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119-533: Frederick the Great , while still Crown Prince, designed and moved into a restored chateau in Rheinsberg shortly after his 1733 marriage to Elisabeth Christine of Brunswick-Bevern . Here he experienced his "Rheinsberg Period", an era marked by regular correspondence with Voltaire, boisterous celebration in the company of minor philosophers and musicians, and the writing of several works of political theory, including

238-412: A social contract whereby a despot was entrusted with the power to govern through a social contract in lieu of any other governments. The monarchs of enlightened absolutism strengthened their authority by improving the lives of their subjects. The monarch’s taking responsibility for his subjects precluded their political participation. The difference between an absolutist and an enlightened absolutist

357-668: A casualty when a bullet smashed a snuffbox he was carrying. Nevertheless, the Austro-Russian forces hesitated and stopped their advance for the year, an event Frederick later called the " Miracle of the House of Brandenburg ". Frederick spent the remainder of the year in a futile attempt to manoeuvre the Austrians out of Saxony, where they had recaptured Dresden. His effort cost him further losses when his general Friedrich August von Finck capitulated at Maxen on 20 November. At

476-557: A close relationship, which lasted until her death in 1758. Frederick and his sisters were brought up by a Huguenot governess and tutor and learned French and German simultaneously. Undeterred by his father's desire that his education be entirely religious and pragmatic, the young Frederick developed a preference for music, literature, and French culture. Frederick Wilhelm thought these interests were effeminate, as they clashed with his militarism, resulting in his frequent beating and humiliation of Frederick. Nevertheless, Frederick, with

595-1097: A contingent of troops to aid the Army of the Holy Roman Empire during the War of the Polish Succession , Frederick studied under Prince Eugene of Savoy during the campaign against France on the Rhine ; he noted the weakness of the Imperial Army under Eugene's command, something that he would capitalise on at Austria's expense when he took the throne. Frederick William, weakened by gout and seeking to reconcile, granted Frederick Schloss Rheinsberg in Rheinsberg , north of Neuruppin. At Rheinsberg, Frederick assembled musicians, actors and other artists. He spent his time reading, watching and acting in dramatic plays, and composing and playing music. Frederick formed

714-636: A defender of German liberties. To stop Joseph II's attempts to acquire Bavaria, Frederick enlisted the help of the Electors of Hanover and Saxony along with several other minor German princes. Perhaps even more significantly, Frederick benefited from the defection of the senior prelate of the German Church, the Archbishop of Mainz, who was also the arch-chancellor of the Holy Roman Empire, which further strengthened Frederick and Prussia's standing amid

833-729: A former lover and favourite, on the Polish throne. After Russia occupied the Danubian Principalities in 1769–1770, Frederick's representative in Saint Petersburg, his brother Prince Henry, convinced Frederick and Maria Theresa that the balance of power would be maintained by a tripartite division of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth instead of Russia taking land from the Ottomans. They agreed to

952-592: A marginal victory at the Battle of Torgau on 3 November, which secured Berlin from further raids. Frederick became a casualty when he was hit in the chest by a spent bullet. By 1761, both the Austrian and Prussian military forces were so exhausted that no major battles were fought between them. Frederick's position became even more desperate when Britain, having achieved victory in the American and Indian theatres of

1071-477: A much larger Franco-Austrian army at the Battle of Rossbach and another Austrian army at the Battle of Leuthen . Frederick hoped these two victories would force Austria to negotiate, but Maria Theresa was determined not to make peace until she had recovered Silesia. Despite its strong performance, the losses suffered from combat, disease and desertion had severely reduced the quality of the Prussian army. In

1190-520: A period of considerable religious and political freedom. Soon Protestants were barred from public offices and the Sejm (Polish Parliament). Frederick took advantage of this situation by becoming the protector of Protestant interests in Poland in the name of religious freedom. Frederick further opened Prussian control by signing an alliance with Catherine the Great who placed Stanisław August Poniatowski ,

1309-621: A poor human rights record and frequent jailing and political persecution of political dissidents. Xuezhi Guo contrasts the Confucian ideal of a "humane ruler" ( renjun ) with the ideal of Chinese legalists , who he says "intended to create a truly 'enlightened ruler' ( mingjun ) who is able to effectively rule the masses and control his bureaucracy"; this ruler would be a "skillful manipulator and successful politician who uses means or 'technique' in achieving self-protection and political control". Guo quotes Benjamin I. Schwartz as describing

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1428-658: A romantic model of a glorified warrior, praising his leadership, administrative efficiency, devotion to duty and success in building Prussia into a great power. Frederick remained an admired historical figure through Germany's defeat in World War ;I , and the Nazis glorified him as a great German leader prefiguring Adolf Hitler , who personally idolised him. His reputation became less favourable in Germany after World War II , partly due to being symbolically adopted by

1547-408: A terrible man he was. But he was just, intelligent, and skilled in the management of affairs... it was through his efforts, through his tireless labour, that I have been able to accomplish everything that I have done since." Frederick was twenty-eight years old when his father died and he ascended to the throne of Prussia. Frederick William I had left him with a highly militarised state. Prussia

1666-516: A territorial bridge between Pomerania, Brandenburg, and his East Prussian provinces. The new territories would provide an increased tax base, manpower for the military, and serve as a surrogate for the overseas colonies of the other great powers. Poland was vulnerable to partition due to poor governance and the interference of foreign powers in its internal affairs. Frederick himself was partly responsible for this weakness by opposing attempts at financial and political reform in Poland, and undermining

1785-482: A third. It also prevented Augustus III , King of Poland and Elector of Saxony , from seeking to connect his own disparate lands through Silesia. In late March 1741, Frederick set out on campaign again to capture the few remaining fortresses within the province that were still holding out. He was surprised by the arrival of an Austrian army, which he fought at the Battle of Mollwitz on 10 April 1741. Though Frederick had served under Prince Eugene of Savoy, this

1904-536: Is a legitimate mode of government in dealing with barbarians, provided the end be their improvement. Enlightened absolutists' beliefs about royal power were typically similar to those of regular despots, both recognizing that they were destined to rule. Enlightened rulers may have played a part in the abolition of serfdom in Europe. The enlightened despotism of Emperor Joseph II of the Holy Roman Empire

2023-557: Is based on a broad analysis of the degree to which they embraced the Age of Enlightenment. Historians debate the actual implementation of enlightened absolutism. They distinguish between the "enlightenment" of the ruler personally, versus that of his regime. For example, Frederick the Great was tutored in the ideas of the French Enlightenment in his youth, and maintained those ideas in his private life as an adult, but in many ways

2142-475: Is summarized as "Everything for the people, nothing by the people". Enlightened absolutism is the theme of an essay by Frederick the Great , who ruled Prussia from 1740 to 1786, defending this system of government. When the prominent French Enlightenment philosopher Voltaire fell out of favor in France , he eagerly accepted Frederick's invitation to live at his palace. He believed that an enlightened monarchy

2261-586: The Anti-Machiavel . Crown Prince Frederick lived in the castle in Rheinsberg with his wife until he became King of Prussia in 1740 upon the death of his father, Frederick William I . He immediately banished his wife to Schönhausen Castle in the district of Berlin that is today called Pankow . King Frederick never visited his Queen and she was not allowed to visit him. She lived alone in her castle in Pankow until her death in 1797. In June 1744, Frederick

2380-615: The Battle of Chotusitz . Frederick's retrained cavalry proved more effective than at Mollwitz, but once more it was the discipline of the Prussian infantry that won the field and allowed Frederick to claim a major victory. This victory, along with the Franco-Bavarian forces capturing Prague, forced the Austrians to seek peace. The terms of the Treaty of Breslau , negotiated in June 1742, gave Prussia all of Silesia and Glatz County, with

2499-700: The Convention of Westminster , by which Prussia would protect Hanover against French attack, and Britain would no longer subsidise Russia. This treaty triggered the Diplomatic Revolution in which Habsburg Austria and Bourbon France, who had been traditional enemies, allied together with Russia to defeat the Anglo-Prussian coalition. To strengthen his strategic position against this coalition, on 29 August 1756, Frederick's well-prepared army preemptively invaded Saxony. His invasion triggered

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2618-555: The First Partition of Poland in 1772 without war. Frederick acquired most of Royal Prussia, annexing 38,000 square kilometres (15,000 sq mi) and 600,000 inhabitants. Although Frederick's share of the partition was the smallest of the partitioning powers, the lands he acquired had roughly the same economic value as the others and had great strategic value. The newly created province of West Prussia connected East Prussia and Farther Pomerania, granted Prussia control of

2737-638: The League of Nymphenburg , sponsored the candidacy of his ally Charles of Bavaria to be elected Holy Roman Emperor. In late November, the Franco-Bavarian forces took Prague, and Charles was crowned King of Bohemia. Subsequently, he was elected as the Holy Roman Emperor Charles ;VII on 24 January 1742. After the Austrians pulled their army out of Silesia to defend Bohemia, Frederick pursued them and blocked their path to Prague. The Austrians counter-attacked on 17 May 1742, initiating

2856-922: The Netze District , recognising their educational activities as an asset for the nation. He continued to support them after their suppression by Pope Clement XIV . He befriended the Roman Catholic Prince-Bishop of Warmia, Ignacy Krasicki , whom he asked to consecrate St. Hedwig's Cathedral in 1773. He accepted countless Protestant weavers from Bohemia, who were fleeing from the devoutly Catholic rule of Maria Theresa, granting them freedom from taxes and military service. Constantly looking for new colonists, he encouraged immigration by repeatedly emphasising that nationality and religion were of no concern to him. This policy allowed Prussia's population to recover very quickly from its considerable losses during Frederick's three wars. Though Frederick

2975-485: The Prussian Law Code of 1794, which balanced absolutism with human rights and corporate privilege with equality before the law. Reception to the law code was mixed as it was often viewed as contradictory. Frederick strove to put Prussia's fiscal system in order. In January 1750, Johann Philipp Graumann was appointed as Frederick's confidential adviser on finance, military affairs, and royal possessions, and

3094-475: The Russian Enlightenment . She incorporated many ideas of Enlightenment philosophers, especially Montesquieu , in her Nakaz , which was intended to revise Russian law. However, inviting the famous French philosopher Denis Diderot to her court worked out poorly. Charles III , King of Spain from 1759 to 1788, tried to rescue his empire from decay through far-reaching reforms such as weakening

3213-551: The Third Silesian War and the larger Seven Years' War , both of which lasted until 1763. He quickly captured Dresden, besieged the trapped Saxon army in Pirna , and continued marching the remainder of his army toward North Bohemia, intending to winter there. At the Battle of Lobositz he claimed a close victory against an Austrian army that was aiming to relieve Pirna, but afterward withdrew his forces back to Saxony for

3332-655: The seignorage . The coin eventually became universally accepted beyond Prussia and helped increase industry and trade. A gold coin, the Friedrich d'or , was also minted to oust the Dutch ducat from the Baltic trade. However, the fixed ratio between gold and silver led to the gold coins being perceived as more valuable, which caused them to leave circulation in Prussia. Unable to meet Frederick's expectations for profit, Graumann

3451-497: The "Soldier King", had created a large and powerful army that included a regiment of his famous " Potsdam Giants "; he carefully managed the kingdom's wealth and developed a strong centralised government. He had a violent temper and ruled Brandenburg-Prussia with absolute authority. In contrast, Frederick's mother Sophia, whose father, George Louis of Brunswick-Lüneburg , had succeeded to the British throne as King George I in 1714,

3570-535: The 15th century. Thus, upon succeeding to the throne on 31 May 1740, Frederick declined to endorse the Pragmatic Sanction of 1713 , a legal mechanism to ensure the inheritance of the Habsburg domains by Maria Theresa of Austria, daughter of Holy Roman Emperor Charles VI . Upon the death of Charles VI on 29 October 1740, Frederick disputed the 23-year-old Maria Theresa's right of succession to

3689-441: The 1759 campaign, the Austrian and Russian forces took the initiative, which they kept for the remainder of the war. They joined and advanced on Berlin. Frederick's army, which consisted of a substantial number of quickly recruited, half-trained soldiers, attempted to check them at the Battle of Kunersdorf on 12 August, where he was defeated and his troops were routed. Almost half his army was destroyed, and Frederick almost became

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3808-616: The 18th and early 19th centuries who were influenced by the ideas of the Enlightenment , espousing them to enhance their power. The concept originated during the Enlightenment period in the 18th and into the early 19th centuries. An enlightened absolutist is a non- democratic or authoritarian leader who exercises their political power based upon the principles of the Enlightenment. Enlightened monarchs distinguished themselves from ordinary rulers by claiming to rule for their subjects' well-being. John Stuart Mill stated that despotism

3927-900: The Austrian Emperor Joseph II , the French court was unwilling to support him because they were already supporting the American revolutionaries in North America and the idea of an alliance with Austria had been unpopular in France since the end of the Seven Years' War. Frederick ended up as a beneficiary of the American Revolutionary War , as Austria was left more or less isolated. Saxony and Russia, both of which had been Austria's allies in

4046-565: The Austrians retaining only the portion called Austrian or Czech Silesia . By 1743, the Austrians had subdued Bavaria and driven the French out of Bohemia. Frederick strongly suspected Maria Theresa would resume war in an attempt to recover Silesia. Accordingly, he renewed his alliance with France and preemptively invaded Bohemia in August 1744, beginning the Second Silesian War . In late August 1744, Frederick's army had crossed

4165-549: The Austrians, who were reinforced by the Saxons, crossed the mountains to invade Silesia. After allowing them across, Frederick pinned them down and decisively defeated them at the Battle of Hohenfriedberg on 4 June 1745. Frederick subsequently advanced into Bohemia and defeated a counterattack by the Austrians at the Battle of Soor . Frederick then turned toward Dresden when he learned the Saxons were preparing to march on Berlin. However, on 15 December 1745, Prussian forces under

4284-800: The Bavarian Succession in 1778, in which he stifled Austrian attempts to exchange the Austrian Netherlands for Bavaria . For their part, the Austrians tried to pressure the French to participate in the War of Bavarian Succession since there were guarantees under consideration related to the Peace of Westphalia , clauses which linked the Bourbon dynasty of France and the Habsburg-Lorraine dynasty of Austria. Unfortunately for

4403-504: The Bayard Order to discuss warfare with his friends; Heinrich August de la Motte Fouqué was made the grand master of the gatherings. Later, Frederick regarded this time as one of the happiest of his life. Studying the works of Niccolò Machiavelli , such as The Prince , was considered necessary for any king in Europe to rule effectively. In 1739, Frederick finished his Anti-Machiavel , an idealistic rebuttal of Machiavelli. It

4522-524: The Bohemian frontier, marched directly to Prague, and laid siege to the city, which surrendered on 16 September 1744 after a three-day bombardment. Frederick's troops immediately continued marching into the heart of central Bohemia, but Saxony had now joined the war against Prussia. Although the combined Austrian and Saxon armies outnumbered Frederick's forces, they refused to directly engage with Frederick's army, harassing his supply lines instead. Frederick

4641-507: The Church and its monasteries, promoting science and university research, facilitating trade and commerce, modernizing agriculture and avoiding wars. The centralization of power in Madrid angered the local nobility, and challenged the traditional autonomy of cities, and so resistance grew steadily. Consequently, Spain relapsed after his death. Emperor Joseph II , ruler of Austria 1780–1790,

4760-612: The Director-General of all mint facilities . Graumann's currency reform slightly lowered the silver content of Prussian thaler from 1 ⁄ 12 Cologne mark of silver to 1 ⁄ 14 , which brought the metal content of the thaler into alignment with its face value, and it standardised the Prussian coinage system. As a result, Prussian coins, which had been leaving the country nearly as fast as they were minted, remained in circulation in Prussia. Frederick estimated that he earned about one million thalers in profits on

4879-441: The French government, was eager to accept Frederick's invitation to live at his palace. Frederick explained, "My principal occupation is to combat ignorance and prejudice ... to enlighten minds, cultivate morality, and to make people as happy as it suits human nature, and as the means at my disposal permit". He wrote an essay on "Benevolent Despotism" defending this system of government. Empress Catherine II of Russia sponsored

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4998-552: The German states. In his earliest published work, the Anti-Machiavel , and his later Testament politique ( Political Testament ), Frederick wrote that the sovereign was the first servant of the state. Frederick helped transform Prussia from a European backwater to an economically strong and politically reformed state. He protected his industries with high tariffs and minimal restrictions on domestic trade. He increased

5117-447: The Great gave his castle in Rheinsberg to his younger brother, Prince Henry of Prussia . Frederick also gave Prince Henry the great castle on Unter den Linden, which is today Humboldt University . Prince Henry often said that his older brother improperly took credit for a series of military victories. Four years after the death of Frederick the Great in 1786, Prince Henry erected a large obelisk at his castle in Rheinsberg. The obelisk

5236-520: The Habsburg lands, while simultaneously asserting his own right to the Austrian province of Silesia based on a number of old, though ambiguous, Hohenzollern claims to parts of Silesia. The First Silesian War (1740–1742, part of the War of the Austrian Succession ) began on 16 December 1740 when Frederick invaded and quickly occupied almost all of Silesia within seven weeks. Though Frederick justified his occupation on dynastic grounds,

5355-631: The Nazis as a historical hero. Historians in the 21st century tend to view Frederick as an outstanding military leader and capable monarch, whose commitment to enlightenment culture and administrative reform built the foundation that allowed the Kingdom of Prussia to contest the Austrian Habsburgs for leadership among the German states. Frederick was the son of then-Crown Prince Frederick William of Prussia and Sophia Dorothea of Hanover . He

5474-492: The Polish economy by inflating its currency by his use of Polish coin dies. The profits exceeded 25 million thalers , twice the peacetime national budget of Prussia. He thwarted Polish efforts to create a stable economic system by building a customs fort at Marienwerder on the Vistula, Poland's major trade artery, and by bombarding Polish customs ports on the Vistula. Frederick used Poland's religious dissension to keep

5593-579: The Prussian ambassador in London , Benjamin Reichenbach. The pair undermined the relationship between the British and Prussian courts using bribery and slander. Eventually Frederick William became angered by the idea of Frederick being married to an English wife and under the influence of the British court. Instead, he signed a treaty with Austria, which vaguely promised to acknowledge Prussia's rights to

5712-417: The Seven Years' War, were now allied with Prussia. Although Frederick was weary of war in his old age, he was determined not to allow Austrian dominance in German affairs. Frederick and Prince Henry marched the Prussian army into Bohemia to confront Joseph's army, but the two forces ultimately descended into a stalemate, largely living off the land and skirmishing. Frederick's longtime rival Maria Theresa, who

5831-642: The Treaty of Hubertusburg, Catherine the Great signed an eight-year alliance with Prussia, albeit with conditions that favoured the Russians. Frederick's ultimate success came at a heavy financial cost to Prussia. Part of the burden was covered by the Anglo-Prussian Convention , which gave Frederick an annual £670,000 in British subsidies from 1758 until 1762. These subsidies ceased when Frederick allied with Peter III, partly because of

5950-466: The arts and the Enlightenment . Prussia greatly increased its territories and became a major military power in Europe under his rule. He became known as Frederick the Great (German: Friedrich der Große ) and was nicknamed " Old Fritz " (German: der Alte Fritz ). In his youth, Frederick was more interested in music and philosophy than war, which led to clashes with his authoritarian father, Frederick William I of Prussia . However, upon ascending to

6069-461: The arts and philosophers he favoured, and allowed freedom of the press and literature. Frederick was almost certainly homosexual , and his sexuality has been the subject of much study. Because he died childless, he was succeeded by his nephew, Frederick William II . He is buried at his favourite residence, Sanssouci in Potsdam . Nearly all 19th-century German historians made Frederick into

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6188-648: The avidity of my enemies". The sudden death of Empress Elizabeth of Russia in January 1762 led to the succession of the Prussophile Peter ;III , her German nephew, who was also the Duke of Holstein-Gottorp . This led to the collapse of the anti-Prussian coalition; Peter immediately promised to end the Russian occupation of East Prussia and Pomerania. One of Peter III's first diplomatic endeavours

6307-455: The beginning of 1760, the Austrians moved to retake Silesia, where Frederick defeated them at the Battle of Liegnitz on 15 August. The victory did not allow Frederick to regain the initiative or prevent Russian and Austrian troops from raiding Berlin in October to extort a ransom from the city. At the end of the campaign season, Frederick fought his last major engagement of the war. He won

6426-419: The changed political situation and because of Britain's decreasing willingness to pay the sums Frederick wanted. Frederick also financed the war by devaluing the Prussian coin five times; debased coins were produced with the help of Leipzig mintmasters , Veitel Heine Ephraim , Daniel Itzig and Moses Isaacs. He also debased the coinage of Saxony and Poland . This helped Frederick cover over 20 per cent of

6545-422: The command of Leopold of Anhalt-Dessau soundly defeated the Saxons at the Battle of Kesselsdorf . After linking up his army with Leopold's, Frederick occupied the Saxon capitol of Dresden, forcing the Saxon elector, Augustus III, to capitulate. Under the terms of the Treaty of Dresden , signed on 25 December 1745, Austria was forced to adhere to the terms of the Treaty of Breslau giving Silesia to Prussia. It

6664-510: The conflict. Although Frederick managed to bring his army up to 190,000 men by the time the economy had largely recovered in 1772, which made it the third-largest army in Europe, almost none of the officers in this army were veterans of his generation and the King's attitude towards them was extremely harsh. Frederick suffered a number of personal losses. Many of his closest friends and family members—including his brother Augustus William, his sister Wilhelmine, and his mother—had died while Frederick

6783-403: The cost of the war, but at the price of causing massive inflation and economic upheaval throughout the region. Saxony, occupied by Prussia for most of the conflict, was left nearly destitute as a result. While Prussia lost no territory, the population and army were severely depleted by constant combat and invasions by Austria, Russia and Sweden. The best of Frederick's officer corps were killed in

6902-404: The crown prince fainted just before the fatal blow. Frederick was granted a royal pardon and released on 18 November 1730, although he remained stripped of his military rank. He was forced to remain in Küstrin and began rigorous schooling in statecraft and administration for the War and Estates Departments. Tensions eased slightly when Frederick William visited Küstrin a year later, and Frederick

7021-464: The crown prince. Frederick had nine siblings who lived to adulthood. He had six sisters. The eldest was Wilhelmine , who became his closest sibling. He also had three younger brothers, including Augustus William and Henry . The new king wished for his children to be educated not as royalty, but as simple folk. They were tutored by a French woman, Madame de Montbail , who had also educated Frederick William. Frederick William I, popularly dubbed

7140-455: The economy. One of Frederick's achievements after the Seven Years' War included the control of grain prices, whereby government storehouses would enable the civilian population to survive in needy regions, where the harvest was poor. He commissioned Johann Ernst Gotzkowsky to promote the trade and – to take on the competition with France – put a silk factory where 1,500 people found employment. Frederick followed Gotzkowsky's recommendations in

7259-648: The features of "a truly Legalist 'enlightened ruler ' ": He must be anything but an arbitrary despot if one means by a despot a tyrant who follows all his impulses, whims and passions. Once the systems which maintain the entire structure are in place, he must not interfere with their operation. He may use the entire system as a means to the achievement of his national and international ambitions, but to do so he must not disrupt its impersonal workings. He must at all times be able to maintain an iron wall between his private life and public role. Concubines, friends, flatterers and charismatic saints must have no influence whatsoever on

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7378-441: The field of toll levies and import restrictions. When Gotzkowsky asked for a deferral during the Amsterdam banking crisis of 1763 , Frederick took over his porcelain factory, now known as KPM . Frederick modernised the Prussian civil service and promoted religious tolerance throughout his realm to attract more settlers in East Prussia. With the help of French experts, he organised a system of indirect taxation , which provided

7497-538: The former Duchy of Prussia , outside of the Empire bordering the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth . He was titled King in Prussia because his kingdom included only part of historic Prussia; he was to declare himself King of Prussia after the First Partition of Poland in 1772. When Frederick became king, he faced vulnerably disconnected holdings with a weak economic base. To strengthen Prussia's position, he fought wars mainly against Austria, whose Habsburg dynasty had reigned as Holy Roman Emperors continuously since

7616-450: The freedom of speech in press and literature, abolished most uses of judicial torture , and limited which crimes could be punished by death. Working with his Grand Chancellor Samuel von Cocceji , he reformed the judicial system and made it more efficient, and he moved the courts toward greater legal equality of all citizens by removing special courts for special social classes. The reform was completed after Frederick's death, resulting in

7735-445: The grain stocks he held in reserve for military campaigns. Many other rulers soon followed the steps of Frederick in reforming their own currencies. The functionality and stability of the reform made the Prussian monetary system the standard in Northern Germany. Around 1751, Frederick founded the Emden Company to promote trade with China. He introduced the lottery , fire insurance , and a giro discount and credit bank to stabilise

7854-416: The help of his tutor in Latin, Jacques Duhan , procured a 3,000-volume secret library of poetry, Greek and Roman classics, and philosophy to supplement his official lessons. Frederick William I had been raised a Calvinist in spite of the Lutheran state faith in Prussia, but feared he was not one of God's elect . To avoid the possibility of his son Frederick being motivated by the same concerns,

7973-416: The honours befitting her station, but never displayed any affection. After their separation, he would only see her on state occasions. These included visits to her on her birthday, among the rare occasions when Frederick did not wear military uniform. In 1732, Frederick was restored to the Prussian Army as Colonel of the Regiment von der Goltz, stationed near Nauen and Neuruppin . When Prussia provided

8092-407: The inhabitants as "slovenly Polish trash". His long-term goal was to remove the Poles through Germanisation , which included appropriating Polish Crown lands and monasteries, introducing a military draft, encouraging German settlement in the region, and implementing a tax policy that disproportionately impoverished Polish nobles. Late in his life Frederick involved Prussia in the low-scale War of

8211-409: The invasion of this militarily and politically vulnerable part of the Habsburg empire also had the potential to provide substantial long-term economic and strategic benefits. The occupation of Silesia added one of the most densely industrialised German regions to Frederick's kingdom and gave it control over the navigable Oder River . It nearly doubled Prussia's population and increased its territory by

8330-471: The king ordered that his heir not be taught about predestination . Despite his father's intention, Frederick appeared to have adopted a sense of predestination for himself. At age 16, Frederick formed an attachment to the king's 17-year-old page , Peter Karl Christoph von Keith . Wilhelmine recorded that the two "soon became inseparable.... He served my brother from feelings of real devotion". Wilhelmine would further record that "Though I had noticed that he

8449-450: The kingdom open to Prussian control. Poland was predominantly Roman Catholic, but approximately ten per cent of Poland's population, 600,000 Eastern Orthodox and 250,000 Protestants, were non-Catholic dissenters. During the 1760s, the dissenters' political importance was out of proportion to their numbers. Although dissenters still had substantial rights, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth had increasingly been reducing their civic rights after

8568-492: The meantime, the Russian army had advanced within 100 miles (160 km) east of Berlin. In August, he fought the Russian forces to a draw at the Battle of Zorndorf , in which nearly a third of Frederick's soldiers were casualties. He then headed south to face the Austrian army in Saxony. There, he was defeated at the Battle of Hochkirch on 14 October, although the Austrian forces were not able to exploit their victory. During

8687-577: The mid-1720s, Queen Sophia Dorothea attempted to arrange the marriage of Frederick and his sister Wilhelmine to her brother King George II 's children Amelia and Frederick , the heir apparent . Fearing an alliance between Prussia and Great Britain , Field Marshal von Seckendorff , the Austrian ambassador in Berlin , bribed the Prussian Minister of War, Field Marshal von Grumbkow , and

8806-506: The mouth of the Vistula River , and cut off Poland's sea trade. Maria Theresa had only reluctantly agreed to the partition, to which Frederick sarcastically commented, "she cries, but she takes". Frederick undertook the exploitation of Polish territory under the pretext of an enlightened civilising mission that emphasised the supposed cultural superiority of Prussian ways. He saw Polish Prussia as barbaric and uncivilised, describing

8925-526: The niece of Empress Anna of Russia , but this plan was ardently opposed by Prince Eugene of Savoy . Frederick himself proposed marrying Maria Theresa of Austria in return for renouncing the succession. Instead, Eugene persuaded Frederick William, through Seckendorff, that the crown prince should marry Elisabeth Christine , a Protestant relative of the Austrian Habsburgs . Frederick wrote to his sister that, "There can be neither love nor friendship between us", and he threatened suicide, but he went along with

9044-406: The obelisk, Prince Henry placed 28 medallions honoring a number of prussian generals for military victories that Frederick had falsely claimed as his. On the obelisk, Frederick the Great is not mentioned with one single word. In private correspondence, Prince Henry made no secret of the fact that the obelisk was a criticism of his brother. The obelisk in Rheinsberg can be seen to this day. In 1870,

9163-592: The painter Eduard Gaertner and his family decided to leave the hectic atmosphere of Berlin and settle in Flecken Zechlin, a suburb of Rheinsberg - where he lived until his death in 1877. Rheinsberg is the location for Kurt Tucholsky's Rheinsberg , a 1912 picture book for lovers based on an autobiographical weekend trip. Frederick the Great Frederick II ( German : Friedrich II. ; 24 January 1712 – 17 August 1786)

9282-470: The pair of treason . The king briefly threatened the crown prince with execution , then considered forcing Frederick to renounce the succession in favour of his brother, Augustus William, although either option would have been difficult to justify to the Imperial Diet of the Holy Roman Empire . The king condemned Katte to death and forced Frederick to watch his beheading at Küstrin on 6 November;

9401-510: The principalities of Jülich - Berg , which led to the collapse of the marriage proposal. Soon after his relationship with Keith ended, Frederick became close friends with Hans Hermann von Katte , a Prussian officer eight years older than Frederick who became one of his boon companions and may have been his lover. After the English marriages became impossible, Frederick plotted to flee to Britain with Katte and other junior army officers. While

9520-457: The remaining years of the war, Frederick faced a coalition of enemies including Austria, France, Russia, Sweden , and the Holy Roman Empire, supported only by Britain and its allies Hesse , Brunswick , and Hanover . In 1758 Frederick once more took the initiative by invading Moravia. By May, he had laid siege to Olomouc , but the Austrians were able to hold the town and destroyed Frederick's supply train, forcing him to retreat into Silesia. In

9639-634: The royal retinue was near Mannheim in the Electorate of the Palatinate , Robert Keith (Peter Keith's brother and one of Frederick's companions) had an attack of conscience when the conspirators were preparing to escape and begged Frederick William for forgiveness on 5 August 1730. Frederick and Katte were subsequently arrested and imprisoned in Küstrin . Because they were army officers who had tried to flee Prussia for Britain, Frederick William accused

9758-405: The size of the huge army he had inherited. The situation is summed up in a widely translated and quoted aphorism attributed to Mirabeau , who asserted in 1786 that " La Prusse n'est pas un pays qui a une armée, c'est une armée qui a un pays " ("Prussia was not a state in possession of an army, but an army in possession of a state"). Using the resources his frugal father had cultivated, Frederick

9877-614: The start of the Seven Years' War in 1756. In each case, these confessions also served personal or political goals. He tolerated all faiths in his realm, but Protestantism remained the favoured religion, and Catholics were not chosen for higher state positions. Frederick wanted development throughout the country, adapted to the needs of each region. He was interested in attracting a diversity of skills, whether from Jesuit teachers, Huguenot citizens, or Jewish merchants and bankers. Frederick retained Jesuits as teachers in Silesia, Warmia , and

9996-492: The state with more revenue than direct taxation; though French officials administering it may have pocketed some of the profit. He established new regulations for tax officials to reduce graft. In 1781, Frederick made coffee a royal monopoly and employed disabled soldiers, the coffee sniffers , to spy on citizens illegally roasting coffee, much to the annoyance of the general population. Though Frederick started many reforms during his reign, his ability to see them to fulfillment

10115-533: The state. He modernised the Prussian bureaucracy and civil service, and pursued religious policies that ranged from tolerance to segregation. He reformed the judicial system and made it possible for men of lower status to become judges and senior bureaucrats. Frederick encouraged immigrants of diverse backgrounds to come to Prussia. While Protestantism remained the favored faith, he allowed religious freedom and tolerated Jews and Catholics in Prussia, however his actions were not entirely without prejudice. He supported

10234-452: The system, typically to build stronger national states. In France the government was hostile, and the philosophers fought against its censorship. The British government generally ignored the Enlightenment's leaders. Frederick the Great , who ruled Prussia 1740–1786, was an enthusiast for French ideas (he ridiculed German culture and was unaware of the remarkable advances it was undergoing ). Voltaire, who had been imprisoned and maltreated by

10353-548: The threat to his eastern borders over, and France also seeking peace after its defeats by Britain, Frederick was able to fight the Austrians to a stalemate. While the ensuing Treaty of Hubertusburg returned the European borders to what they had been before the Seven Years' War, Frederick's ability to retain Silesia in spite of the odds earned Prussia admiration throughout the German-speaking territories. A year following

10472-552: The throne, Frederick separated from Elisabeth. He granted her the Schönhausen Palace and apartments at the Berliner Stadtschloss , but he prohibited her from visiting his court in Potsdam . They had no children, and Frederick bestowed the title of the heir to the throne, "Prince of Prussia", on his brother Augustus William. Nevertheless, Elisabeth Christine remained devoted to him. Frederick gave her all

10591-406: The throne, he attacked and annexed the rich Austrian province of Silesia in 1742, winning military acclaim. He became an influential military theorist, whose analyses emerged from his extensive personal battlefield experience and covered issues of strategy, tactics, mobility and logistics. Frederick was a supporter of enlightened absolutism , stating that the ruler should be the first servant of

10710-548: The utilitarian agenda of "enlightened absolutism" with the new ideas being developed in economics. In Germany and France, the trend was especially strong in Cameralism and Physiocracy . Government responses to the Age of Enlightenment varied widely. In several nations with powerful rulers, called "enlightened despots" by historians, leaders of the Enlightenment were welcomed at Court and helped design laws and programs to reform

10829-408: The war with Prussia to regain Silesia. During the ten years of peace that followed the signing of the Treaty of Dresden, Frederick prepared to defend his claim on Silesia by further fortifying the province, expanding his army, and reorganising his finances. In 1756, Frederick attempted to forestall Britain's financing of a Russian army on Prussia's border by negotiating an alliance with Britain at

10948-513: The war, ended its financial support for Prussia after the death of King George II, Frederick's uncle. The Russian forces also continued their advance, occupying Pomerania and parts of Brandenburg. With the Russians slowly advancing towards Berlin, it looked as though Prussia was about to collapse. On 6 January 1762, Frederick wrote to Count Karl-Wilhelm Finck von Finckenstein , "We ought now to think of preserving for my nephew, by way of negotiation, whatever fragments of my territory we can save from

11067-584: The wedding on 12 June 1733. He had little in common with his bride, and the marriage was resented as an example of the Austrian political interference that had plagued Prussia. Nevertheless, during their early married life, the royal couple resided at the Kronprinzenpalais in Berlin. Later, Elisabeth Christine accompanied Frederick to Schloss Rheinsberg, where at this time she played an active role in his social life. After his father died and he ascended

11186-542: The winter. When the Saxon forces in Pirna finally capitulated in October 1756, Frederick forcibly incorporated them into his own army. This action, along with his initial invasion of neutral Saxony, brought him widespread international criticism; but the conquest of Saxony provided him with significant financial, military, and strategic assets to sustain the war. In the early spring of 1757, Frederick again invaded Bohemia. He

11305-506: Was Joseph's mother and his co-ruler, did not want a new war with Prussia, and secretly sent messengers to Frederick to discuss peace negotiations. Finally, Catherine II of Russia threatened to enter the war on Frederick's side if peace was not negotiated, and Joseph reluctantly dropped his claim to Bavaria. When Joseph tried the scheme again in 1784, Frederick created the Fürstenbund (League of Princes), allowing himself to be seen as

11424-458: Was after the signing of the treaty that Frederick, then 33 years old, first became known as "the Great". Though Frederick had withdrawn from the War of the Austrian Succession once Austria guaranteed his possession of Silesia, Austria remained embroiled in the war until the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748. Less than a year after the treaty was signed, Maria Theresa was once more seeking allies, particularly Russia and France, to eventually renew

11543-399: Was allowed to visit Berlin for his sister Wilhelmine's marriage to Margrave Frederick of Bayreuth on 20 November 1731. The crown prince returned to Berlin after finally being released from his tutelage at Küstrin on 26 February 1732 on condition that he marry Elisabeth Christine of Brunswick-Bevern . Frederick William considered marrying Frederick to Elisabeth of Mecklenburg-Schwerin ,

11662-524: Was born between 11 and 12 p.m. on 24 January 1712 in the Berlin Palace and was baptised with the single name Friedrich by Benjamin Ursinus von Bär on 31 January. The birth was welcomed by his grandfather, Frederick I , as his two previous grandsons had died in infancy. With the death of Frederick I in 1713, his son Frederick William I became King in Prussia, thus making young Frederick

11781-447: Was engaged in the war. Frederick sought to acquire and economically exploit Polish Prussia as part of his wider aim of enriching his kingdom. As early as 1731 Frederick had suggested that his country would benefit from annexing Polish territory, and had described Poland as an "artichoke, ready to be consumed leaf by leaf". By 1752, he had prepared the ground for the partition of Poland–Lithuania, aiming to achieve his goal of building

11900-646: Was erected in honor of Prince Henry's younger brother, Prince August Wilhelm . In 1757 King Frederick dismissed his brother Prince August Wilhelm from the army in disgrace after Frederick's humiliating defeat at Kolin in Bohemia. Frederick unjustly blamed his brother of being a coward and incompetens as a military leader. Prince August Wilhelm died the following year. He probably died of meningitis, but many contemporaries, including Prince August's brother Prince Henry, believed that August Wilhelm died because of Frederick's demeaning and humiliating treatment of his brother. On

12019-464: Was eventually able to establish Prussia as the fifth and smallest European great power . When Frederick ascended the throne as the third "King in Prussia" in 1740, his realm consisted of scattered territories, including Cleves , Mark , and Ravensberg in the west of the Holy Roman Empire; Brandenburg , Hither Pomerania , and Farther Pomerania in the east of the Empire; and the Kingdom of Prussia,

12138-489: Was executed and quartered. Crown Prince Mohammad bin Salman , prime minister and de facto ruler of Saudi Arabia (an absolute monarchy ) has been described as a modern-day enlightened despot. Since assuming power as crown prince in 2017, he has enacted widespread reforms which have reduced the power of Wahhabi clergy and religious police in a theocratic kingdom. However, Saudi Arabia remains an authoritarian state, with

12257-581: Was forced to withdraw to Silesia as winter approached. In the interim, Frederick successfully claimed his inheritance to the minor territory of East Frisia on the North Sea coast of Germany, occupying the territory after its last ruler died without issue in 1744. In January 1745, the Holy Roman Emperor Charles VII of Bavaria died, taking Bavaria out of the war and allowing Maria Theresa's husband Francis of Lorraine to be eventually elected Holy Roman Emperor. Now able to focus solely on Frederick's army,

12376-572: Was formally described by the German historian Wilhelm Roscher in 1847 and remains controversial among scholars. Centralized control necessitated centralized systematic information on the nation. A major renovation was the collection, use and interpretation of numerical and statistical data, ranging from trade statistics, harvest reports, death notices to population censuses. Starting in the 1760s, officials in France and Germany began increasingly to rely on quantitative data for systematic planning, especially regarding long-term economic growth. It combined

12495-399: Was his first major battle in command of an army. Frederick's cavalry was disorganised by a charge of the Austrian horse. Believing his forces had been defeated, Frederick galloped away to avoid capture, leaving Field Marshal Kurt Schwerin to lead the disciplined Prussian infantry to victory. Frederick would later admit to humiliation at his abdication of command and would state that Mollwitz

12614-456: Was his school. Disappointed with the performance of his cavalry , whose training his father had neglected in favour of the infantry, Frederick spent much of his time in Silesia establishing a new doctrine for them. Encouraged by Frederick's victory at Mollwitz, the French and their ally, the Electorate of Bavaria , entered the war against Austria in early September 1741 and marched on Prague . Meanwhile, Frederick, alongside other members of

12733-401: Was known to be more tolerant of Jews and Roman Catholics than many neighbouring German states, his practical-minded tolerance was not fully unprejudiced. Frederick wrote in his Testament politique : Enlightened absolutism Philosophers Works Enlightened absolutism , also called enlightened despotism , refers to the conduct and policies of European absolute monarchs during

12852-426: Was not as disciplined or thorough as his military successes. In contrast to his devoutly Calvinist father, Frederick was a religious sceptic , and has been described as a deist . Frederick was pragmatic about religious faith. Three times during his life, he presented his own confession of Christian faith: during his imprisonment after Katte's execution in 1730, after his conquest of Silesia in 1741, and just before

12971-470: Was on more familiar terms with this page than was proper in his position, I did not know how intimate the friendship was." As Frederick was almost certainly homosexual, his relationship with Keith may have been homoerotic, although the extent of their intimacy remains ambiguous. When Frederick William heard rumours of their relationship, Keith was sent away to an unpopular regiment near the Dutch frontier. In

13090-679: Was over-enthusiastic, announcing so many reforms that had so little support that revolts broke out, and his regime became a comedy of errors. In some countries the initiative came not from rulers but from senior officials such as the Marquis of Pombal , who was Joseph I of Portugal 's Secretary of State. For a brief period in Denmark Johann Friedrich Struensee attempted to govern in terms of Enlightenment principles. After issuing 1,069 decrees in 13 months covering many major reforms, his enemies overthrew him, and he

13209-439: Was polite, charismatic and learned. The political and personal differences between Frederick's parents created tensions, which affected Frederick's attitude toward culture, his role as a ruler, and his relationship with his father. In his early youth, Frederick lived with his mother and sister Wilhelmine, although they regularly visited their father's hunting lodge at Königs Wusterhausen . Frederick and his older sister formed

13328-468: Was removed in 1754. Although Frederick's debasement of the coinage to fund the Seven Years' War left the Prussian monetary system in disarray, the Mint Edict of May 1763 brought it back to stability by fixing rates at which depreciated coins would be accepted and requiring tax payments in currency of prewar value. This resulted in a shortage of ready money, but Frederick controlled prices by releasing

13447-617: Was the monarch of Prussia from 1740 until his death in 1786. He was the last Hohenzollern monarch titled King in Prussia , declaring himself King of Prussia after annexing Royal Prussia from the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1772. His most significant accomplishments include military successes in the Silesian wars , reorganisation of the Prussian Army , the First Partition of Poland , and patronage of

13566-403: Was the only real way for society to advance. Frederick was an enthusiast of French ideas. Frederick explained: "My principal occupation is to combat ignorance and prejudice ... to enlighten minds, cultivate morality, and to make people as happy as it suits human nature, and as the means at my disposal permit." Enlightened absolutists held that royal power emanated not from divine right but from

13685-465: Was the twelfth largest country in Europe in terms of population, but its army was the fourth largest, after France, Russia and Austria. Prussia had one soldier for every 28 citizens, whereas Britain only had one for every 310, and the military absorbed 86% of Prussia's state budget. The Prussian infantry trained by Frederick William I were, at the time of Frederick's accession, arguably unrivalled in discipline and firepower. By 1770, Frederick had doubled

13804-464: Was to seek a Prussian title; Frederick obliged. Peter III was so enamoured of Frederick that he not only offered him the full use of a Russian corps for the remainder of the war against Austria, he also wrote to Frederick that he would rather have been a general in the Prussian army than Tsar of Russia. More significantly, Russia's about-face from an enemy of Prussia to its patron rattled the leadership of Sweden, who hastily made peace with Frederick. With

13923-418: Was unable or unwilling to effect enlightened reforms in practice. Other rulers such as the Marquis of Pombal , prime minister of Portugal , used the ideas and practices of the Enlightenment not only to achieve reforms but also to enhance autocracy , crush opposition, suppress criticism, advance colonial economic exploitation, and consolidate personal control and profit. The concept of enlightened absolutism

14042-435: Was victorious against the Austrian army at the Battle of Prague on 6 May 1757, but his losses were so great he was unable to take the city, and settled for besieging it. On 18 June 1757, Frederick suffered his first major defeat at the Battle of Kolín , which forced him to abandon his invasion of Bohemia. When the French and the Austrians pursued him into Saxony and Silesia in the fall of 1757, Frederick defeated and repulsed

14161-602: Was written in French—as were all of Frederick's works—and published anonymously in 1740, but Voltaire distributed it in Amsterdam to great popularity. Frederick's years dedicated to the arts instead of politics ended upon the 1740 death of Frederick William and his inheritance of the Kingdom of Prussia. Frederick and his father were reconciled at the latter's death, and Frederick later admitted, despite their constant conflict, that Frederick William had been an effective ruler: "What

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