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155-591: West Sumatra is home to the Minangkabau people , although the traditional Minangkabau region is actually wider than the province's boundaries, covering up to the western coast of North Sumatra, the southwestern coast of Aceh, the western region of Riau, the western region of Jambi, the northern region of Bengkulu, and Negeri Sembilan in Malaysia . Another native ethnic group is the Mentawai people , who inhabit

310-585: A residency named Sumatra's West Coast ( Dutch : Sumatra's Westkust ), whose administrative area included the present-day Kampar Regency in Riau and Kerinci Regency in Jambi. Before becoming a province in 1957, West Sumatra was a part of the province of Central Sumatra (1948–1957), alongside Riau, Jambi, and the Riau Islands . West Sumatra is known by the name Bumi Minangkabau (Land of Minangkabau), as it

465-661: A cool climate, and valuable commodities. It is probable that wet rice cultivation evolved in the Minangkabau Highlands long before it appeared in other parts of Sumatra, and predates significant foreign contact. Adityawarman , a follower of Tantric Buddhism with ties to the Singhasari and Majapahit kingdoms of Java, is believed to have founded a kingdom in the Minangkabau highlands at Pagaruyung and ruled between 1347 and 1375. The establishment of

620-468: A day, fast during the month of Ramadan, and express the desire to make the holy pilgrimage ( Hajj ) to Mecca at least once in their lifetime. Each Minangkabau neighbourhood has a Musalla , which means "a temporary place of prayer" in Arabic. In the neighbourhood Musalla , men and women pray together, although separated into their respective gender-designated sections. A high percentage of women and girls wear

775-415: A day. Fruits are mainly seasonal, although fruits such as banana, papaya and citrus are continually available. Three meals a day are typical with lunch being the most important, except during the fasting month of Ramadan when lunch is not eaten. Meals commonly consist of steamed rice, a hot fried dish and a coconut milk dish, with a little variation from breakfast to dinner. Meals are generally eaten from

930-500: A distinction between high and low inheritance. "High inheritance" is the property, including the home and land, which passes among women. "Low inheritance" is what a father passes to his children out of his professional earnings. This latter inheritance follows Islamic law, a complex system which dictates, in part, that sons get twice as much as daughters. Minangkabau ceremonies and festivals include: Traditional Minangkabau music includes saluang jo dendang, which consists of singing to

1085-565: A long history of oral traditions. One is the pidato adat (ceremonial orations) which are performed by clan chiefs ( panghulu ) at formal occasions such as weddings, funerals, adoption ceremonies, and panghulu inaugurations. These ceremonial orations consist of many forms including pantun , aphorisms ( papatah-patitih ), proverbs ( pameo ), religious advice ( petuah , parables ( tamsia ), two-line aphorisms ( gurindam ), and similes ( ibarat ). Minangkabau traditional folktales ( kaba ) consist of narratives that present

1240-640: A modern education system. The 20th century marked a rise and cultural and political nationalism, culminating in the demand for Indonesian independence. Later rebellions against the Dutch occupation occurred such as the 1908 Anti-Tax Rebellion and the 1927 Communist uprising. During World War II the Minangkabau territories were occupied by the Japanese, and when the Japanese surrendered in August 1945 Indonesia proclaimed independence. The Dutch attempts to regain control of

1395-559: A number of nature reserves: Rimbo Panti Nature Reserve, Batang Palupuh Nature Reserve, Lembah Anai Nature Reserve, Lembah Harau Nature Reserve, Bung Hatta Grand Forest Park, and Beringin Sakti Nature Reserve. The Province of West Sumatra is led by a governor who is elected directly with his representative for a 5-year term. In addition to being a regional government, the Governor also acts as a representative or extension of

1550-604: A number of penghulu and representatives of the Minangkabau royal family, Dutch forces made their first attack on a Padri village in April 1821. The first phase of the war ended in 1825 when the Dutch signed an agreement with the Padri leader Tuanku Imam Bonjol to halt hostilities, allowing them to redeploy their forces to fight the Java War . When fighting resumed in 1832, the reinforced Dutch troops were able to more effectively attack

1705-408: A plate using the fingers of the right hand. Snacks are more frequently eaten by people in urban areas than in villages. Western food has had little impact upon Minangkabau consumption and preference. Rendang is a dish which is considered to be a characteristic of Minangkabau culture; it is cooked 4–5 times a year. This particular dish is one of the world's renowned dish, especially after crowned

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1860-470: A prince from a neighbouring region. To avoid the battle, the local people proposed a fight to the death between two water buffaloes ( kabau ) to settle the dispute. The prince agreed and produced the largest, meanest, most aggressive buffalo. The villagers on other hand produced a hungry baby calf with its small horns ground to be as sharp as knives. Seeing the adult buffalo across the field, the calf ran forward, hoping for milk. The big buffalo saw no threat in

2015-411: A regulator of the life of its members. the regency replaced the term village government that was used previously. Whereas for the nagari in the city government system still as a traditional institution, it has not become part of the regional government structure. Opportunities that occur in village government are the emergence of individualistic economic growth. This condition is a result of dependence on

2170-526: A relatively advantageous position in their society compared to most patriarchal societies, because though they do not rule, they are at the center of their society. The Minangkabau language ( Baso Minangkabau ) is an Austronesian language belonging to the Malayic linguistic subgroup, which in turn belongs to the Malayo-Polynesian branch. The Negri Sembilan dialect of Malay used by people in

2325-454: A royal system seems to have involved conflict and violence, eventually leading to a division of villages into one of two systems of tradition, Bodi-Caniago system based on Adat Perpatih and Koto-Piliang system based on Adat Temenggung , the latter having overt allegiances to royalty. By the 16th century, the time of the next report after the reign of Adityawarman, royal power had been split into three recognised reigning kings. They were

2480-475: Is a folk theatre tradition which incorporates music, singing, dance, drama and the silat martial art. Randai is usually performed for traditional ceremonies and festivals, and complex stories may span a number of nights. It is performed as a theatre-in-the-round to achieve an equality and unity between audience members and the performers. Randai performances are a synthesis of alternating martial arts dances, songs, and acted scenes. Stories are delivered by

2635-520: Is about a mother who acts as teacher and adviser to her two growing children. Initially her son is vain and headstrong and only after her perseverance does he become a good son who listens to his mother. Malin Kundang is about the dangers of treating your mother badly. A sailor from a poor family voyages to seek his fortune, becoming rich and marrying. After refusing to recognise his elderly mother on his return home, being ashamed of his humble origins, he

2790-415: Is about the traditions of Minangkabau royalty. The story involves a mythical Minangkabau queen, Bundo Kanduang, who embodies the behaviours prescribed by adat . Cindua Mato, a servant of the queen, uses magic to defeat hostile outside forces and save the kingdom. Sabai nan Aluih (The genteel Sabai) is about a girl named Sabai who despite being famous for being a gentle girl with perfect wife skills, avenged

2945-500: Is based upon egalitarian principles with all panghulu (clan chiefs) being equal while the Koto Piliang /Adat Katumangguangan system is more autocratic with there being a hierarchy of panghulu . Each village ( nagari ) in the darek was an autonomous "republic", and governed independently of the Minangkabau kings using one of the two adat systems. After the darek was settled, new outside settlements were created and ruled using

3100-590: Is cursed and dies when a storm ensues and turn him along with his ship to stone. The said stone is in Air Manis beach and is known by locals as batu Malin Kundang . Other popular folktales also relate to the important role of the woman in Minangkabau society. In the Cindua Mato epic the woman is the source of wisdom, while in the Sabai nan Aluih she is a gentle girl who takes action. Cindua Mato (Staring Eye)

3255-467: Is estimated that this community group entered from the east of the island of Sumatra, along the Kampar River to the highlands called darek which became the home of the Minangkabau people. Some of these darek areas then form a kind of confederation known as luhak , which is then referred to as Luhak Nan Tigo , which consists of Luhak Tanah Data , Luhak Agam , and Luhak Limopuluah Koto . During

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3410-432: Is one of the crucial functions of the suku (female lineage unit). Because Minangkabau men, like Acehnese men, often migrate to seek experience, wealth, and commercial success, the women's kin group is responsible for maintaining the continuity of the family and the distribution and cultivation of the land. These family groups, however, are typically led by a penghulu (headman), elected by groups of lineage leaders. With

3565-582: Is similar to other regions in Indonesia, only known for two seasons, namely the dry season and the rainy season. From June to September wind flows from Australia and do not contain much water vapor, resulting in a dry season. Conversely in December to March many wind currents contain water vapor from Asia and the Pacific Ocean during the rainy season. Such conditions occur every half-year after passing

3720-689: Is the Minangkabau language which has several dialects, such as the Bukittinggi dialect, Pariaman dialect, South Coastal dialect, and Payakumbuh dialect. In the Pasaman and West Pasaman regions bordering North Sumatra, the Batak Mandailing dialect is also spoken. Meanwhile, in the Mentawai archipelago, the Mentawai language is widely used. Tamil is spoken by Tamils in Padang. Indonesian

3875-537: Is the home and origin of the Minangkabau people . The Minangkabau name comes from two words namely, Minang (win) and Kabau (cattle). The name is associated with a Minangkabau legend known as Tambo . From the Tambo , it is said that at one time there was a foreign kingdom (usually interpreted as the Majapahit Empire ) which came from the sea and would conquer what is now West Sumatra. To prevent fighting in

4030-416: Is the major metropolitan areas with the population of 942,940 in mid 2023; Minangkabau highlands cities of Payakumbuh and Bukittinggi rank as West Sumatra's next most populous cities, with populations of 144,830 and 124,050 respectively in mid 2023. West Sumatra is the native homeland of Minangkabau people. They speak Minangkabau language and predominantly Muslim . West Sumatran have historically played

4185-471: Is widely understood as a second-language. It is used as the language of education as well as interethnic communication. Minangkabau people Minangkabau people ( Minangkabau : Urang Minang or Urang Awak ; Indonesian or Malay : Orang Minangkabau ; Jawi : منڠكبو ‎), also known as Minang , are an Austronesian ethnic group native to the Minangkabau Highlands of West Sumatra , Indonesia . The Minangkabau's West Sumatera homelands

4340-578: The Adats , who were the Minangkabau nobility and traditional chiefs; later, the Dutch involved themselves in the war. Islam also had an influence on Pagaruyung kingdom's government system with the addition of government elements such as Tuan Kadi and several other terms related to Islam. The naming of the Sumpur Kudus District, which contains the words derived from the word Quduus (holy) as

4495-566: The Badan Pusat Statistik as Minangkabau people . Batak people , mainly from Mandailing sub-ethnic group, and Javanese comprised 4% of the population respectively, while Mentawai people who live in the Mentawai islands made up 1%. In 2015, about 44.2% of West Sumatran lived in urban areas. Most of the urban population of West Sumatra is concentrated in the centre-west coast of province and Minangkabau Highlands . West Sumatra has 3 cities with populations over 100,000. Padang

4650-800: The Batang Hari River (now part of the Dharmasraya Regency ). The Batusangkar inscription mentioned Ananggawarman as a yuvaraja performing the Tantris teaching ritual from Buddhism called hevajra which is the ceremony of the transfer of power from Adityawarman to his crown prince, this can be attributed to the Chinese chronicle of 1377 about the San-fo-ts'i messenger to the Emperor of China requesting recognition as ruler of

4805-770: The Kampar , Rokan Hulu and Kuantan Singingi areas are designated as part of Riau Province. Communism in Sumatra has historically had an influence in the politics and society of Sumatra . Padang , Pariaman , Silungkang , Sawah Lunto , Alahan Panjang and Suliki of West Sumatra have been cited as areas which were particularly active in communism. During the PRRI rebellion, the insurgents arrested leftist activists and placed them in detention camps in West Sumatra. PKI cadres were detained at Situjuh and Suliki, while followers of

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4960-547: The Kampar River , namely the Kampar Kiri River and the Kampar Kanan River . But this hypothesis is denied by the Dutch indologist Johannes Gijsbertus de Casparis , which proves that tāmvan has nothing to do with "meeting point", because these can also be found in other Srivijaya relics. From the stories of the tambo passed from generation to generation, the ancestors of the Minangkabau people were

5115-678: The Mentawai Islands . The West Sumatran coastline faces the Indian Ocean and stretches 375 km from North Sumatra province in the north-west to Bengkulu in the south-east. The lakes of West Sumatra include: Maninjau (99.5 km), Singkarak (130.1 km), Diatas (31.5 km), Dibawah (14.0 km) and Talang (5.0 km). Most of the rivers in West Sumatra flow into the Strait of Malacca , include: Batanghari , Kampar , Ombilin and Sinamar , and others flow into

5270-631: The San-fo-ts'i region. Some inland areas of central Sumatra are still influenced by Buddhism, evident in the Padangroco temple, the Padanglawas temple and Muara Takus temple, the areas that were formerly part of Adityawarman's land. Whereas the recorded devout adherents besides Adityawarman, were Kublai Khan and king Kertanegara of Singhasari . The spread of Islam after the end of the 14th century had little effect, especially relating to

5425-481: The Srivijaya Empire named Dapunta Hyang departed from a place called Minānga . Some experts who refer to the source of the inscription suspects that the 4th line words (... minānga ) and the 5th line words ( tāmvan ...) are actually incorporated, so that they become mināngatāmvan and are translated as the meeting point of twin rivers. The twin river is supposed to refer to the meeting of two sources of

5580-541: The University of Leiden in 1936. He excelled as a student and quickly passed his examinations in Sanskrit (with Jean Philippe Vogel), Avestan (with J. H. Kramers), archaeology and ancient history (with N. J. Krom), Old Javanese (with Cornelis Christiaan Berg), and Malay (with Ph. S. van Ronkel). Moreover, he forged lifelong friendship with Raghu Vira , Durga Prashad Pandey and Senarath Paranavitana . de Casparis

5735-477: The desa . The province comprises two of Indonesia's 84 national electoral districts to elect members to the People's Representative Council . The West Sumatra I Electoral District consists of 7 of the regencies in the province (Mentawai Islands, Pesisir Selatan, Solok, Sikunjung, Tanah Datar, South Solok and Dharmasraya), together with 4 cities (Padang Panjang, Padang, Solok and Sawahlunto), and elects 8 members to

5890-819: The national communist Murba Party and other groups were detained at the Muara Labuh camp. Incidentally, Hadji Abdullah Ahmad , a noted anti-communist and religious leader was from the Minangkabau Highlands , where communism was active. Numerous examples of anti-communist resentment also occurred, for instance during the Indonesian killings of 1965–1966 , PKI-organised squatters' movements and campaigns against foreign businesses in Sumatra's plantations provoked quick reprisals against Communists. Repression against alleged PKI members and sympathizers continued for several years. As late as 1976 mass lay-offs of former members of

6045-416: The semangat by an evil spirit, and a shaman ( pawang ) may be consulted to conjure invisible forces and bring comfort to the family. Sacrificial offerings can be made to placate the spirits, and certain objects such as amulets are used as protection. Until the rise of the Padri movement late in the 18th century, Islamic practices such as prayers, fasting and attendance at mosques had been weakly observed in

6200-518: The 13th century, and began during the Pamalayu expedition by Kertanagara , and later during the reign of Adityawarman and his son Ananggawarman . Adityawarman's kingdom had the strength to dominate the central Sumatra region and its surrounding. This was proven by the title Maharajadiraja which was held by Adityawarman recorded on the back of the Amoghapasa carving, found in the upper reaches of

6355-468: The 1990s, anthropologist Evelyn Blackwood studied a relatively conservative village in Sumatra Barat where only about 22 percent of the households were "matrihouses", consisting of a mother and a married daughter or daughters. Nonetheless, there is a shared ideal among Minangkabau in which sisters and unmarried lineage members try to live close to one another or even in the same house. Landholding

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6510-697: The 19th century the Dutch remained content with their coastal trade of gold and produce, and made no attempt to visit the Minangkabau highlands. As a result of conflict in Europe, the British occupied Padang from 1781 to 1784 during the Fourth Anglo-Dutch War , and again from 1795 to 1819 during the Napoleonic Wars . Late in the 18th century the gold supply which provided the economic base for Minangkabau royalty began to be exhausted. Around

6665-546: The Best Food in CNN's World's 50 Best Foods in 2011 and 2017 by a CNN poll. Other characteristic dishes include Asam Padeh , Soto Padang , Sate Padang , Dendeng Balado (beef with chili sauce). Food has a central role in the Minangkabau ceremonies which honour religious and life-cycle rites. Minangkabau food is popular among Indonesians and restaurants are present throughout Indonesia. Nasi Padang restaurants, named after

6820-477: The British to the Dutch. Then expanded again by including Tapanuli and Singkil . But in 1905, the status of Tapanuli was upgraded to Residentie Tapanuli , while the Singkil area was given to Residentie Atjeh . Then in 1914, Gouvernement Sumatra's Westkust , was demoted to Residentie Sumatra's Westkust , and added the Mentawai Islands region in the Indian Ocean into Residentie Sumatra's Westkust, and in 1935

6975-613: The Burmese railway. Together with H. R. van Heekeren, P. Voorhoeve, Chris Hooykaas, his close friend the Sinologist Marius van der Valk, and the Dutch entertainer Wim Kan , he survived the labour camps. By the end of the war De Casparis was fluent in Japanese. For a year after the Japanese surrender, he travelled through Thailand and visited archaeological sites. He stayed in Kanchanaburi , and learned Thai , and studied

7130-710: The Dutch East Indies government to give a higher position than just as the Tanah Datar Regent which he held after replacing Sultan Tangkal Alam Bagagarsyah, but this request was rejected by the Dutch, this later included one of the drivers of the outbreak of the 1841 rebellion in Batipuh in addition to the cultuurstelsel problem. The name West Sumatra originated in the Vereenigde Oostindische Compagnie (VOC) era, where

7285-543: The Dutch away. On 2 May 1833 Sultan Tangkal Alam Bagagarsyah was captured by Lieutenant Colonel Elout in Batusangkar on charges of treason. He was exiled to Batavia (present-day Jakarta) until his death, and was buried in the Mangga Dua cemetery. After the fall, the influence and prestige of the kingdom of Pagaruyung remained high, especially among Minangkabau people who were overseas. One of Pagaruyung's royal heirs

7440-630: The Dutch captured Pagaruyung from the Padri, in 1824 at the request of Lieutenant Colonel Raaff, Sultan Arifin Muningsyah returned to Pagaruyung, but in 1825, Sultan Arifin Muningsyah, the last king in Minangkabau, died and was later buried in Pagaruyung. Sultan Tangkal Alam Bagagarsyah on the other hand wanted to be recognized as the king of Pagaruyung, but the Dutch East Indies government had limited his authority and only appointed him

7595-576: The Indian Ocean, include: Kuranji , Anai and Arau . The mountains and volcanoes of West Sumatra include: Kerinci (3,805 m), Talakmau (2,912 m), Marapi (2,891 m), Singgalang (2,877 m), Talang (2,572 m), Tandikat (2,438 m) and Sago (2,271 m). West Sumatra is one of the earthquake-prone areas in Indonesia, due to its location in the tectonic slab located between the confluence of two major continental plates (the Eurasian Plate and Indo-Australian Plate ) and Great Sumatran fault , plus

7750-576: The Islamic-based customary law. There is a famous Minangkabau custom proverb, " Adat basandi syarak, syarak basandi Kitabullah ", which means that the Minangkabau adat is based on Islam, while Islam is based on the Qur'an . But in some cases, several systems and methods of adat were still maintained causing the outbreak of civil war known as the Padri War . The war was initially between the ulamas and

7905-652: The Kerinci region was also incorporated into Residentie Sumatra's Westkust. After the breakdown of the Gouvernement Sumatra's Oostkust , the Rokan Hulu and Kuantan Singingi regions were given to Residentie Riouw , and Residentie Djambi was also formed in almost the same period. During the Japanese occupation , Residentie Sumatra's Westkust changed its name to Sumatora Nishi Kaigan Shu . On

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8060-641: The King of the World ( Raja Alam ), the King of Adat ( Raja Adat ), and the King of Religion ( Raja Ibadat ), and collectively they were known as the Kings of the Three Seats ( Rajo Tigo Selo ). The Minangkabau kings were charismatic or magical figures, but did not have much authority over the conduct of village affairs. Around the 16th century, the Minangkabau started to convert to Islam . The first contact between

8215-475: The Koto Piliang system by rajo who were representatives of the king. The Minangkabau have large corporate descent groups, but they traditionally reckon descent matrilineally. A young boy, for instance, has his primary responsibility to his mother's and sisters' clans . It is considered "customary" and ideal for married sisters to remain in their parental home, with their husbands having a sort of visiting status. Not everyone lives up to this ideal, however. In

8370-640: The Majapahit. Likewise in the Ming Chronicles from 1405, there was the royal name of Mi-nang-ge-bu of the six kingdoms who sent messengers facing Yongle Emperor in Nanjing . On the other hand, the name Minang (Minanga kingdom) itself has also been mentioned in the Kedukan Bukit inscription dated from 682 which is written in Sanskrit . In the inscription, it was stated that the founder of

8525-409: The Mentawai Islands Regency, 26 are in West Pasaman Regency, 2 in Agam Regency, 2 in Padang Pariaman Regency, 4 in Pariaman City, 21 in Padang City and 49 in South Pesisir Regency. Cities and Regencies in West Sumatra in order of the Human Development Index (HDI). The figures come from the 2020 Indonesia Human Development Report, published by Statistics Indonesia . As a new regency, Dharmasraya got

8680-450: The Minangkabau and western nations occurred with the 1529 voyage of Jean Parmentier to Sumatra. The Dutch East India Company first acquired gold at Pariaman in 1651, but later moved south to Padang to avoid interference from the Acehnese occupiers. In 1663 the Dutch agreed to protect and liberate local villages from the Acehnese in return for a trading monopoly, and as a result setup trading posts at Painan and Padang . Until early in

8835-418: The Minangkabau developed a cosmopolitan bourgeoisie that readily adopted and promoted the ideas of an emerging nation-state. Due to their culture that stresses the importance of learning, Minang people are over-represented in the educated professions in Indonesia, with many ministers from Minang. Adat derives in part from the ancient animist and buddhist belief system of the Minangkabau, which existed before

8990-470: The Minangkabau diet are rice, fish, coconut, green leafy vegetables and chili. Meat is mainly limited to special occasions, and beef and chicken are most commonly used. Pork is not halal and not consumed, while lamb, goat and game are rarely consumed for reasons of taste and availability. Spiciness is a characteristic of Minangkabau food: The most commonly used herbs and spices are chili, turmeric, ginger and galangal. Vegetables are consumed two or three times

9145-406: The Minangkabau highlands. The Padri were inspired by the Wahhabi movement in Mecca, and sought to eliminate societal problems such as tobacco and opium smoking, gambling and general anarchy by ensuring the tenets of the quran were strictly observed. All Minangkabau customs allegedly in conflict with the quran were abolished. Although the Padri were eventually defeated by the Dutch, during this period

9300-416: The Minangkabau people can be considered overseas Minangkabaus. They make up the majority of the population of Negeri Sembilan , Naning (in Malaysia ) as well as Pekanbaru (in Indonesia). They also form a significant minority in the populations of Jakarta , Bandung , Medan , Batam , Surabaya and Palembang in Indonesia as well as Kuala Lumpur , Malacca, Penang , Singapore and Brunei Darussalam in

9455-432: The Minangkabau people, wandering is an ideal way to reach maturity and success; as a consequence, they exercised great influence in the politics of many kingdom and states in Maritime Southeast Asia. Overseas Minangkabau are also great influence developing Indonesian, Malaysian, and Singaporean culture, mainly language, culinary, music, and martial art. The Minangkabau are famous for their dedication to knowledge, as well as

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9610-425: The Minangkabau tells of the development of the Minangkabau World ( alam Minangkabau ) and its adat . These stories are derived from an oral history which was transmitted between generations before the Minangkabau had a written language. The first Minangkabau are said to have arrived by ship and landed on Mount Marapi when it was no bigger than the size of an egg, which protruded from a surrounding body of water. After

9765-515: The Minangkabau that persisted compared to the patrilineal culture adopted by Malay society in general. According to the Minangkabau Tambo , in the period between the 1st century to the 16th century, many small kingdoms stood on what is now West Sumatra. These kingdoms included the Kuntu, Kandis, Siguntur, Pasumayan Koto Batu, Batu Patah, Sungai Pagu, Inderapura, Jambu Lipo, Taraguang, Dusun Tuo, Bungo Setangkai, Talu, Kinali, Parit Batu, Pulau Punjung. These kingdoms were short lived, and are usually under

9920-442: The Old Javanese Kakawin Ramayana . In 1978 De Casparis returned to Leiden to become professor of the early history and archaeology of South and Southeast Asia at the Department of Languages and Cultures of South and Central Asia (Kern Institute). After 39 years away from the Netherlands, and with a family that did not speak Dutch, he did not feel entirely at home in the formal setting of Dutch academia. Nonetheless his Leiden period

10075-403: The Oudheidkundige Dienst in Batavia, however, his position was abruptly terminated. With the imperial Japanese threat, he was called up on 2 July 1940 to serve as a cryptographer in the Dutch colonial army (KNIL) and in the same year Louis-Charles Damais succeeded him as acting epigrapher. In early 1942, the Japanese invaded the Indonesian archipelago and De Casparis was taken prisoner, labouring on

10230-419: The Oudheidkundige Dienst. Meanwhile, the Oudheidkundige Dienst had started training Indonesians; R. Soekmono studied with Bernet Kempers who promptly made Soekmono his successor in 1953 after the latter's graduation. Boechari became de Casparis's student in epigraphy. In 1955, de Casparis became professor in the early history of Indonesia and Sanskrit at a branch of Airlangga University (Surabaya) in Malang . In

10385-417: The Padri. The main centre of resistance was captured in 1837, Tuanku Imam Bonjol was captured and exiled soon after, and by the end of the next year the war was effectively over. With the Minangkabau territories now under the control of the Dutch, transportation systems were improved and economic exploitation was intensified. New forms of education were introduced, allowing some Minangkabau to take advantage of

10540-605: The People's Representative Council. The West Sumatra II Electoral District consists of the remaining 5 regencies (Padang Pariaman, Agam, Lima Puluk Kota, Pasaman and West Pasaman), together with the 3 cities of Bukittinggi, Pariaman and Payakumbuh, and elects 6 members to the People's Representative Council. The Census population of West Sumatra was 2.8 million in 1971, 3.4 million in 1980, 4.0 million in 1990, 4.25 million in 2000, 4.85 million in 2010, and 5.53 million in 2020, of whom 2,786,360 were male and 2,748,112 were female. In 2010, 88% were recorded by

10695-450: The Regent of Tanah Datar. Because of the policy it encouraged Sultan Tangkal Alam Bagagarsyah to start thinking about expelling the Dutch from the region. After emerging victorious from the Diponegoro War in Java, the Dutch then tried to conquer the Padri with shipments of soldiers from Java , Madura , Celebes and the Moluccas . But the Dutch colonial ambitions caused the Adat and the Padri to forget their differences in secret to drive

10850-429: The VOC through its regent in Padang , Jacob Pits whose territory included from Kotawan in the south to Barus in the north sent a letter dated October 9, 1668 addressed to the Ahmadsyah Sultan, Iskandar Zur-Karnain, the Minangkabau ruler who was rich in gold, was told the VOC controlled the west coast area so that the gold trade can be re-flowed through the coast. According to Dutch records, Sultan Ahmadsyah died in 1674 and

11005-403: The accompaniment of a saluang bamboo flute and talempong gong-chime music. Dances include the tari piring (plate dance), tari payung (umbrella dance), tari indang (also known as endang or badindin ), and tari pasambahan . Demonstrations of the silat martial art are performed. Pidato adat are ceremonial orations performed at formal occasions. Randai

11160-633: The acting and singing and are mostly based upon Minangkabau legends and folktales. Randai originated early in the 20th century out of fusion of local martial arts, storytelling and other performance traditions. Men originally played male and female characters in the story but, since the 1960s, women have participated. Particular Minangkabau villages specialise in cottage industries producing handicrafts such as woven sugarcane and reed purses, gold and silver jewellery using filigree and granulation techniques, woven songket textiles, wood carving, embroidery, pottery, and metallurgy. The staple ingredients of

11315-416: The activity of the active volcanoes. Large earthquakes that occurred recently in West Sumatra earthquake were the 2009 Sumatra earthquake and the 2010 Mentawai earthquake and tsunami . The area was also affected by the 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami . This region has a tropical monsoon climate , similar to most other Indonesian provinces. Throughout the year the province is only affected by two seasons, namely

11470-720: The aforementioned state is closely related to it due to the fact many of the population are descendants of Minangkabau immigrants. The language has a number of dialects and sub-dialects, but native Minangkabau speakers generally have no difficulty understanding the variety of dialects. The differences between dialects are mainly at the phonological level, though some lexical differences also exist. Minangkabau dialects are regional, consisting of one or more villages ( nagari ), and usually correspond to differences in customs and traditions. Each sub-village ( jorong ) has its own sub-dialect consisting of subtle differences which can be detected by native speakers. The Padang dialect has become

11625-514: The agrarian base of the Minangkabau economy in decline, the suku—as a landholding unit—has also been declining somewhat in importance, especially in urban areas. Indeed, the position of penghulu is not always filled after the death of the incumbent, particularly if lineage members are not willing to bear the expense of the ceremony required to install a new penghulu. The Minangkabau (in short Minang) are also known for their devotion to Islam. A dominant majority of both males and females pray five times

11780-689: The archaeologist Willem Frederik Stutterheim of the Oudheidkundige Dienst in Nederlandsch-Indië (Archaeological Service in the Netherlands Indies) gave a lecture at the University of Amsterdam at which time he advised de Casparis to transfer to Leiden to continue his studies because the Oudheidkundige Dienst was looking for an epigrapher to replace Roelof Goris. Accordingly, de Casparis registered for Indology at

11935-783: The area were ultimately unsuccessful and in 1949 the Minangkabau territories became part of Indonesia as the province of Central Sumatra. In February 1958, dissatisfaction with the centralist and communist-leaning policies of the Sukarno administration triggered a revolt which was centred in the Minangkabau region of Sumatra, with rebels proclaiming the Revolutionary Government of the Republic of Indonesia (PRRI) in Bukittinggi . The Indonesian military invaded West Sumatra in April 1958 and had recaptured major towns within

12090-476: The arrival of Islam to Sumatra. When precisely the religion spread across the island and was adopted by the Minangkabau is unclear, though it probably arrived in West Sumatra around the 16th century. It is adat that guides matrilineal inheritance, and though it seems that such a tradition might conflict with the precepts of Islam, the Minangnese insist that it does not. To accommodate both, the Minangkabau make

12245-596: The arrival of Islam. The present relationship between Islam and adat is described in the saying "traditions [ adat ] are founded upon the [Islamic] law, and the law founded upon the Qur'an " ( adat nan kawi', syara' nan lazim ). With the Minangkabau highlands being the heartland of their culture, and with Islam likely entering the region from coast it is said that "custom descended, religion ascended" ( adat manurun, syarak mandaki ). This table contains Minangkabau population breakdown in Indonesia Over half of

12400-625: The attention of the Dutch and the British to establish relations with Pagaruyung. It is recorded that in 1684, a Portuguese explorer named Tomas Dias paid a visit to Pagaruyung at the behest of the Dutch governor general in Malacca . Around 1750 the Pagaruyung kingdom began to dislike the presence of the VOC in Padang and once tried to persuade the British who were in Bengkulu to expel the Dutch from

12555-408: The baby buffalo and paid no attention to it, looking around for a worthy opponent. But when the baby thrust his head under the big bull's belly, looking for an udder, the sharpened horns punctured and killed the bull giving the villagers their victory ( menang , hence minang kabau : "victors of the buffalo" which eventually became Minangkabau ). That legend, however, is known to be a mere tale and that

12710-465: The basis of military geo-strategy, the Kampar area was separated from Sumatora Nishi Kaigan Shu and incorporated into the territory of Rhio Shu . At the beginning of Indonesian independence in 1945, the West Sumatra region was incorporated in the Sumatra province based in Bukittinggi . Four years later, Sumatra Province was divided into three provinces: North Sumatra , Central Sumatra , and South Sumatra . West Sumatra, Riau and Jambi were part of

12865-404: The capital of West Sumatra, are known for placing a variety of Minangkabau dishes on a customer's table with rice and billing only for what is taken. Nasi Kapau is another restaurant variant which specialises in dishes using offal and tamarind to add a sourness to the spicy flavour. Rumah gadang ( Minangkabau : 'big house') or rumah bagonjong ( Minangkabau : 'spired roof house') are

13020-457: The central government in the province, whose authority is regulated in Law No. 32 of 2004 and Government Regulation number 19 of 2010. While the relationship between the provincial government and the regency and city governments is not a sub-ordinate, each of these regional governments governs and manages government affairs according to the principle of autonomy and co-administration. Until 1979,

13175-425: The central government, resulting in lack of independence. This condition can weaken the resilience of the area of the economy itself. However, now the villages of West Sumatra have tried to build efforts to facilitate the political policies of the village government or since exchanging back into nagari, namely changing the structure and process between village government structures made under Law No. 5 of 1979. Nagari

13330-495: The communist plantation workers' union Sarbupri members took place in Sumatra, actions motivated by the communist past of these individuals. West Sumatra lies in the middle of the western coast of Sumatra , and has an area of 42,119.54 km. Geographic features include plains , mountainous volcanic highlands formed by the Barisan mountain range that runs from north-west to south-east, and an offshore island archipelago called

13485-484: The conflict between the British and French in the Napoleonic Wars where the Dutch were on the French side, the British fought the Dutch and again succeeded in taking control of the coast of West Sumatra between 1795 and 1819. The British governor Thomas Stamford Raffles visited Pagaruyung in 1818, when the Padri War began. At that time Raffles discovered that the capital city of the kingdom had been burned because of

13640-621: The descendants of Iskandar Zulkarnain ( Alexander the Great ). This tambo story is more or less comparable to the Malay Annals who also tells how the Minangkabau people sent their representatives to ask Sang Sapurba , one of the descendants of Iskandar Zulkarnain, to become their king. The Minang community is part of the Deutro-Malay community who migrated from Southern China to the island of Sumatra around 2,500–2,000 years ago. It

13795-556: The designation of the area for the west coast of Sumatra was Hoofdcomptoir van Sumatra's Westkust . Then with the strengthening of the political and economic influence of the VOC, until the 18th century this administrative region included the west coast of Sumatra from Barus to Inderapura . Along with the fall of the Kingdom of Pagaruyung, and the involvement of the Dutch in the Padri War, the Dutch East Indies government began to make

13950-400: The equal power. Previously in 1732, the VOC regent in Padang had noted that there was a queen named Yang Dipertuan Puti Jamilan who had sent spears and swords made from gold, as a sign of her inauguration as the ruler of the land. While the Dutch and British succeeded in reaching the interior of the Minangkabau region, they had never found significant gold reserves in the area. As a result of

14105-507: The era of the Dutch East Indies , the luhak area became a territorial government area called afdeling , headed by a resident who by the Minangkabau community was called the name Tuan Luhak. Initially, The Minangkabau people were included as a sub-group of the Malays , but since the 19th century, the Minangkabau and the Malays began to be seen as distinguished, from the matrilineal culture of

14260-818: The existence of the Malay Kingdom which had its capital in Dharmasraya . A military expedition to West Sumatra called the Pamalayu emerged in 1275–1293 under the leadership of Kebo Anabrang of the Singasari Kingdom . After the submission of the kingdom recorded on the Amoghapasa carved on the Padang Roco Inscription , the Pamalayu returned to Java with the daughters of King Dharmasraya, Dara Petak and Dara Jingga . Dara Petak

14415-400: The family or nagari (hometown) when they sit as members of the 'council of maternal uncles and maternal granduncles' (ninik-mamak). This tradition has created Minang communities in many Indonesian cities and towns, which nevertheless are still tied closely to their homeland; a state in Malaysia named Negeri Sembilan especially is heavily influenced by Minang culture because Negeri Sembilan

14570-408: The famous ulama of Aceh, Abd al-Rauf al-Sinkili , was a cleric who was thought to first spread Islam in Pagaruyung. By the 17th century, the Kingdom of Pagaruyung transformed itself into an Islamic sultanate . The first Islamic king in the Minangkabau traditional culture was Sultan Alif. With the entry of Islam, the customary rules that are contrary to the teachings of Islam began to be replaced with

14725-853: The headscarf. As early as the age of 7, boys traditionally leave their homes and live in a surau (traditionally: the house of men of a village where the boys learn from older men reading, reciting qur'an, simple math, and other survival skills) to learn religious and cultural ( adat ) teachings. At the surau during night time (after the Isyak prayers), these youngsters are taught the traditional Minangkabau art of self-defence, called as Silek, or Silat in Malay. When they are teenagers, they are encouraged to leave their hometown to learn in schools or through experiences outside of their hometown so that, as adults, they can return home wise and 'useful' to society and are able to contribute their thinking and experience to run

14880-486: The highest score (59.43) from a possible 100 among other new regencies. Before the reforms of 1999 and the implementation of regional autonomy in 2001, the lowest local government unit under the district administrations was the Javanese model of the village, the desa . Under regional autonomy, the traditional Minangkabau nagari , which are larger than villages elsewhere in Indonesia, have been reintroduced in place of

15035-551: The important role within the Muslim community in Indonesia. Up until today the region is considered one of the strongholds of Islam in Indonesia. They have a reputation as traders, intellectuals as well as politically savvy people who have successfully exported their culture, language, cuisine and beliefs throughout Indonesia. Mentawaians live on the Mentawai Islands, off the western coast of Sumatra, that are also part of

15190-669: The influence of larger kingdoms, such as Malayu and Pagaruyung. The Malayu Kingdom is estimated to have appeared in the year 645 thought to be located in the upper reaches of the Batang Hari River . Based on the Kedukan Bukit inscription , this kingdom was conquered by the Srivijaya in 682. And then in 1183 it appeared again based on the Grahi inscription in Cambodia, and then the Negarakertagama and Pararaton recorded

15345-599: The influence of the Protestant Dutch – they also had a sense of cultural pride just as like every other Sumatran especially with their traditional belief of egalitarianism of "Standing as tall, sitting as low" (that no body stand or sit on an increased stage). They also speak a language closely related to the Malay variant spoken in newly formed Indonesia , which was considerably freer of hierarchical connotations than Javanese . The tradition of merantau also meant that

15500-603: The inscriptions of Ram Kamhaeng . In August 1946, De Casparis returned to the Netherlands as a second lieutenant in the air force. At this time, some seven years after first meeting his future wife in France while en route to Batativa, he married Gisèle Marie Fongaro, an Italian-born Frenchwoman. The Renville Agreement paved the way for de Casparis's return to the archipelago in 1948 and a year later, his wife and young daughter Anna (born 1947) followed him to Jakarta . Damais

15655-706: The interior of Minangkabau a part of Pax Nederlandica , an area under Dutch supervision, and the Minangkabau region was divided into the Residentie Padangsche Benedenlanden and the Residentie Padangsche Bovenlanden . Furthermore, in the development of the colonial administration of the Dutch East Indies, this area was incorporated in the Gouvernement Sumatra's Westkust , including the Residentie Bengkulu region which had just been surrendered by

15810-485: The language dates from the 19th century, and a standardised official orthography of the language was published in 1976. Despite widespread use of Malay in both Malaysia and Indonesia, they do have their own mother tongue; the Minangkabau language shares many similar words with Malay, yet it has a distinctive pronunciation and some grammatical differences rendering it unintelligible to Malay speakers. Prior to conversion to Islam, Buddhism , especially Tantric Buddhism

15965-524: The large and aggressive cattle to find milk until he tore apart the big cattle's stomach. The victory inspired the local people to use the name Minangkabau, which comes from the phrase " Manang kabau " (winning cattle). The story of the Tambo is also found in the Hikayat Raja-raja Pasai which also mentions that the victory made the country that was previously named Pariangan changed to

16120-471: The lingua franca for people of different language regions. The Minangkabau society has a diglossia situation, whereby they use their native language for everyday conversations, while the Malay language is used for most formal occasions, in education, and in writing, even to relatives and friends. The Minangkabau language was originally written using the Jawi script , an adapted Arabic alphabet. Romanization of

16275-429: The middle and end in points, in imitation of the upward-curving horns of the water buffalo that supposedly eked the people their name (i.e. " victors of the buffalo "). Shuttered windows are built into walls incised with profuse painted floral carvings. The term rumah gadang usually refers to the larger communal homes, however, smaller single residences share many of its architectural elements. Minangkabau culture has

16430-467: The murder of her father by a powerful and evil ruler from a neighbouring village. After her father's death, her cowardly elder brother refuses to confront the murderer and so Sabai decided to take matters into her own hands. She seeks out the murderer and shoots him in revenge. The Minangkabau are the largest matrilineal society in the world, with property, family name and land passing down from mother to daughter, while religious and political affairs are

16585-612: The name Minangkabau . Furthermore, the use of the name Minangkabau is also used to refer to a nagari (village), namely the Nagari Minangkabau , which is located in Sungayang District, Tanah Datar Regency . In the historical record of the Majapahit Empire, Nagarakretagama which dated from 1365, also mentioned the name Minangkabwa as one of the Malay countries that has been conquered by

16740-590: The native people of province. They speak Mentawai languages , which are not intelligible with either Indonesian nor Minangkabau. Small minority of the Mentawais are Christians nowadays. In the Mentawai Islands, where the majority of the population is Mentawai, it is rare to find Minangkabau people. Chinese Indonesian are only found in big cities, such as Padang, Bukittinggi, and Payakumbuh. In Padang and Pariaman, there are also small numbers of Nias and Tamil people . The language used in everyday life in West Sumatra

16895-407: The nephew of Sultan Arifin Muningsyah, in Padang along with 19 other traditional leaders signed an agreement with the Dutch to cooperate in fighting the Padri, even though he was considered not entitled to make an agreement on behalf of the kingdom of Pagaruyung. As a result of this agreement, the Netherlands considered it a sign of surrender of the kingdom of Pagaruyung to the Dutch government. After

17050-493: The next month. A period of guerrilla warfare ensued, but most rebels had surrendered by August 1961. In the years following, West Sumatra was like an occupied territory with Javanese officials occupying most senior civilian, military and police positions. The policies of centralisation continued under the Suharto regime. The national government legislated to apply the Javanese desa village system throughout Indonesia, and in 1983

17205-403: The onset of government reform and regional autonomy, since 2001, the term nagari has been used again in this province. The political culture that lived in the West Sumatra village government since the policy of uniformity (Law No.5 of 1979) was applied to the parochial political culture. this condition is seen through the power system, the ruling system, the terms of the ruler, and the role of

17360-543: The patrilineal system, and gave a relatively new phenomenon to the people in the interior of Minangkabau. At the beginning of the 16th century, the Suma Oriental , written between 1513 and 1515, recorded from the three Minangkabau kings, only one of whom had been a Muslim convert from 15 years before. The influence of Islam in Pagaruyung developed around the 16th century, namely through travelers and religious teachers who stopped or came from Aceh and Malacca . One of

17515-410: The penetration of Islam into Minangkabau society in the 16th century, animistic beliefs were not extinguished. In this belief system, people were said to have two souls, a real soul and a soul which can disappear called the semangat . Semangat represents the vitality of life and it is said to be possessed by all living creatures including animals and plants. An illness may be explained as the capture of

17670-514: The prevailing wind system. It has high average temperature and high average rainfall. The province includes large areas of dense tropical forest, which is home to a host of species including: Rafflesia arnoldii (world's largest flower), Sumatran tiger , siamang , Malayan tapir , Sumatran serow , rusa deer , Malayan sun bear , Bornean clouded leopard , and many birds and butterflies. The province includes two national parks: Siberut National Park and Kerinci Seblat National Park , as well as

17825-462: The rainy season and the dry season. The air temperature varies from 24.7 to 32.9 degrees Celsius with air humidity levels ranging from 82% to 88%. The relative rainy season falls from October to April. Variation in rainfall ranges from 2,100 mm to 3,264 mm. The month December is the month with the most rainfall. While the dry season usually starts in June to September. The season in West Sumatra

17980-410: The region which the British did not respond to. But in 1781, the British managed to control Padang for a short period of time, and messengers from Pagaruyung congratulated the success of the British in expelling the Dutch from Padang. Minangkabau land has long been considered rich in gold, and at that time the power of the Minangkabau king was divided into king Suruaso and the king of Sungai Tarab with

18135-421: The region, the local people propose a cattle race competition with the foreign forces. The foreign forces agreed and sent a large and aggressive cattle to the competition, while the local community sent a cattle calf who was still breastfeeding to the competition. In the competition, the cattle calf who was still breastfeeding thought the large and aggressive cattle was the mother. So the calf immediately ran towards

18290-417: The relationship between adat and religion was reformulated. Previously adat (customs) were said to be based upon appropriateness and propriety, but this was changed so that adat was more strongly based upon Islamic precepts. The Minangkabau strongly profess Islam while at the same time also following their ethnic traditions, or adat . The Minangkabau adat was derived from hereditary wisdom before

18445-538: The residency within the province of Central Sumatra. During the PRRI rebellion, based on emergency law number 19 of 1957, Central Sumatra Province was further divided into three provinces: West Sumatra Province, Riau Province, and Jambi Province. The Kerinci region which was previously incorporated in the South Sumatra Regency of Kerinci , was incorporated into Jambi Province as a separate regency. Likewise,

18600-582: The responsibility of men, although some women also play important roles in these areas. This custom is called Lareh Bodi-Caniago and is known as adat perpatih in Malaysia. Today 4.2 million Minangs live in the homeland of West Sumatra. As one of the world's most populous (as well as politically and economically influential) matrilineal ethnicities, Minangkabau gender dynamics have been extensively studied by anthropologists. The adat (Minangkabau: Adaik ) traditions have allowed Minangkabau women to hold

18755-568: The rest of the Malay world . Minangkabaus have also emigrated as skilled professionals and merchants to the Netherlands , United States , Saudi Arabia and Australia . In the overseas ( rantau ), they have a reputation for being shrewd merchants. The matrilineal culture and economic conditions in West Sumatra have made the Minangkabau people one of the most mobile ethnic group in Maritime Southeast Asia . For most of

18910-404: The result of conflict between two half-brothers Datuak Katumangguangan and Datuak Parpatiah nan Sabatang, who were the leaders who formulated the foundations of Minangkabau adat . The former accepted Adityawarman , a prince from Majapahit, as a king while the latter considered him a minister, and a civil war ensued. The Bodi Caniago/ Adat perpatih system formulated by Datuak Parpatiah nan Sabatang

19065-401: The ruler in the village government. The kinship system in developing participant political culture began to shift, in terms of the level of sensitivity, the form of tolerance in kinship, and the role of seniority in kinship. This means that the lack of togetherness in the kinship power system. Nagari government is an autonomous government structure, has a clear territory and adheres to adat as

19220-560: The sake of the education of his three daughters, Anna, Françoise (born 1950), and Claire (born 1952), the family decided to return to Europe in 1958 when he was offered a position as lecturer in the early history of South and Southeast Asia at SOAS . He was promoted to reader in 1961. At SOAS, De Casparis worked with Chris Hooykaas, reader in Old Javanese, on the textual comparison between the Sanskrit Bhattikavya and

19375-461: The same time other parts of the Minangkabau economy had a period of unparalleled expansion as new opportunities for the export of agricultural commodities arose, particularly with coffee which was in very high demand. A civil war started in 1803 with the Padri fundamentalist Islamic group in conflict with the traditional syncretic groups, elite families and Pagaruyung royals. As a result of a treaty with

19530-482: The same year he also gave courses as visiting professor of the history of South and Southeast Asia at Universitas Adityawarman , founded by Mohammad Yamin in Batusangkar , Sumatra . Because of these duties de Casparis stayed in Jakarta for another year before moving to Malang with his family. Anti-Dutch sentiment in Indonesia was mounting and although de Casparis would have liked to become an Indonesian national, for

19685-487: The seat of Rajo Ibadat and Limo Kaum which contains the word qaum is an influence from Arabic or Islam. In addition, in the adat , the term Imam , Katik ( Khatib ), Bila (Bilal), Malin (Mu'alim), which is a substitute for Hindu and Buddhist terms used previously, such as the term Pandito (priest), also appears. At the beginning of the 17th century, the Pagaruyung Kingdom was forced to recognize

19840-439: The smallest administrative unit in West Sumatra was called a nagari , which had existed before Indonesian independence . With the enactment of Law No. 5 of 1979 concerning village governance, the status of nagari was eliminated and replaced with villages, and several jorong statuses were upgraded to villages. The position of nagari guardians was also removed and government administration was carried out by village heads. But since

19995-458: The social and personal consequences of either ignoring or observing the ethical teachings and the norms embedded in the adat . The storyteller ( tukang kaba ) recites the story in poetic or lyrical prose while accompanying himself on a rebab . A theme in Minangkabau folktales is the central role mothers and motherhood has in Minangkabau society, with the folktales Rancak di Labuah and Malin Kundang being two examples. Rancak di Labuah

20150-593: The southern of Sumatra. The Minangkabau language is a member of the Austronesian language family, and is closest to the Malay language , though when the two languages split from a common ancestor and the precise historical relationship between Malay and Minangkabau culture is not known. Until the 20th century the majority of the Sumatran population lived in the highlands. The highlands are well suited for human habitation, with plentiful fresh water, fertile soil,

20305-622: The sovereignty of the Aceh Sultanate , and to recognize the designated Aceh governors for the west coast of Sumatra. But around 1665, the Minangkabau people on the west coast rebelled against the Aceh governor. From the letter of the Minangkabau ruler Raja Pagaruyung submitted a request to the Dutch East India Company (VOC), and the VOC at that time took the opportunity to end Aceh's monopoly on gold and pepper. Furthermore,

20460-402: The term Minangkabau ( Minangkabau : Minang Jawi script : منڠ). While the word "kabau" undisputedly translates to "buffalo", the word "minang" is traditionally known as the pinang fruit ( areca nut ) chewed with sirih ( betel ) leaves. But there is also a folklore that mention that term Minangkabau came from a popular legend that was derived from a territorial dispute between a people and

20615-468: The traditional Minangkabau nagari village units were split into smaller jorong units, thereby destroying the traditional village social and cultural institutions. In the years following the downfall of the Suharto regime decentralisation policies were implemented, giving more autonomy to provinces, thereby allowing West Sumatra to reinstitute the nagari system. The traditional historiography of

20770-570: The traditional homes of the Minangkabau. The architecture, construction, internal and external decoration, and the functions of the house reflect the culture and values of the Minangkabau. A rumah gadang serves as a residence, a hall for family meetings, and for ceremonial activities. The rumah gadang is owned by the women of the family who live there – ownership is passed from mother to daughter. The houses have dramatic curved roof structures with multi-tiered, upswept gables. They are also well distinguished by their rooflines which curve upward from

20925-417: The transition period in between April – May and October – November. The city of Padang is one of Indonesia's wettest cities, with frequent rainfall throughout the course of the year. As in most other province of Indonesia, West Sumatra has a tropical rainforest climate ( Köppen climate classification Af ) bordering on a tropical monsoon climate. The climate is very much dictated by the surrounding sea and

21080-467: The war was when the Padri under the leadership of Tuanku Pasaman attacked Pagaruyung in 1815. Sultan Arifin Muningsyah was forced to abdicate and escape from the royal capital to Lubuk Jambi. Under pressure by the Padri, the Pagaruyung royal family requested assistance from the Dutch, and before that they had conducted diplomacy with the British when Raffles visited Pagaruyung and promised them assistance. On February 10, 1821, Sultan Tangkal Alam Bagagarsyah,

21235-557: The war. After the signing of a peace agreement between the British and the Netherlands was signed in 1814, the Dutch re-entered Padang in May 1819. The Dutch reaffirmed their influence on the island of Sumatra and Pagaruyung, with the signing of the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824 . The power of the king of Pagaruyung was very weak in the days leading up to the Padri war, although the king was still respected by his subject. The areas on

21390-400: The waters receded the Minangkabau proliferated and dispersed to the slopes and valleys surrounding the volcano, a region called the darek . The darek is composed of three luhak – Tanah Datar , Agam and Limapuluh Koto . The tambo claims the ship was sailed by a descendant of Alexander the Great ( Iskandar Zulkarnain ). A division in Minangkabau adat into two systems is said to be

21545-450: The western coast fell into the influence of Aceh, while Inderapura on the southern coast practically became an independent kingdom although officially still under the rule of the king of Pagaruyung. In the early 19th century a conflict broke out between the Padri and the Adat . In several negotiations there was no agreement between them. Pagaruyung's kingdom was in turmoil, and the peak of

21700-528: The western islands of the same name. Islam is a predominant religion in the province, with about 97.4% of the total population. West Sumatra was the centre of the Pagaruyung Kingdom , founded by Adityawarman in 1347. The first European to come to the region was a French traveler named Jean Parmentier who arrived around 1523. The region was later colonised by the Dutch Empire and became

21855-623: The widespread diaspora of their men throughout southeast Asia, the result being that Minangs have been disproportionately represented in positions of economic and political power throughout the region. The co-founder of the Republic of Indonesia, Mohammad Hatta , was a Minang, as were the first President of Singapore, Yusof bin Ishak , and the first Supreme Head of State or Yang di-Pertuan Agong of Malaysia , Tuanku Abdul Rahman . Johannes Gijsbertus de Casparis Johannes Gijsbertus de Casparis (31 May 1916, Eemnes – 19 June 2002, Wassenaar )

22010-559: The woman will rely on the protection provided by the husband more than that of her council of uncles. Because in Minang culture marriage is merely a 'commitment of two people' and not at all a 'union', there is no stigma attached to divorce. The Minangkabau were prominent among the intellectual figures in the Indonesian independence movement. Not only were they strongly embedded themselves surrounding Islamic traditions – which counteracted

22165-593: The word "minang" is too far from the word "menang" which means 'win'. The legend however has its rebuttals as the word 'minang' refers to the consumption of areca nut ( pinang ), yet there has not been any popular explanation on the word 'minang' that relates the aforementioned action to the word for "water buffalo". The first mention of the name Minangkabau as Minanga Tamwan , is in the late 7th century Kedukan Bukit inscription , describing Sri Jayanasa 's sacred journey from Minanga Tamwan accompanied with 20,000 soldiers heading to Matajap and conquering several areas in

22320-521: Was a Dutch orientalist and indologist . After attending Barlaeus Gymnasium in Amsterdam , De Casparis started piano study at the conservatory of Amsterdam. However, a year later, in 1934, he turned to classical languages with Russian as a minor at the University of Amsterdam . Barend Faddegon was teaching Sanskrit in Amsterdam and under his influence, de Casparis switched to Sanskrit. In 1935,

22475-603: Was appointed as Vogel's assistant and in 1939, at the age of 23, graduated. His thesis presented a new interpretation of the Sanskrit inscription of Dinoyo of CE 760. On 3 August 1939 De Casparis was appointed epigrapher to the Oudheidkundige Dienst in Batavia . Arriving at the Netherlands Indies, De Casparis was welcomed by Stutterheim and with him toured through Central Java and East Java . After ten months at

22630-667: Was chosen by the anak nagari (nagari residents) democratically in direct elections for 6 years in office. West Sumatra Province is subdivided into twelve regencies and seven autonomous cities, which lie outside any regency. The regencies and cities are listed below with their areas and their populations at the 2010 Census and 2020 Census, together with the official estimates as at mid 2023. The cities and regencies are together sub-divided into 179 districts ( kecamatan ) and thence into 1,265 villages ( kelurahan and desa ) as at 2023. The coastal cities and regencies include 219 offshore islands (large enough to have names), of which 111 comprise

22785-560: Was fruitful in terms of publications and the number of students he produced. During his London period, De Casparis had been invited by the University of Hawaii as visiting professor and in 1983 returned to Hawaii to occupy the Burns Chair of History while retaining his Leiden post. After his retirement in 1986 at the age of 70, De Casparis remained active and exercised his right to supervise PhD dissertations to 1991. Many of his students were from Sri Lanka, and this led to his being awarded

22940-471: Was initially led jointly by the princes or datuk in the nagari , then during the Dutch East Indies government one of the princes was chosen to become the guardian of the Nagari. Then in running the government, the nagari guardians are assisted by a number of jorong or jorong guardians, but now assisted by the nagari secretary and civil servants depending on the needs of each nagari . This nagari guardian

23095-590: Was invited to become a ruler in Kuantan , Malaysia. Likewise when Raffles was still on duty in the Malay Peninsula , he met Pagaruyung's relatives who were in Negeri Sembilan , and Raffles intended to appoint Yang Dipertuan Ali Alamsyah who he considered to be the direct descendant of the Minangkabau kings as a king under British protection. After the end of the Padri War, Tuan Gadang of Batipuh asked

23250-523: Was married to Raden Wijaya , the king of Majapahit , as well as the heir to the Singhasari kingdom, while Dara Jingga was married to Adwayawarman . Jayanagara was born from the marriage of Raden Wijaya and Dara Petak, who would become the second king of Majapahit, while Adityawarman was born from the marriage of Dara Jingga and Adwayawarman; he later became king of the Pagaruyung Kingdom . Hindu - Buddhist influence in western Sumatra emerged around

23405-404: Was originally Minangkabau's colony. By acquiring property and education through merantau experience, a young man can attempt to influence his own destiny in positive ways. Increasingly, married couples go off on merantau; in such situations, the woman's role tends to change. When married couples reside in urban areas or outside the Minangkabau region and a Minang woman marries a non-Minang man,

23560-422: Was popular in the region. Buddhism in central Sumatra is attested by the Padang Roco Inscription , which states that an Avalokiteśvara was brought from Java to Dharmasraya, and this act brought great happiness to the people. Influential Buddhist kingdoms thrived in the area, including the Pagaruyung Kingdom and Melayu Kingdom . Animism had also been an important component of Minangkabau culture. Even after

23715-802: Was reappointed acting epigrapher in 1945, but in September 1947 he returned to France. As of November 1947, August Johan Bernet Kempers headed the Oudheidkundige Dienst and on 17 April 1948, De Casparis again took up his post as epigrapher. On 14 November he defended his PhD thesis on the inscriptions from the Śailendra period at the University of Indonesia in Jakarta . Politically committed to Indonesia's struggle for independence, De Casparis met Sukarno , who showed an interest in archaeology and had established an independent Republican archaeological service (Dinas Purbakala) in Yogyakarta. In 1950, this replaced

23870-471: Was replaced by his son Sultan Indermasyah. When the VOC succeeded in expelling the Aceh Sultanate from the coast of West Sumatra in 1666, Aceh's influence weakened on Pagaruyung. The relationship between the outer regions and the coast with the Kingdom of Pagaruyung becomes closer. At the time Pagaruyung was one of the trading centers on the island of Sumatra, due to its production of gold, it attracted

24025-485: Was the seat of the Pagaruyung Kingdom , believed by early historians to have been the cradle of the Malay race , and the location of the Padri War (1821 to 1837). Minangkabau are the ethnic majority in West Sumatra and Negeri Sembilan . Minangkabau are also a recognised minority in other parts of Indonesia as well as Malaysia , Singapore , and the Netherlands . There are several possible etymologies for

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