716-561: The ages of 19 and 30, and be at least 175 centimetres (5 feet 9 inches) in height. Members are armed with small arms and the traditional halberd (also called the Swiss voulge ), and trained in bodyguarding tactics. The police force within Vatican City, known as the Corps of Gendarmerie of Vatican City , belongs to the city state, not to the Holy See. The Holy See signed the UN treaty on
10857-413: The awarding of their doctoral degrees in Latin. Other universities and other schools issue diplomas written in Latin. Brown , Sewanee , and Bard College also hold a portion of their graduation ceremonies in Latin. The song Gaudeamus igitur is sung at university opening or graduation ceremonies throughout Europe. Living Latin ( Latinitas viva in Latin itself), also known as Spoken Latin ,
10998-531: The bounds of the Church. Nevertheless, studies and criticism of Biblical translations were a particular and important focus of early Humanism, in Italy and beyond. Prominent Neo-Latin writers who were admired for their style in this early period included Pontano , Petrarch , Salutati , Bruni , Ficino , Pico della Mirandola in Italy; the Spaniard Juan Luis Vives ; and in northern Europe,
11139-408: The careful work of Petrarch, Politian and others, first the demand for manuscripts, and then the rush to bring works into print, led to the circulation of inaccurate copies for several centuries following. As the humanist reformers sought both to purify Latin grammar and style, and to make Latin applicable to concerns beyond the ecclesiastical, they began to create a body of Latin literature outside
11280-612: The classical idiom only. However, in 2015 Assimil re-published Desessard's edition with new audio CDs in restored classical Latin pronunciation. Desessard's method is still used for living Latin instruction at the Schola Latina Universalis . In 1986 the Belgian radiologist Gaius Licoppe, who had discovered the contemporary use of Latin and learnt how to speak it thanks to Desessard's method, founded in Brussels
11421-422: The classical pronunciation had been defined since the early 19th century (e.g. in K. L. Schneider's Elementarlehre der Lateinischen Sprache , 1819) but, in many countries, there was strong resistance to adopting it in instruction. In English-speaking countries, where the traditional academic pronunciation diverged most markedly from the restored classical model, the struggle between the two pronunciations lasted
11562-424: The classical pronunciation of Latin as restored by specialists in Latin historical phonology. Many users of Contemporary Latin promote its use as a spoken language, a movement that dubs itself "Living Latin". Two main aims can be distinguished in this movement: Among the proponents of spoken Latin, some promote the active use of the language to make learning Latin both more enjoyable and more efficient, drawing upon
11703-577: The conference at Avignon, the publisher Théodore Aubanel launched the magazine Vita Latina , which still exists, associated to the CERCAM ( Centre d'Étude et de Recherche sur les Civilisations Antiques de la Méditerranée ) of the Paul Valéry University, Montpellier III . Until very recently, it was published in Latin in its entirety. In Germany, the magazine Vox Latina was founded in 1965 by Caelestis Eichenseer (1924–2008) and
11844-554: The continued use of Latin in Scandinavian countries and Russia – places that had never belonged to the Roman Empire – to disseminate knowledge until the early nineteenth century. Neo-Latin includes extensive new word formation . Modern scholarly and technical nomenclature , such as in zoological and botanical taxonomy and international scientific vocabulary , draws extensively from this newly minted vocabulary, often in
11985-598: The cultural heritage of Ancient Greece and Byzantium , as well as Greek and Old Church Slavonic languages. Latin was taught extensively in the USA , during the colonial period on the European model of Latin medium education, but was among the first to allow this monopoly to recede. Both Latin and the Classics were very influential nevertheless, and supported an active Latin literature, especially in poetry. Latin played
12126-474: The decline and to revitalize the use of Latin for international communication. In 1815, Miguel Olmo wrote a booklet proposing Latin as the common language for Europe, with the title Otia Villaudricensia ad octo magnos principes qui Vindobonæ anno MDCCCXV pacem orbis sanxerunt, de lingua Latina et civitate Latina fundanda liber singularis (" Leisure of Villaudric to the eight great princes who ordained world peace at Vienna in 1815, an extraordinary book about
12267-593: The definite article, it is used in the Catholic Church to refer specifically to the see of the Bishop of Rome, whom that Church sees as the successor of Saint Peter. While St. Peter's Basilica in Vatican City is perhaps the church most associated with the papacy, the actual cathedral of the Holy See is the Archbasilica of Saint John Lateran in the city of Rome. In the Roman Catholic Church, only
12408-520: The dicasteries and in giving them input. The Holy See does not dissolve upon a pope's death or resignation. It instead operates under a different set of laws sede vacante . During this interregnum , the heads of the dicasteries of the Curia (such as the prefects of congregations) cease immediately to hold office, the only exceptions being the Major Penitentiary , who continues his important role regarding absolutions and dispensations, and
12549-529: The entire 19th century. In 1907, the "new pronunciation" was officially recommended by the Board of Education for adoption in schools in England. Although the older pronunciation, as found in the nomenclature and terminology of various professions, continued to be used for several decades, and in some spheres prevails to the present day, contemporary Latin as used by the living Latin community has generally adopted
12690-482: The extent of potential records, even regarding printed works, there is extensive basic work to be done in cataloguing what is available, as well as in digitisation and translation of important works. Neo-Latin was, at least in its early days, an international language used throughout Catholic and Protestant Europe, as well as in the colonies of the major European powers. This area consisted of most of Europe, including Central Europe and Scandinavia ; its southern border
12831-438: The form of classical or neoclassical compounds . Large parts of this new Latin vocabulary have seeped into English , French and several Germanic languages, particularly through Neo-Latin. In the eighteenth century, Latin was increasingly being learnt as a written and read language, with less emphasis on oral fluency. While it still dominated education, its position alongside Greek was increasingly attacked and began to erode. In
12972-558: The independent territory over which the Holy See is sovereign , the two entities are separate and distinct. After the Italian seizure of the Papal States in 1870, the Holy See had no territorial sovereignty. In spite of some uncertainty among jurists as to whether it could continue to act as an independent personality in international matters, the Holy See continued in fact to exercise the right to send and receive diplomatic representatives, maintaining relations with states that included
13113-477: The language in everyday situations rather than merely learning grammar and syntax by rote. The Classical Association also encourages this approach. The Cambridge University Press has now published a series of school textbooks based on the adventures of a mouse called Minimus , designed to help children of primary school age to learn the language, as well as its well-known Cambridge Latin Course (CLC) to teach
13254-450: The language to secondary school students, all of which include extensive use of dialogue and an approach to language teaching mirroring that now used for most modern languages, which have brought many of the principles espoused by Rouse and the ARLT into the mainstream of Latin teaching. Outside Great Britain, one of the most accomplished handbooks that fully adopts the direct method for Latin
13395-641: The learner with spoken vocabulary for common topics, such as play and games, home work and describing travel. In short, Latin was taught as a "completely normal language", to be used as any other. Colloquia would also contain moral education. At a higher level, Erasmus' Colloquia helped equip Latin speakers with urbane and polite phraseology, and means of discussing more philosophical topics. Changes to Latin teaching varied by region. In Italy, with more urbanised schools and Universities, and wider curricula aimed at professions rather than just theology, Latin teaching evolved more gradually, and earlier, in order to speed up
13536-423: The learning of Latin. For instance, initial learning of grammar in a basic Latin word order followed the practice of medieval schools. In both medieval and Renaissance schools, practice in Latin written skills would then extend to prose style composition, as part of 'rhetoric'. In Italy, for prose for instance, a pupil would typically be asked to convert a passage in ordo naturalis to ordo artificialis , that
13677-423: The level of abstract thought addressed to other specialists. To begin with, knowledge was already transmitted through Latin and it maintained specialised vocabularies not found in vernacular languages. This did not preclude scientific writings also existing in vernaculars; for example Galileo , some of whose scientific writings were in Latin, while others were in Italian, the latter less academic and intended to reach
13818-586: The liturgy, resisting attempts even in the New World and China to diverge from it. As noted above, Jesuit schools fuelled a high standard of Latinity, and this was also supported by the growth of seminaries, as part of the Counter Reformation 's attempts to revitalise Catholic institutions. While in Protestant areas Latin was pushed out of the Church, this did not make Protestants hostile to Latin in education or universities. In fact, Latin remained
13959-612: The major powers Russia, Prussia , and Austria-Hungary . Where, in accordance with the decision of the 1815 Congress of Vienna , the Nuncio was not only a member of the Diplomatic Corps but its dean, this arrangement continued to be accepted by the other ambassadors. In the course of the 59 years during which the Holy See held no territorial sovereignty, the number of states that had diplomatic relations with it, which had been reduced to 16, actually increased to 29. The State of
14100-574: The minimum territory". The Holy See, not Vatican City, maintains diplomatic relations with states. Foreign embassies are accredited to the Holy See, not to Vatican City, and it is the Holy See that establishes treaties and concordats with other sovereign entities. When necessary, the Holy See will enter a treaty on behalf of Vatican City. Under the terms of the Lateran Treaty, the Holy See has extraterritorial authority over various sites in Rome and two Italian sites outside of Rome , including
14241-834: The most active of the major Curial institutions are the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith , which oversees the Catholic Church's doctrine; the Congregation for Bishops , which coordinates the appointment of bishops worldwide; the Congregation for the Evangelization of Peoples , which oversees all missionary activities; and the Pontifical Council for Justice and Peace , which deals with international peace and social issues. Three tribunals exercise judicial power. The Roman Rota handles normal judicial appeals,
14382-766: The most numerous being those that concern alleged nullity of marriage. The Apostolic Signatura is the supreme appellate and administrative court concerning decisions even of the Roman Rota and administrative decisions of ecclesiastical superiors (bishops and superiors of religious institutes ), such as closing a parish or removing someone from office. It also oversees the work of other ecclesiastical tribunals at all levels. The Apostolic Penitentiary deals not with external judgments or decrees, but with matters of conscience, granting absolutions from censures , dispensations, commutations, validations, condonations, and other favors; it also grants indulgences . The Prefecture for
14523-605: The most well known example. Throughout this period, Latin was a universal school subject, and indeed, the pre-eminent subject for elementary education in most of Europe and other places of the world that shared its culture. Schools were variously known as grammar schools in Britain, Latin schools in France, Germany, the Netherlands and colonial North America, and also Gymnasia in Germany and many other countries. Latin
14664-516: The nineteenth century, education in Latin (and Greek) focused increasingly on reading and grammar, and mutated into the 'classics' as a topic, although it often still dominated the school curriculum, especially for students aiming for entry to university. Learning moved gradually away from poetry composition and other written skills; as a language, its use was increasingly passive outside of classical commentaries and other specialised texts. Latin remained in active use in eastern Europe and Scandinavia for
14805-467: The nineteenth century. Medieval Latin had diverged quite substantially from the classical standard and saw notable regional variation and influence from vernacular languages. Neo-Latin attempts to return to the ideal of Golden Latinity in line with the Humanist slogan ad fontes . The new style of Latin was adopted throughout Europe, first through the spread of urban education in Italy, and then
14946-440: The online Latin news magazine Ephemeris and with ELI publishing house. From 1989 until 2019, Finnish radio station YLE Radio 1 broadcast a weekly review of world news called Nuntii Latini completely in Latin. The German Radio Bremen also had regular broadcasts in Latin until December 2017. Other attempts have been less successful. Beginning from July 2015 Radio F.R.E.I. from Erfurt (Germany) broadcasts in Latin once
15087-651: The papacy, which however finally returned to Rome. Pope Innocent X was critical of the Peace of Westphalia in 1648 as it weakened the authority of the Holy See throughout much of Europe. Following the French Revolution , the Papal States were briefly occupied as the " Roman Republic " from 1798 to 1799 as a sister republic of the First French Empire under Napoleon , before their territory
15228-512: The period, English schools established with charitable structures open to the general public; now a kind of private academy), where the liturgy was still permitted to be conducted in Latin. In this period, it was common for poets and authors to write in Latin, either in place of or in addition to their native language. Latin was a language for "high art" in an "eternal language", that authors supposed might outlast contemporary vernacular writings. It allowed for an international readership that shared
15369-472: The practical working language of the Roman Catholic Church , and was taught throughout Europe to clerics through the medieval university system. It was a flexible language, with many neologisms. Changes in grammatical practices regarding syntax and other elements such as conjunctions had become established. The Renaissance reinforced the position of Latin as a spoken and written language by
15510-471: The process of emulating Classical models did not become complete. For instance, Catholic traditions preserved some features of medieval Latin, given the continued influence of some aspects of medieval theology. In secular texts, such as scientific, legal and philosophical works, neologisms continued to be needed, so while Neo-Latin authors might choose new formulations, they might also continue to use customary medieval forms, but in either case, could not aim for
15651-434: The reform of Latin teaching. Among the most influential of these reformers was Calvin's Latin teacher and educational collaborator Corderius , whose bilingual colloquies were aimed at helping French-speaking children learn to speak Latin. Among Latin schools, the rapid growth of Jesuit schools made them known for their dedication to high attainment in written and spoken Latin to educate future priests. This took place after
15792-715: The reform of the new secular Latin teaching. The heyday of Neo-Latin was 1500–1700, when in the continuation of the Medieval Latin tradition, it served as the lingua franca of science, medicine, legal discourse, theology, education, and to some degree diplomacy in Europe. This coincided with the growth of printed literature; Latin dominated early publishing. Classic works such as Thomas More 's Utopia were published. Other prominent writers of this period include Dutchmen Grotius and Secundus and Scotsman George Buchanan . Women, while rarely published, also wrote and composed poetry in Latin, Elizabeth Jane Weston being
15933-433: The region. Since then, Vatican City is distinct from yet under "full ownership, exclusive dominion , and sovereign authority and jurisdiction " of the Holy See ( Latin : Sancta Sedes ). God Schools Relations with: The Holy See is one of the last remaining seven absolute monarchies in the world, along with Saudi Arabia , Eswatini , United Arab Emirates , Qatar , Brunei and Oman . The Pope governs
16074-479: The rise of the printing press and of early modern schooling. Latin was learnt as a spoken language as well as written, as the vehicle of schooling and University education, while vernacular languages were still infrequently used in such settings. As such, Latin dominated early publishing, and made up a significant portion of printed works until the early nineteenth century. In Neo-Latin's most productive phase, it dominated science, philosophy, law, and theology, and it
16215-503: The same Classical and recent Latin cultural reference points. The literature did not stand apart from vernaculars, as naturally allusions and the same reference points could flow across language boundaries. However, these dynamics have become less well understood, as academics and other readers are not as familiar with the Latin works of the period, sometimes resulting in simplistic notions of competition and replacement of Latin over time. The actual processes were more complicated and are now
16356-435: The same people were codifying and promoting both Latin and vernacular languages, in a wider post-medieval process of linguistic standardisation. However, Latin was the first language that was available, fully formed, widely taught and used internationally across a wide variety of subjects. As such, it can be seen as the first "modern European language". It should also be noted that for Italian reformers of written Latin, there
16497-716: The scholarship by the Renaissance Humanists . Although scholarship initially focused on Ancient Greek texts, Petrarch and others began to change their understanding of good style and their own usage of Latin as they explored the texts of the Classical Latin world. Skills of textual criticism evolved to create much more accurate versions of extant texts through the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, and some important texts were rediscovered. Comprehensive versions of author's works were published by Isaac Casaubon , Joseph Scaliger and others. Nevertheless, despite
16638-478: The see of the Pope bears the right to be addressed symbolically as "holy". However, there was one exception to this rule, represented by the Bishopric of Mainz . During the Holy Roman Empire , the former Archbishopric of Mainz (which was also of electoral and primatial rank) had the privilege to bear the title of "the Holy See of Mainz" (Latin: Sancta Sedes Moguntina ). According to Catholic tradition,
16779-413: The strictly liturgical part). One of Pope Francis's goals is to reorganize the Curia to prioritize its role in the church's mission to evangelize. This reform insists that the Curia is not meant to be a centralized bureaucracy, but rather a service for the Pope and diocesan bishops that is in communication with local bishops' conferences. Likewise more lay people are to be involved in the workings of
16920-558: The superiority of vernacular literatures, and the idea that only writing in one's first language could produce genuinely creative output, found in nationalism and Romanticism. More recently, the lack of trained Latinists has added to the barriers. More academic attention has been given to Neo-Latin studies since 1970, and the role and influence of Latin output in this period has begun to be reassessed. Rather than being an adjunct to Classical Latin forms, or an isolated, derivative and now largely irrelevant cultural output, Neo-Latin literature
17061-755: The temporal legal jurisdisction of the papal primacy was further recognised as promulgated in Canon law . The Holy See was granted territory in Duchy of Rome by the Donation of Sutri in 728 of King Liutprand of the Lombards , and sovereignty by the Donation of Pepin in 756 by King Pepin of the Franks . The Papal States thus held extensive territory and armed forces in 756–1870. Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne as Roman Emperor by translatio imperii in 800. The Pope's temporal power peaked around
17202-528: The time of the papal coronations of the emperors of the Holy Roman Empire from 858, and the Dictatus papae in 1075, which conversely also described Papal deposing power . Several modern states still trace their own sovereignty to recognition in medieval papal bulls. The sovereignty of the Holy See was retained despite multiple sacks of Rome during the Early Middle Ages. Yet, relations with
17343-488: The use of Latin as a spoken language. The foundational first International Conference for living Latin ( Congrès international pour le Latin vivant ) that took place in Avignon was followed by at least five others. As a result of those first conferences, the Academia Latinitati Fovendae (ALF) was then created in Rome. Among its most prominent members are well-known classicists from all over
17484-415: The vast majority of extant Latin output, estimated as well over 99.99% of the totality. Given the size of output and importance of Latin, the lack of attention to it is surprising to many scholars. The trend is a long one, however, dating back to the late eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, as Neo-Latin texts became looked down on as non-classical. Reasons could include the rising belief during this period in
17625-463: The well-known dramatis personae , habeas corpus or casus belli . In fields as varied as mathematics, physics, astronomy, medicine, pharmacy, biology, and philosophy, Latin still provides internationally accepted names of concepts, forces, objects, and organisms in the natural world. The most prominent retention of Latin occurs in the classification of living organisms and the binomial nomenclature devised by Carl Linnaeus , although
17766-413: The wide availability of Latin texts following the invention of printing , mark the transition to a new era of scholarship at the end of the 15th century, but there was no simple, decisive break with medieval traditions. Rather, there was a process of change in education, a choice of literary and stylistic models, and a move away from medieval techniques of language formation and argumentation. The end of
17907-417: The widening of education and its needs to address many more practical areas of knowledge, many of which were being written about for national audiences in the vernacular. The exact size of the Neo-Latin corpus is currently incalculable, but dwarfs that of Latin in all other periods combined. Material includes personal, unpublished, bureaucratic, educational, and academic output such as notes and theses. Given
18048-612: The world with courses taught entirely in Latin. There is also a proliferation of Latin-speaking institutions, groups and conferences in the Iberian Peninsula and in Latin America. Some prominent examples of this tendency towards the active use of Latin within Spanish and Portuguese-speaking countries are the annual conferences called Jornadas de Culturaclasica.com, held in different cities of southern Spain, as well as
18189-552: The world, like Prof. Michael von Albrecht or Prof. Kurt Smolak [ de ] . The ALF held its first international conference in Rome in 1966 bringing together about 500 participants. From then on conferences have taken place every four or five years, in Bucharest , Malta, Dakar , Erfurt , Berlin, Madrid, and many other places. The official language of the ALF is Latin and all acts and proceedings take place in Latin. Also in
18330-549: The world." Since medieval times the episcopal see of Rome has been recognized as a sovereign entity. The Holy See (not the State of Vatican City) maintains formal diplomatic relations with and for the most recent establishment of diplomatic relations with 183 sovereign states, and also with the European Union , and the Sovereign Military Order of Malta , as well as having relations of a special character with
18471-459: The year 1966, Clément Desessard published a method with tapes within the series sans peine of the French company Assimil . Desessard's work aimed at teaching contemporary Latin for use in an everyday context, although the audio was often criticized for being recorded with a thick French accent. Assimil took this out of print at the end of 2007 and published another Latin method which focused on
18612-453: Was appropriate to put so much emphasis on abstract language skills such as Latin poetry composition. As time went on, the difficulties with Latin teaching began to lead to calls to move away from an emphasis on spoken Latin and the introduction of more native-language-medium teaching. At the beginning of the Renaissance, universities in northern Europe were still dominated by theology and related topics, while Italian universities were teaching
18753-403: Was founded in the first century by Saints Peter and Paul , and by virtue of the doctrines of Petrine and papal primacy, it is the focal point of full communion for Catholic Christians around the world. The Holy See is headquartered in, operates from, and exercises "exclusive dominion" over the independent Vatican City State enclave in Rome, of which the Pope is sovereign . The Holy See
18894-412: Was frequently the normal medium of education, both for teaching the Latin language, and for other subjects. Fluency in spoken Latin was an objective as well as the ability to read and write; evidence of this includes the emphasis on use of diacritics to maintain understanding of vowel quantity, which is important orally, and also on the use of Colloquia for children's learning, which would help to equip
19035-634: Was important for history, literature, plays, and poetry. Classical styles of writing, including approaches to rhetoric, poetical metres, and theatrical structures, were revived and applied to contemporary subject matter. It was a pan-European language for the dissemination of knowledge and communication between people with different vernaculars in the Republic of Letters (Res Publica Litterarum) . Even as Latin receded in importance after 1650, it remained vital for international communication of works, many of which were popularised in Latin translation, rather than as vernacular originals. This in large part explains
19176-519: Was in Europe and European colonies through the Middle Ages until the mid-18th century) or as an international auxiliary language to be used by anyone. However, as a language native to no people, this movement has not received support from any government, national or supranational. A substantial group of institutions (particularly in Europe, but also in North and South America) has emerged to support
19317-446: Was in Latin, across the curriculum. Many universities hosted newly or recently-written Latin plays , which formed a significant body of literature before 1650. Plays included satires on student life, such as the play Studentes (Students), which went through many reprints. Enforcement of Latin-only rules tended to decline especially after 1650. Latin dominated topics of international academic and scientific interest, especially at
19458-423: Was no clear divide between Italian and Latin; the latter was seen by Petrarch for example as an artificial and literary version of the spoken language. While Italian in this period also begins to be used as a separate written language, it was not always seen as wholly separate from Latin. The Protestant Reformation (1520–1580), though it removed Latin from the liturgies of the churches of Northern Europe, promoted
19599-647: Was of course the major language of Christian theology. Both Catholic and Protestant writers published in Latin. While Protestant writers would also write in vernaculars, Latin was important for the international dissemination of ideas. Legal discourse, medicine, philosophy and sciences started from a strong Latin tradition, and continued as such. This began to change in the late seventeenth century, as philosophers and others began to write in their native language first, and translate into Latin for international audiences. Translations would tend to prioritise accuracy over style. The Catholic Church made exclusive use of Latin in
19740-584: Was reestablished. Notwithstanding, the Holy See was represented in and identified as a "permanent subject of general customary international law vis-à-vis all states" in the Congress of Vienna (1814–1815). The Papal States were recognised under the rule of the Papacy and largely restored to their former extent. Despite the Capture of Rome in 1870 by the Kingdom of Italy and the Roman Question during
19881-675: Was the Mediterranean Sea, with the division more or less corresponding to the modern eastern borders of Finland , the Baltic states , Poland , Slovakia , Hungary and Croatia . Russia 's acquisition of Kyiv in the later 17th century introduced the study of Latin to Russia. Russia relied on Latin for some time as a vehicle to exchange scientific knowledge. Nevertheless, the use of Latin in Orthodox eastern Europe did not reach pervasive levels due to their strong cultural links to
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