136-526: In the cultures of the Horn of Africa and adjacent regions of the Middle East , Zār ( Arabic : زار , Ge'ez : ዛር ) is the term for a demon or spirit assumed to possess individuals, mostly women, and to cause discomfort or illness. The so-called zār ritual or zār cult is the practice of reconciling the possessing spirit and the possessed individual. Zār possession is often considered lifelong and
272-587: A referendum was held in the territory to decide whether to join the Somali Republic or to remain with France. The referendum favoured continued association with France, partly due to a combined yes vote by the sizable Afar ethnic group and resident Europeans. There was also reports of widespread vote rigging , with the French expelling thousands of Somalis before the polls. The majority of those who voted no were Somalis who were strongly in favour of joining
408-553: A series of protests against the long-serving government, which were associated with the larger Arab Spring demonstrations. The unrest eventually subsided by April of the year, and Djibouti's ruling People's Rally for Progress party was re-elected to office. The Dervish existed for 25 years, from 1895 until 1920. The Turks named Hassan Emir of the Somali nation, and the Germans promised to officially recognize any territories
544-726: A European country began in 1508 with Portugal under Emperor Lebna Dengel , who had just inherited the throne from his father. This proved to be an important development, for when Abyssinia was subjected to the attacks of the Adal Sultanate General and Imam Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi (called " Gurey " or " Grañ ", both meaning "the Left-handed"), Portugal assisted the Ethiopian emperor by sending weapons and four hundred men, who helped his son Gelawdewos defeat Ahmad and re-establish his rule. This Ethiopian–Adal War
680-401: A Nigerian spirit associated with the bathroom (which is like a portal connecting the human and spirit worlds) and summoned by drumming. His wife is Meram or Maryouma, and their sacrificial animals are black rabbits. Light brown candles are used for them (because they wear light brown burnous ). Drops of blood from the rabbits and candies are dropped into the toilet for them during their zār. Gado
816-648: A UN-supervised referendum in Eritrea (dubbed UNOVER ) in which the Eritrean people overwhelmingly voted for independence, Eritrea declared its independence and gained international recognition in 1993. In 1998, a border dispute with Ethiopia led to the Eritrean-Ethiopian War . From 1862 until 1894, the land to the north of the Gulf of Tadjoura situated in modern-day Djibouti was called Obock and
952-554: A band ceases to exist, many of the spirits they played for will as well, with the most popular spirits and their songs being adopted into other bands. It used to be a band would be associated with a single pantheon, but this trend of fading bands and adopting of spirits has blurred these boundaries. For example, the zār 'afnu , a band made up of Black Egyptian women of slave descent, no longer exists, but many of its spirits (the Harbiya, or Liwa, pantheon) are invoked by Tambura bands and in
1088-460: A colony of Italy . In 1896 further Italian incursion into the horn was decisively halted by Ethiopian forces. By 1936 however, Eritrea became a province of Italian East Africa (Africa Orientale Italiana), along with Ethiopia and Italian Somaliland . By 1941, Eritrea had about 760,000 inhabitants, including 70,000 Italians. The Commonwealth armed forces, along with the Ethiopian patriotic resistance, expelled those of Italy in 1941, and took over
1224-551: A comparable cult in Hausa culture, were ultimately derived from a Persian source. Modarressi (1986) suggests a Persian etymology for the term. The first known instance of the word zār used in Ethiopia to refer to a possessing spirit is from a 16th-century Ge'ez manuscript. However, it is unknown if zār rituals were being practiced in 16th century Ethiopia (Abyssinia), and if so, what form they took. The first record of zār ceremonies
1360-811: A constituent assembly on 12 December 1925, declared Reza Shah , a former brigadier-general of the Persian Cossack Brigade , as the new shah of Pahlavi Iran . The Qajar Imperial Family in exile is currently headed by the eldest descendant of Mohammad Ali Shah, Sultan Mohammad Ali Mirza Qajar , while the Heir Presumptive to the Qajar throne is Mohammad Hassan Mirza II , the grandson of Mohammad Hassan Mirza , Sultan Ahmad Shah's brother and heir. Mohammad Hassan Mirza died in England in 1943, having proclaimed himself shah in exile in 1930 after
1496-622: A distinction is made (and emphasized by practitioners) between the zār bori ( or burei , or boré ), practiced widely in Northern Sudan by free born women, and the comparatively more obscure zār tumbura , practiced by the descendants of slaves from South and Western Sudan and the Nuba hills , in Khartoum , poor neighborhoods, and shanty towns. Originally, tumbura had a military association. In recent times, some tumbura practitioners from
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#17327755287941632-500: A hen or goat and mixing the blood with grease and butter, in the hopes of eliminating someone's sickness. The concoction was then hidden in an alley, in the belief that all who passed through the alley would take away the patient's ailment. Mirzai Asl (2002) suggests that the introduction to Iran likewise took place in the 19th century ( Qajar period ) by Africans brought to Iran via the Indian ocean slave trade . Natvig (1988) reports that
1768-670: A locally famous bori practitioner, with respect. Other Sudanese zār cults that existed are those of the Dār Fertit ("Fertit peoples include "the Karra, Gula, Feroge, and Surro"), the Shilluk people , the Dinka people , and the dinia of the Nuba , which have all been absorbed by tumbura . In Egypt, there were clearer divides between different zār pantheons (associated with region and race), with bands specializing in specific pantheons. This
1904-607: A national charter that functioned as a transitional constitution, was then set up. The first free and democratic election took place later in 1995, when Ethiopia's longest-serving Prime Minister Meles Zenawi was elected to office. As with other nations in the Horn region, Ethiopia maintained its historically close relations with countries in the Middle East during this period of change. Zenawi died in 2012, but his Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF) party remains
2040-739: A number of lakes formed by lava flows that dammed up several valleys. Among these are Lake Asale (116 m below sea level) and Lake Giuletti/Afrera (80 m below sea level), both of which possess cryptodepressions in the Danakil Depression . The Afrera contains many active volcanoes, including the Maraho, Dabbahu , Afdera and Erta Ale . In Somalia, there is not much seasonal variation in climate. Hot conditions prevail year-round along with periodic monsoon winds and irregular rainfall. Mean daily maximum temperatures range from 28 to 43 °C (82 to 109 °F), except at higher elevations along
2176-715: A one-party communist state , which was called the People's Democratic Republic of Ethiopia . In July 1977, the Ogaden War broke out after the Somalia government of Siad Barre sought to incorporate the predominantly Somali-inhabited Ogaden region into a Pan-Somali Greater Somalia . By September 1977, the Somali army controlled 90 percent of the Ogaden, but was later forced to withdraw after Ethiopia's Derg received assistance from
2312-505: A term for malevolent spirits or demons. Many Ethiopians also believe in benevolent, protective spirits, or adbar . Some believe all zār spirits are evil. Others, in distinguishing zār from the Buda and Ganyen spirits, will say the zār are not evil, but usually not good, with only a few being good and protective. Exorcism is not necessary for the zār, as it is with the other two, as one can come to an agreement with them. In any case, possession
2448-551: A united Somalia, as had been proposed by Mahmoud Harbi , Vice President of the Government Council. Harbi was killed in a plane crash two years later. Djibouti finally gained its independence from France in 1977. Hassan Gouled Aptidon , a Somali politician who had campaigned for a yes vote in the referendum of 1958, became the nation's first president (1977–1999). In early 2011, the Djiboutian citizenry took part in
2584-596: A worldwide figure and 1935's Time magazine Man of the Year . Following the entry of Italy into World War II, British Empire forces, together with patriot Ethiopian fighters, liberated Ethiopia during the East African Campaign in 1941. Haile Selassie's reign came to an end in 1974, when a Soviet-backed Marxist-Leninist military junta , the Derg led by Mengistu Haile Mariam , deposed him, and established
2720-550: A zār before are called Ahl-e-Hava (Eve's family), or "People of the Air/Wind", and must attend every zār. If the spirit asked for something like clothes to be placated, those must be worn to future zār ceremonies, and nothing the spirit asked for can be sold. The Ahl-e-Hava must always wear clean, white clothes, abstain from alcohol, not touch dead bodies (human or animal), not commit adultery , not do anything illegal, wear perfume, bathe often, among other prohibitions, or else
2856-446: Is zayrān , and adherents may use the plural to talk about 7 or more societies of spirits existing in a parallel world, and these societies generally correspond to ethnic groups and/or societies other than that of the given zār group. Philosophical pondering of zār, and the nature of zār, is not particularly common, as zār spirits are simply a part of a lived and accepted reality. In Egypt, there are said to be 66 zār spirits, however,
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#17327755287942992-399: Is a speckled hen, and she loves candy and games, so her diviners use playing cards instead of the more usual coffee cups, prayer beads, or dream interpretations. She also likes charm or "toy" bracelets . Her Upper Egyptian counterpart was Rumi's daughter Marouma, who also likes the color green, gardens, and is offered pomegranates. Unlike Rakousha, she is an adult. Other spirits include Gado,
3128-467: Is associated with specific songs, colors, sacrificial animals, and each spirit possessing a person must be placated. In addition to songs and animals (usually of a specific color or pattern), they may demand specific incense, clothes, jewelry, and candles. Christian spirits often call for consumption of alcohol, such as whisky. Different spirits are associated with different afflictions, with Ethiopian spirits being associated with aggression and nervousness. In
3264-504: Is from the 1800s in Ethiopia, however by this time the ceremonies were already elaborate and being practiced in a large area, indicating these ceremonies had been practiced for sone time before recording. Some also strongly feel the practice originated in West Africa among native religious curing practices there. The origin of the word is unclear; Walker (1935) suggested the name of the city of Zara in northern Iran, or alternatively
3400-450: Is interpreted as a "harmful wind" assumed to cause discomfort or illness. Types of such winds include Maturi, Šayḵ Šangar, Dingemāru, Omagāre, Bumaryom, Pepe, Bābur, Bibi, Namrud . The 2012 film The African-Baluchi Trance Dance depicts a variety of zar -related activities in southeastern Iran. In Baluchistan, the spirits are called Gowat ("wind"), bad (also "wind"), jinn ( jinn-e zār ), or zār , and are considered contagious. Possession
3536-409: Is likened to sexual intercourse between the spirit and human. Zār spirits are also drawn to afflict those who sing or play the flute alone, in a cave alone, or sitting alone under a tree by a river. They may also possess spectators of zār events who dare to laugh. The zār spirits are thought to grant power to adherents; the power to heal, but also courage, divination, diplomacy, and the power to destroy
3672-458: Is necessary if one wishes to become a zār leader. The zār spirits are said to be attracted to deserted places, dark areas, doorways, staircases, around water sources, in cemeteries, in toilets, and in garbage dumps. First experiences of possession often occur in one's teen years in a bathroom. Zār spirits are not seen as evil, though they can be vengeful- trivial offenses, such as accidentally stepping on an invisible zār spirit, often provoke
3808-529: Is no longer practiced in Sennar. It has been described as "hot" and "male", like tumbura, in contrast to "cool" and "female" bori. Bori is also seen as playful while nugāra and tumbura are not. The latter two are also more secretive and considered more powerful, with nugāra having the power to kill enemies or those who trespass on the spirits. Bori and tumbura had ties to the North and Egypt as well as Sudan, but nugāra
3944-477: Is no longer the case. In Aden, alongside zār bori and zār tumbura , mention was made of an "Indian zar" called Gamat . It was described as a ladies' party held in the name of Al-Jilani, and distinguished from Adeni zār bori by its lack of drums. Zār spirits are often identified with jinn or with "winds". Zār spirits may be inherited, with a spirit afflicting an older close relative going on to afflict their child or other younger relative. The plural of zār
4080-418: Is not necessarily named by Ethiopians themselves, simply viewing the version they know as zār and not necessarily knowing of the others. "Conversion" zār is the most common, involving women and trance. It is termed as such after the "conversion hysterical reaction" , not after religious conversion. Ceremonies often occur in conjunction with holidays. Seer zār is less common, and emphasizes fortune telling. Unlike
4216-419: Is permanent, and the zār is not as strongly associated with women, and is instead more associated with the poor in general. Some state that the rich will never need to worry about zār possession. The spirits are said to prefer the young and strong, though they will afflict the old and weak as well. They are also attracted to people with melancholy and weak personalities. Those who have been possessed and done
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4352-544: Is permanent- it is not seen as possible to get the zār spirit "off (the patient's) back" once it is on. A person may also be possessed by both a zār and a Buda simultaneously. In rare cases where exorcism occurs among the "group therapy" form of zār, another spirit known to the local zār group that has no "horse" is transferred to the patient afterward. Zār spirits are thought to potentially cause psychological incapacitation. Ethiopian Jews believe that male zār cause miscarriages by having sex with married women, growing jealous of
4488-489: Is placated. He loves to smoke, loves perfume, and his animal sacrifices must be red. The jewelry used to placate him is usually rings set with rubies, or their glass and plastic imitations. He also likes whiskey and beer (some bring soft drinks instead due to religious prohibitions ), and some zār ceremonies spill a bit of beer over the head of the person he possesses. In the Upper Egyptian tradition (Yawra being from
4624-411: Is sometimes used to be inclusive of neighbouring southeast African countries to distinguish the broader geopolitical definition of the Horn of Africa from narrower peninsular definitions. The name Horn of Africa is sometimes shortened to HoA . Quite commonly it is referred to simply as "the Horn", while inhabitants are sometimes colloquially termed Horn Africans or Horners . Regional studies on
4760-486: Is that of Sennar zār and Zainab. She was a prominent woman in Sennar zār bori and effectively its founder. She was born in Omdurman around 1880, likely to Buggi, a likely enslaved or formerly enslaved man in the military. It is also possible she was Buggi's own slave. Neither of her parents are remembered as being involved in zār. She traveled to Egypt at a young age alongside retreating Ottoman troops, and became attached to
4896-860: Is the Aden Ridge along the coast of Saudi Arabia . The eastern boundary is the Central Indian Ridge , the northern portion of which is also known as the Carlsberg Ridge . The southern boundary is the Southwest Indian Ridge . Extensive glaciers once covered the Simien and Bale Mountains but melted at the beginning of the Holocene . The mountains descend in a huge escarpment to the Red Sea and more steadily to
5032-399: Is the fourth largest peninsula in the world. It is composed of Somalia (including the de facto independent Somaliland and Puntland ), Djibouti , Ethiopia , and Eritrea . Although not common, broader definitions include parts or all of Kenya and Sudan . It has been described as a region of geopolitical and strategic importance, since it is situated along the southern boundary of
5168-470: Is the messenger between the human and spirit worlds. He and Meram cause infertility and madness, and they are provoked by hot water or human blood (specifically menstrual or hymen blood) being put in the toilet. There is also the spirits of the pantheon of the Grand Lady, seven male (Rumi Nagdi, Hakim Basha, Yawra Bey, Rima Basha, Collita Basha, Welzami Basha, and 'Okashi Basha, all of whom also belong to
5304-403: Is the most secret set of rites, and the most heavy and difficult, with its music at times being played on pillow cases. Other spirits that have been known to Egyptian zārs are: Additionally, occasionally people may come to ceremonies with a personal spirit who is identified as a zār spirit, but isn't known to be part of any of the existing pantheons. In Ethiopia, zār is sometimes used as
5440-416: Is usually sunny and dry, but the short ( belg ) rains occur from February to April and the big ( meher ) rains from mid-June to mid-September. The Danakil Desert stretches across 100,000 km of arid terrain in northeast Ethiopia, southern Eritrea, and northwestern Djibouti. The area is known for its volcanoes and extreme heat, with daily temperatures over 45 °C and often surpassing 50 °C. It has
5576-571: Is widespread among both Christians and Muslims. Ĥēṭ ("thread") is a term of for the possessing spirits. According to legend, there are eighty-eight "Sároch", invisible spirits that serve as emissaries of evil all under the service of a spirit named "Wárobal Máma", king of the spirits, who dwells in Lake Alobar in the Menz region. His drum is heard over the water as an omen whenever war, famine, or pestilence approach. However, some Ethiopians believe
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5712-968: The Barbara civilization . The city of Mogadishu came to be known as the "City of Islam" and controlled the East African gold trade for several centuries. During the Middle Ages , several powerful empires dominated the regional trade in the Horn, including the Adal Sultanate , the Ajuran Sultanate , the Ethiopian Empire , the Zagwe dynasty , and the Sultanate of the Geledi . The Sultanate of Showa , established in 896,
5848-594: The Ancient Egyptians , Phoenicians , Mycenaeans , Babylonians and Romans . The Romans consequently began to refer to the region as Regio Aromatica . In the classical era , several flourishing Somali city-states such as Opone , Mosylon and Malao also competed with the Sabaeans , Parthians and Axumites for the rich Indo - Greco-Roman trade. The birth of Islam opposite the Horn's Red Sea coast meant that local merchants and sailors living on
5984-596: The Arabian Peninsula gradually came under the influence of the new religion through their converted Arab Muslim trading partners. With the migration of Muslim families from the Islamic world to the Horn in the early centuries of Islam, and the peaceful conversion of the local population by Muslim scholars in the following centuries, the ancient city-states eventually transformed into Islamic Mogadishu , Berbera , Zeila , Barawa and Merka , which were part of
6120-792: The Banu Hashim clan, in modern-day Somaliland and Ethiopia . The sultanate was governed by the Reer Guled branch of the Eidagale sub-clan established by the first sultan, Sultan Guled Abdi . The sultanate is the pre-colonial predecessor to the modern Somaliland . According to oral tradition, prior to the Guled dynasty the Isaaq clan-family were ruled by a dynasty of the Tolje'lo branch starting from, descendants of Ahmed nicknamed Tol Je'lo,
6256-669: The Ethiopian Empire . In 1270, the Amhara nobleman Yekuno Amlak , who claimed descent from the last Aksumite king and ultimately the Queen of Sheba , overthrew the Agaw Zagwe dynasty at the Battle of Ansata , ushering his reign as Emperor of Ethiopia . While initially a rather small and politically unstable entity, the empire managed to expand significantly during the crusades of Amda Seyon I (1314–1344) and his successors, becoming
6392-453: The Fascist era in late 1927. This occupation lasted until 1941, and was replaced by a British military administration . Former British Somaliland would remain, along with Italian Somaliland, a trusteeship of Italy, between 1950 and 1960. The Union of the two countries in 1960 formed the Somali Republic. A civilian government was formed, and on 20 July 1961, through a popular referendum ,
6528-562: The Habr Awal with whom they still mostly live. The Majeerteen Sultanate (Migiurtinia) was another prominent Somali sultanate based in the Horn region. Ruled by King Osman Mahamuud during its golden age, it controlled much of northeastern and central Somalia in the 19th and early 20th centuries. The polity had all of the organs of an integrated modern state and maintained a robust trading network. It also entered into treaties with foreign powers and exerted strong centralized authority on
6664-677: The Herto skull (from ca. 160,000 ago) have been found in the region, both in Ethiopia. The findings of the Earliest Stone Tipped Projectiles from the Ethiopian Rift dated to more than 279,000 years ago "in combination with the existing archaeological, fossil and genetic evidence, isolate East Africa as a source of modern cultures and biology." According to the Southern Dispersal scenario,
6800-589: The House of Gareen , also expanded its territories and established its hegemonic rule through a skillful combination of warfare, trade linkages and alliances. The Zagwe dynasty ruled many parts of modern Ethiopia and Eritrea from approximately 1137 to 1270. The name of the dynasty comes from the Cushitic -speaking Agaw people of northern Ethiopia. From 1270 onwards for many centuries, the Solomonic dynasty ruled
6936-719: The Indian Ocean . Socotra is a small island in the Indian Ocean off the coast of Somalia. Its size is 3,600 km (1,400 sq mi) and it is a territory of Yemen. The lowlands of the Horn are generally arid in spite of their proximity to the equator. This is because the winds of the tropical monsoons that give seasonal rains to the Sahel and the Sudan blow from the west. Consequently, they lose their moisture before reaching Djibouti and northern part of Somalia, with
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#17327755287947072-641: The International Museum for Family History in Eijsden . The shah and his consort were styled Imperial Majesty . Their children were addressed as Imperial Highness , while male-line grandchildren were entitled to the lower style of Highness ; all of them bore the title of Shahzadeh or Shahzadeh Khanoum . The headship of the Imperial Family is inherited by the eldest male descendant of Mohammad Ali Shah. The Heir Presumptive
7208-501: The Red Sea coast of Eritrea and Sudan is considered the most likely location of the land known to the ancient Egyptians as Punt (or "Ta Netjeru", meaning god's land), whose first mention dates to the 25th century BCE. Dʿmt was a kingdom located in Eritrea and northern Ethiopia , which existed during the 8th and 7th centuries BCE. With its capital probably at Yeha , the kingdom developed irrigation schemes, used plows , grew millet , and made iron tools and weapons. After
7344-446: The Red Sea ; extending hundreds of kilometres into the Gulf of Aden , Guardafui Channel , and Indian Ocean , it also shares a maritime border with the Arabian Peninsula . This peninsula has been known by various names. Ancient Greeks and Romans referred to it as Regio Aromatica or Regio Cinnamonifora due to the aromatic plants found there, or as Regio Incognita owing to its uncharted territory. In ancient and medieval times,
7480-572: The Somali wild ass , the desert warthog , the hamadryas baboon , the Somali pygmy gerbil , the ammodile , and the Speke's pectinator . The Grevy's zebra is the unique wild equid of the region. There are predators such as spotted hyena , striped hyena and African leopard . The endangered painted hunting dog had populations in the Horn of Africa, but pressures from human exploitation of habitat along with warfare have reduced or extirpated this canid in this region. Some important bird species of
7616-653: The USSR , Cuba , South Yemen , East Germany and North Korea , including around 15,000 Cuban combat troops. In 1989, the Tigrayan Peoples' Liberation Front (TPLF) merged with other ethnically based opposition movements to form the Ethiopian Peoples' Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF), and eventually managed to overthrow Mengistu's dictatorial regime in 1991. A transitional government, composed of an 87-member Council of Representatives and guided by
7752-414: The Yejju Oromo tribe as well as Wollo and Raya Oromo. The Sultanate of the Geledi was a Somali kingdom administered by the Gobroon dynasty, which ruled parts of the Horn of Africa during the 18th and 19th centuries. It was established by the Ajuran soldier Ibrahim Adeer , who had defeated various vassals of the Ajuran Empire and established the House of Gobroon . The dynasty reached its apex under
7888-410: The constitution drafted in 1960 was ratified. Due to its longstanding ties with the Arab world , the Somali Republic was accepted in 1974 as a member of the Arab League . During the same year, the nation's former socialist administration also chaired the Organization of African Unity , the predecessor of the African Union . In 1991, the Somali Civil War broke out, which saw the dissolving of
8024-663: The tanbūra , they use the nugāra (a drum). Different origins are claimed for their zār; some say it developed after the Azande were brought north as slaves, and others say it was originally introduced by a man from the Dega tribe, who was originally from Wau . Zār Nyamānyam may sometimes be called zār nugāra. In Sennar , bori and tumbura have become somewhat melded, mainly due to close relationships, such as marriage, between tumbura practitioners and bori practitioners, especially among local figures seen as influential. Even with this melding, there were or are multiple forms of zār in Sennar, mainly bori, tumbura, and nugāra. Zar nugāra
8160-561: The tumbura came from Arabia as a result through certain cities, and others say it came from the Red Sea area. Simultaneously to one of these origins, or another, some claim tumbura originated in the "99 peaks" of the Nuba hills. By contrast in bori , it is seen as coming from Egypt or elsewhere and is practiced mostly by Arab Sudanis (though those of slave descent also practice it). Zār groups are independent of each other and largely female (with smaller numbers of homosexual and marginalized men among practitioners as well). The public rites are
8296-563: The zār cult "served as a refuge for women and effeminate men" in the Sahel (Sudan) region under Islamic rule . It is thought to have reached Egypt because of the trafficking of Ethiopian slaves in the 19th century, particularly Oromo women. They were taken for the purpose of bearing more children for Egyptian men, and would be set free upon getting pregnant. The children would be considered legitimate inheritors. In certain locations, individual zār leaders may be well known, respected, and influential for generations after death. One such example
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#17327755287948432-494: The zār is that Eve had 30 children, and tried to hide 15 of them from God in the Garden of Eden to protect them from God's envy. God knew she had done this, and declared they should remain invisible forever, and those 15 became the ancestors of the zār spirits. These 15 are often described as being the more beautiful and intelligent half of her children, and this is used to explain why zār spirits in Ethiopia are more likely to possess beautiful women in some areas. A variation on
8568-403: The zār spirit and the karin , commonly regarded as a type of jinn, as being the same. The akran are facsimiles of their human counterpart, and in Upper Egypt are generally understood to be of the same race, sex, and temperament as the human. When the human is sick, the karin is sick. When the human dies, the karin dies- though, interestingly, tales exist of a karineh 's children dying, and
8704-418: The Arabic root z-w-r "to visit" (for the possessing spirit "visiting" the victim). The Encyclopedia of Islam of 1934 favoured an Ethiopian origin of the word. Hager El Hadidi suggested a possible Hebrew origin from zwr (in Hebrew meaning to "turn aside, deviate, go away") or zr ("one who distances or removes himself"), owed to Jewish craftsmen in the Red Sea area. Another theory is that it derives from
8840-439: The Dervishes were to acquire. After a quarter of a century of holding the British at bay, the Dervishes were finally defeated in 1920 as a direct consequence of Britain's new policy of aerial bombardment . As a result of this bombardment, former Dervish territories were turned into a protectorate of Britain. Italy faced similar opposition from Somali Sultans and armies, and did not acquire full control of modern Somalia until
8976-402: The Ethiopians. The early 20th century in Ethiopia was marked by the reign of Emperor Haile Selassie I , who came to power after Iyasu V was deposed. In 1935, Haile Selassie's troops fought and lost the Second Italo-Abyssinian War , after which Italy annexed Ethiopia to Italian East Africa . Haile Selassie subsequently appealed to the League of Nations , delivering an address that made him
9112-472: The Grand Lady's pantheon. Yawra Bey and Rakousha belong to the Harbiya pantheon. The spirits currently known in Egypt include Yawra Bey (who is one of the most popular) and his daughter Rakousha. Yawra is a handsome dark-skinned playboy spirit, said to be an Ottoman officer, who wears a red tarboosh and sash, and possesses young women and is said to make her suitors think she is ugly, or to cause marital issues and homosexuality. He will prevent marriage until he
9248-475: The Horn are the black boubou , the golden-winged grosbeak , the Warsangli linnet , and the Djibouti spurfowl . Qajar dynasty The Qajar dynasty ( Persian : دودمان قاجار , romanized : Dudemâne Ǧâjâr ; 1789–1925) was an Iranian royal dynasty founded by Mohammad Khan ( r. 1789–1797 ) of the Qoyunlu clan of the Turkoman Qajar tribe . The dynasty's effective rule in Iran ended in 1925 when Iran's Majlis , convening as
9384-413: The Horn of Africa are carried out in fields of Ethiopian studies and Somali studies . This peninsula has been known by various names. Ancient Greeks and Romans referred to it as Regio Aromatica or Regio Cinnamonifora due to the aromatic plants or as Regio Incognita owing to its uncharted territory. Some of the earliest Homo sapiens fossils, the Omo remains (from ca. 233,000 years ago) and
9520-481: The Horn of Africa as a source of a genetic marker " M35 / 215 " Y-chromosome lineage for a significant population component which moved north from that region into Egypt and the Levant. Ehret argued that this genetic distribution paralleled the spread of the Afrasian language family with the movement of people from the Horn of Africa into Egypt and added a new demic component to the existing population of Egypt 17,000 years ago. The area comprising Somalia , Djibouti ,
9656-487: The Horn of Africa was referred to as the Bilad al Barbar ("Land of the Berbers"). It is also known as the Somali Peninsula, or in the Somali language as Geeska Afrika or Jasiiradda Soomaali . In other local languages it is called "Horn of Africa" or the "African Horn", in Amharic የአፍሪካ ቀንድ yäafrika qänd, in Arabic القرن الأفريقي al-qarn al-'afrīqī , in Oromo Gaanfaa Afrikaa , and in Tigrinya ቀርኒ ኣፍሪቃ q'ärnī afīrīqa . The Horn of Africa Region consists of
9792-565: The Islamic world. Participants have compared it to how those not involved in zār go to the discotheque . Zār gatherings involve food and musical performances and they culminate in ecstatic dancing, lasting between three and seven nights. The tanbūra , a six-string bowl lyre , is often used in the gathering. Other instruments include the manjur , a leather belt sewn with many goat hooves, and various percussion instruments . The term zār may be used to mean various different things in
9928-481: The Nuba hills have selectively borrowed from bori practices, as the social circumstances for tumbura practices have changed. The practices are similar in that they use drums, Islamic praise chants for religious figures such as Muhammad, and the way possession is acted out in trance is similar. In tumbura , it is viewed as an indigenous practice used by Non-Arab Sudanis of slave descent. The many zār groups fall under
10064-635: The Rift Valley. Geologically, the Horn and Yemen once formed a single landmass around 18 million years ago, before the Gulf of Aden rifted and separated the Horn region from the Arabian Peninsula . The Somali Plate is bounded on the west by the East African Rift, which stretches south from the triple junction in the Afar Depression , and an undersea continuation of the rift extending southward offshore. The northern boundary
10200-752: The Southern route of the Out of Africa migration occurred in the Horn of Africa through the Bab el Mandeb . Today at the Bab-el-Mandeb straits, the Red Sea is about 12 miles (19 kilometres) wide, but 50,000 years ago it was much narrower and sea levels were 70 meters lower. Though the straits were never completely closed, there may have been islands in between which could be reached using simple rafts. Shell middens 125,000 years old have been found in Eritrea, indicating
10336-538: The Sudani Tumbura and Upper Egyptian pantheons) and seven female (Arzuki, Shurumbella, Rora, Dawa Baba Kiri, Magaziya, the Lady Inmatan Yaro, and Folla, the only "white" female spirit). Rumi Nagdi and Hakim Basha get white sheep or chickens as sacrifices. The others get black chickens or sheep. The Grand Lady inflicts blindess, arthritis, nightmares, and paralysis on others. The rites of the Grand Lady
10472-526: The Sudani tradition) his equivalent was Rumi Nagdi, who was associated with green and the crescent moon and star. Rumi is also sometimes mistakenly called Rumi Magdi. His name indicates he was connected to the Ottomans and Hejaz, and Rumi was popular while Egypt controlled Sudan. Yawra's daughter, Rakousha, is a child spirit. She is placated with pink silky clothes, luxury items, and gold jewelry. Her sacrifice
10608-425: The ancient and early medieval periods of Somali maritime enterprise were also strengthened or re-established, and the state left behind an extensive architectural legacy . Many of the hundreds of ruined castles and fortresses that dot the landscape of Somalia today are attributed to Ajuran engineers, including a lot of the pillar tomb fields, necropolises and ruined cities built during that era. The royal family,
10744-434: The area's administration. The British continued to administer the territory under a UN Mandate until 1951, when Eritrea was federated with Ethiopia, per UN resolution 390 A (V) adopted December 1950. The strategic importance of Eritrea, due to its Red Sea coastline and mineral resources, was the main cause for the federation with Ethiopia, which in turn led to Eritrea's annexation as Ethiopia's 14th province in 1962 . This
10880-463: The central authority of a high male officiant, and there are male and female hierarchical lines (though recently it has become a female dominant practice due to Arabization and Islamization). The therapeutic practices occur before any public rites, and once performed the spirit becomes fully benevolent. There is only one spirit that takes many forms, and it is associated with the Self. Tumbura may refer to
11016-532: The commerce between the Roman Empire and Ancient India , Aksum's rulers facilitated trade by minting their own currency . The state also established its hegemony over the declining Kingdom of Kush and regularly entered the politics of the kingdoms on the Arabian Peninsula , eventually extending its rule over the region with the conquest of the Himyarite Kingdom . Under Ezana (fl. 320–360),
11152-772: The death of his brother in France. Today, the descendants of the Qajars often identify themselves as such and hold reunions to stay socially acquainted through the Kadjar (Qajar) Family Association , often coinciding with the annual conferences and meetings of the International Qajar Studies Association (IQSA). The Kadjar (Qajar) Family Association was founded for a third time in 2000. Two earlier family associations were stopped because of political pressure. The offices and archives of IQSA are housed at
11288-434: The diet of early humans included seafood obtained by beachcombing . Ethiopian and Eritrean agriculture established the earliest known use of the seed grass teff ( Poa abyssinica ) between 4000 and 1000 BCE. Teff is used to make the flatbread injera /taita. Coffee also originated in Ethiopia and has since spread to become a worldwide beverage. Historian Christopher Ehret , cited genetic evidence which had identified
11424-461: The disrespectful. Zār beliefs are common today even among Ethiopian immigrants to North America, Europe, or Israel. For example, Beta Israel are often raised with both Jewish and Zār beliefs, and individuals who believe they house a spirit are bound to attend to it despite other demands. However, ceremonies can be performed by shamans to persuade a spirit to leave, thus releasing the person from their duties to that spirit. In southern Iran, zār
11560-565: The domestic front. Much of the Sultanate's former domain is today coextensive with the autonomous Puntland region in northern Somalia. The Sultanate of Hobyo was a 19th-century Somali kingdom founded by Sultan Yusuf Ali Kenadid . Initially, Kenadid's goal was to seize control of the neighboring Majeerteen Sultanate, which was then ruled by his cousin Boqor Osman Mahamuud. However, he was unsuccessful in this endeavor, and
11696-614: The dominant force in East Africa . In the early 15th century, Ethiopia sought to make diplomatic contact with European kingdoms for the first time since Aksumite times. A letter from King Henry IV of England to the Emperor of Abyssinia survives. In 1428, the Emperor Yeshaq sent two emissaries to Alfonso V of Aragon , who sent return emissaries who failed to complete the return trip. The first continuous relations with
11832-620: The early 20th century in Upper Egypt, different songs were needed, but only one sacrificial animal was necessary, however, in modern Cairo, it seems each spirit gets its own sacrifices as well as its own songs. If a song displeases the zār spirit, the possessed person may not be able to remain in the room where it is being played. Once placated, the spirits may aid the possessed person in divination and providing medical aid. In Egypt different spirits rise and fall; they are connected to different bands' specializations in different songs, and when
11968-475: The eastern coast, a strong upwelling and the fact that the winds blow parallel to the coast means annual rainfall can be as low as 50 mm (2.0 in). The climate in Ethiopia varies considerably between regions. It is generally hotter in the lowlands and temperate on the plateau. At Addis Ababa , which ranges from 2,200 to 2,600 m (7,218 to 8,530 ft), maximum temperature is 26 °C (78.8 °F) and minimum 4 °C (39.2 °F). The weather
12104-618: The eastern seaboard, where the effects of a cold offshore current can be felt. Somalia has only two permanent rivers, the Jubba and the Shabele , both of which begin in the Ethiopian Highlands . About 220 mammals are found in the Horn of Africa. Among threatened species of the region, there are several antelopes such as the beira , the dibatag , the silver dikdik and the Speke's gazelle . Other remarkable species include
12240-479: The eldest son of Sheikh Ishaaq 's Harari wife. There were eight Tolje'lo rulers in total, starting with Boqor Harun ( Somali : Boqor Haaruun ) who ruled the Isaaq Sultanate for centuries starting from the 13th century. The last Tolje'lo ruler Garad Dhuh Barar ( Somali : Dhuux Baraar ) was overthrown by a coalition of Isaaq clans. The once strong Tolje'lo clan were scattered and took refuge amongst
12376-618: The fall of Dʿmt in the 5th century BCE, the plateau came to be dominated by smaller successor kingdoms, until the rise of one of these kingdoms during the 1st century, the Aksumite Kingdom , which was able to reunite the area. The Kingdom of Aksum (also known as the Aksumite Empire) was an ancient state located in the Eritrea and Ethiopian highlands , which thrived between the 1st and 7th centuries CE. A major player in
12512-526: The flexible nature of zār across Africa in her own writing. Among extant varieties of Sudanese zār cults that receive little attention are zār Sawāknī or zār Sawākiniyya (the zār from the area of Suakin , also called Dalūka ), practiced mostly by the Beja. There is also the zār Nyamānyam (the zār of the Azande ) which practitioners view as related to both the zār bori and zār tumbura . Rather than
12648-482: The historic cities in the region, such as Amud , Maduna , Abasa , Berbera , Zeila and Harar , flourished during the kingdom's golden age. This period that left behind numerous courtyard houses , mosques , shrines and walled enclosures . Under the leadership of rulers such as Sabr ad-Din II , Mansur ad-Din , Jamal ad-Din II , Shams ad-Din , General Mahfuz and Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi , Adalite armies continued
12784-513: The household of Osman Murab, an Ababda agha, as a slave. Because of this Zainab was sometimes called al-Murabiyya (the Murab woman). She had a daughter while still in Egypt. In Egypt she came into contact with zār, and bori is generally understood as having come from Egypt by those in Sennar. One woman posits zār was originally Baggara, and was brought to Egypt by them and then to Sudan. Her first husband
12920-487: The husband, and kidnapping the fetus. Zār are typically active at night, and not restricted to a single localized area. They may be encountered in the bush, where they are known to ride wild animals and treat them like livestock. They are most active during the nine-month dry season, and the biggest zār ceremony takes place just before the onset of Coptic lent, which coincides with the "little rains". They are more powerful and beautiful than humans, but envious of them. Some say
13056-476: The internationally recognized countries of Djibouti , Eritrea , Ethiopia , and Somalia . Geographically the protruding shape that resembles a "Horn" consists of the "Somali peninsula" and eastern part of Ethiopia. But the region encompasses also the rest of Ethiopia, Eritrea and Djibouti. Broader definitions include Kenya and Sudan . The term Greater Horn Region (GHR) can additionally include South Sudan and Uganda . The term Greater Horn of Africa
13192-430: The kingdom of Aksum became the first major empire to adopt Christianity , and was named by Mani as one of the four great powers of his time, along with Persia , Rome and China . Somalia was an important link in the Horn, connecting the region's commerce with the rest of the ancient world. Somali sailors and merchants were the main suppliers of frankincense , myrrh and spices, all of which were valuable luxuries to
13328-456: The men were still expected to take part in various government matters, and were only allowed to bring one wife with them, leaving their other wives scattered, necessitating travel to visit them. Zainab and Mursal had twins, but soon separated. After Mursal's death, Zainab married a man named Marajan, a nomad well known for practicing zār nugara. They had three sons together. Marajan could reportedly drink boiling water and eat burning coals because of
13464-658: The name of the supreme deity of the pagan Kushites . The practice allegedly originated in Harar , Ethiopia via Sheikh Abadir , and was introduced by Harari and Somali women to Aden in Yemen . Messing (1958) states that the cult was particularly well-developed in Northern Ethiopia ( Amhara ), with its center in the town of Gondar . One late 19th-century traveler describes the Abyssinian "Sár" cultists sacrificing
13600-509: The north and expansion in the east and south toward its present borders, owing to several migrations, commercial integration, treaties as well as conquests, particularly by Emperor Menelik II and Ras Gobena . From the central province of Shoa, Menelik set off to subjugate and incorporate 'the lands and people of the South, East and West into an empire.' He did this with the help of Ras Gobena's Shewan Oromo militia, began expanding his kingdom to
13736-474: The other spirit. Sometimes a person of one sex, while a spirit of the opposite sex explicitly acts through them, is referred to by the spirit's name and sex (for example, record exists of a woman possessed by "Sheikh Muhammad", who would be referred to as such when the Sheikh was called forth). Some also report that the sex or gender of the spirit may be indeterminate, calling these "hermaphrodites". In addition to
13872-532: The other two, it is predominantly male. Its events occur regularly throughout the year. Group therapy zār is least common, and has a leader, a zār doctor or bala Zar, helping a group of others who are possessed. It occurs regularly, but may also have special holiday events. Different regions tend to generally favor one variety over another, but in plenty of cases a region's zār will have elements from more than one type. Somali saar has many sub-varieties, including mingis, boorane, sharax, wadaaddoo, and numbi. In Sudan,
14008-529: The person they possess, while Muslim spirits rarely do so. The possessed person may be called markab (mount) or faras (horse), and the spirit may be called habub or pehpeh . Horn of Africa The Horn of Africa ( HoA ), also known as the Somali Peninsula , is a large peninsula and geopolitical region in East Africa . Located on the easternmost part of the African mainland, it
14144-453: The places the belief is found: it may refer to the hierarchy of zār spirits, an individual spirit of this type, the ceremonies concerning these spirits, the possessed person, or the troubles caused by these spirits. Scholarship in the early 20th century attributed Abyssinian (Ethiopian and Eritrean) origin to the custom, although there were also proposals suggesting Persian or other origins. Thus, Frobenius suggested that zār and bori ,
14280-416: The possessed as camels rather than horses. In some cases the zār and the one it possesses may be that of two lovers; a story told to Winkler claims a woman's zār was sleeping with her two nights out of the week, and this caused her husband to go to court and justify only paying half the household expenses. Yawra Bey's relationship to those who possesses in particular may be described in such terms. Each spirit
14416-833: The power he had from nugara. Zainab fell ill with zār, and upon finding it was not the kind he knew, Marajan took her to a bori practitioner. She did an apprenticeship of seven years before being inducted as bori leader, then moved in with her son Mohammed, who did nugara. Each of them learned from each other, despite practicing different zār forms. Mohammed died young after challenging a corrupt sorcerer who worked with evil spirits, and no one took up nugara after him. Zainab seems to have particularly innovated zār as an avenue for remembering and history. She also used zār to treat people, network them together, and offer entertainment and respite. Zainab died in 1960, and eventually had five successors, who in turn have produced five successors. There are three varieties of zar in Ethiopia, though this distinction
14552-559: The result that most of the Horn receives little rainfall during the monsoon season. In the mountains of Ethiopia, many areas receive over 2,000 mm (79 in) per year, and even Asmara receives an average of 570 mm (22 in). This rainfall is the sole source of water for many areas outside Ethiopia, including Egypt . In the winter, the northeasterly trade winds do not provide any moisture except in mountainous areas of northern Somalia, where rainfall in late autumn can produce annual totals as high as 500 mm (20 in). On
14688-496: The rituals associated with it are a form of adorcism , though some have falsely attributed it as an exorcism rite because it involves possession. It is similar to the Maghreb 's Hamadsha , Hausa Animism , and various African Traditional religions , such as Voodou . Zār is also a form of predominantly (not solely) women's entertainment that has become popular in the contemporary urban culture of Cairo and other major cities of
14824-666: The ruling political coalition in Ethiopia. The Horn of Africa is almost equidistant from the equator and the Tropic of Cancer . It consists chiefly of mountains uplifted through the formation of the Great Rift Valley , a fissure in the Earth's crust extending from Turkey to Mozambique and marking the separation of the African and Arabian tectonic plates . Mostly mountainous, the region arose through faults resulting from
14960-544: The south and east, expanding into areas that had not been held since the invasion of Ahmad ibn Ibrihim al-Ghazi , and other areas that had never been under his rule, resulting in the borders of Ethiopia of today. Menelik had signed the Treaty of Wichale with Italy in May 1889, in which Italy would recognize Ethiopia's sovereignty so long as Italy could control a small area of northern Tigray (part of modern Eritrea). In return, Italy
15096-401: The spirit or the practices. Tumbura adherents claim zār was created by Muhammad or Bilal (with the latter curing the former's grandsons and inverting the master-slave power dynamic, as tumbura adherents view Bilal as a Sudani), or both (with the former hearing the latter play his tanbūra and finding the sound so pleasing that he thought it should be used to cure the sick). Some claim
15232-411: The spirit possessing them will cause them trouble. The spirits are described as "mounting" the people they possess, treating them like horses. They have names, are associated with specific colors, are said to be of specific religions (Muslim, Jewish, Christian, or "infidel") and national origins, and there are unique ways to deal with them. The "infidel" spirits are considered more dangerous, and may kill
15368-455: The spirit to possess someone and cause illness or misfortune. In other instances, possession may occur when a person is frightened suddenly. Those who are vain, stressed, sorrowful or grieving may be more susceptible to possession. The possessed person in Egypt is usually said to be being "worn" by the spirit, like a piece of clothing, however Hausa influence is evident in the zār of the Grand Lady (a series of rites specific to menopause), where
15504-483: The spirit trying to take her human counterpart's children by killing them. In some parts of Egypt this is explained by stating that the dead child goes to its mother's karineh . However, zār spirits of either sex may possess a person- Yawra Bey is a male spirit, but he frequently possesses women. Further, if a person is possessed by one spirit, they are considered to be possessed by the other spirit they are paired with, even if they do not display symptoms of possession for
15640-489: The spirits named vary depending on which ritual leader one speaks to, and none will name all 66. They are loosely grouped into families, and spirits are paired together as husband/wife, brother/sister (in the Cariene Upper Egyptian zār practice, this is how all spirits are paired), or father/daughter. They are also grouped into other overlapping pantheons , such as the kings of the earth, seas, and heavens,
15776-692: The state religion to again be Ethiopian Orthodox Christianity , and expelled the Jesuit missionaries and other Europeans. During the end of 18th and the beginning of 19th century the Yejju dynasty (more specifically, the Warasek) ruled north Ethiopia changing the official language of Amhara people to Afaan Oromo, including inside the court of Gondar which was capital of the empire. Founded by Ali I of Yejju several successive descendants of him and Abba Seru Gwangul ruled with their army coming from mainly their clan
15912-460: The story of how zār spirits came to be is that the Virgin Mary, rather than God, asked to see Adam and Eve's children, and cursed the hidden ones. It is also said by some that a zār spirit taught humans how to make fire and cook. The different spirits are associated with different symptoms, have different variations in dance, and have their own "war chants" (fukkara). Belief in such spirits
16048-403: The stronger, smarter zār defeat the others. The zār are curious about humans of different religions, and as such it is not uncommon for a Christian spirit to possess a Jew and make them behave like a Christian. Both doctors and patients, due to being possessed, may behave abnormally and impolitely, but are treated with tolerance, even if they cause harm. It is commonly thought that the origin of
16184-613: The struggle against the Solomonic dynasty , a campaign historically known as the Conquest of Abyssinia or Futuh al Habash . Through a strong centralized administration and an aggressive military stance towards invaders, the Ajuran Sultanate successfully resisted an Oromo invasion from the west and a Portuguese incursion from the east during the Gaal Madow and the Ajuran-Portuguese wars . Trading routes dating from
16320-527: The successive reigns of Sultan Yusuf Mahamud Ibrahim , who successfully consolidated Gobroon power during the Bardera wars , and Sultan Ahmed Yusuf , who forced regional powers such as the Omani Empire to submit tribute . The Isaaq Sultanate was a Somali kingdom that ruled parts of the Horn of Africa during the 18th and 19th centuries. It spanned the territories of the Isaaq clan, descendants of
16456-458: The sultans of the red, yellow, and green jinn, and the guards of thresholds. The spirits are in a hierarchy. At the top is Mama (an Ethiopian spirit, whose name does not mean "mother"), and all the songs begin for this spirit. Spirits may be called "wilad Mama"; sons of Mama. They are thought of as "spirit doubles" like the akran (sing. karin or karineh )- in essence, "We all have zār , only some people don't know it." Some explicitly identify
16592-423: The terms zār and jinn , zār spirits may be referred to as an arafit (ghost), reeh (wind), dastour (spirit), asyad (master), or with the title Sheikh or Sheikha. The possessed person is called me'affrat , maryouh , or menzar . The primary possessing spirit may be called "the spirit of (his/her) head", or "master of (his/her) head". This spirit is identified in the girding ceremony, and its identification
16728-471: The therapeutic practice, and must be done periodically to keep peace with the spirits. There are many spirits, with different groups reporting different numbers, associated with Otherness (i.e. stereotypes and impressions of that which is not Sudanese Arab). Bori only refers to the practices, not the spirits (which are called zār ). The zār in Sudan likely has never been homogeneous, and El Hadidi emphasizes
16864-475: The union and Somaliland regaining its independence, along with the collapse of the central government and the emergence of numerous autonomous polities, including the Puntland administration in the north. Somalia's inhabitants subsequently reverted to local forms of conflict resolution, either secular , Islamic or customary law , with a provision for appeal of all sentences. A Transitional Federal Government
17000-431: The zar leader who hosts the titular spirit (or spirit in the associated pantheon) is called a horse ( kodya ) instead, creating a riding metaphor. The zār of the Grand Lady is unique in Egypt as it is a qualified zār leader (the kodya ) who hosts the spirit during the ritual instead of the person the spirit is afflicting. In Upper Egypt the riding metaphor is also used for possession more generally, though it may refer to
17136-611: The zār originally come from the area around Lake Ashenge and its eastern lowlands. Vulnerability to possession is often transferred from mother to daughter, and may be done deliberately via promises made by the mother to the spirit if the spirit has become a powerful protector (a weqabi). Part of the goal of negotiations with the spirits is to turn them into weqabi. People who are melancholy, alcoholics, or have weak personalities are also susceptible. They may also possess those who are beautiful or have good voices. Adults who sleep alone are also vulnerable to possession, as zār possession itself
17272-537: The zār spirits have no toes and a hole in the middle of their palms. Male zār spirits are considered more dangerous by some. Most believe the zār spirits are to be avoided, but some will admit that they want to be afflicted. Satan is sometimes mentioned as their ruler. The spirit and human worlds are parallel, so many spirits are of the same religion, ethnicity, class, and locality as other humans. They are organized into similar classes to Ethiopia, with kings, chiefs, chamberlains, and servants. They fight among themselves and
17408-403: Was Ababda. She later met an Egyptian soldier of Sudanese origin, and the two left Egypt. Zainab and Mursal were sent to Makwar (renamed Sennar in 1931) in the early 20th century. This was one of the colonies created to reduce the size of the army, where soldiers of enslaved and de-tribalized background were given land with suitable water sources, to farm. The women did a great deal of the farming as
17544-526: Was also one of the first proxy wars in the region as the Ottoman Empire , and Portugal took sides in the conflict. When Emperor Susenyos converted to Roman Catholicism in 1624, years of revolt and civil unrest followed resulting in thousands of deaths. The Jesuit missionaries had offended the Orthodox faith of the local Ethiopians. On 25 June 1632, Susenyos's son, Emperor Fasilides , declared
17680-449: Was decidedly southern. Nugāra involved southern clothes, heavy drums, much drama, and fire. It was regarded as being closely tied to sorcery and "dangerous, non-Islamic" magic. These different rites were not mutually exclusive in Sennar, and each was considered helpful for different purposes, and different members of the same family sometimes belonged to different forms of zār. There is a distinct Sennar tumbura tradition, which regards Zainab,
17816-728: Was eventually forced into exile in Yemen . A decade later, in the 1870s, Kenadid returned from the Arabian Peninsula with a band of Hadhrami musketeers and a group of devoted lieutenants. With their assistance, he managed to establish the kingdom of Hobyo, which would rule much of northern and central Somalia during the early modern period. In the period following the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869, when European powers scrambled for territory in Africa and tried to establish coaling stations for their ships, Italy invaded and occupied Eritrea . On 1 January 1890, Eritrea officially became
17952-550: Was one of the oldest local Islamic states. It was centered in the former Shewa province in central Ethiopia. The polity was succeeded by the Sultanate of Ifat around 1285. Ifat was governed from its capital at Zeila in Somaliland and was the easternmost district of the former Shewa Sultanate. The Adal Sultanate was a medieval multi-ethnic Muslim state centered in the Horn region. At its height, it controlled large parts of Somalia, Ethiopia, Djibouti and Eritrea. Many of
18088-446: Was ruled by Somali and Afar Sultans , local authorities with whom France signed various treaties between 1883 and 1887 to first gain a foothold in the region. In 1894, Léonce Lagarde established a permanent French administration in the city of Djibouti and named the region Côte française des Somalis ( French Somaliland ), a name which continued until 1967. In 1958, on the eve of neighboring Somalia 's independence in 1960,
18224-493: Was subsequently created in 2004. The Federal Government of Somalia was established on 20 August 2012, concurrent with the end of the TFG's interim mandate. It represents the first permanent central government in the country since the start of the civil war. The Federal Parliament of Somalia serves as the government's legislative branch. Modern Ethiopia and its current borders are a result of significant territorial reduction in
18360-456: Was the culmination of a gradual process of takeover by the Ethiopian authorities, a process which included a 1959 edict establishing the compulsory teaching of Amharic , the main language of Ethiopia, in all Eritrean schools. The lack of regard for the Eritrean population led to the formation of an independence movement in the early 1960s (1961), which erupted into a 30-year war against successive Ethiopian governments that ended in 1991. Following
18496-596: Was to provide Menelik with arms and support him as emperor. The Italians used the time between the signing of the treaty and its ratification by the Italian government to further expand their territorial claims. Italy began a state funded program of resettlement for landless Italians in Eritrea, which increased tensions between the Eritrean peasants and the Italians. This conflict erupted in the Battle of Adwa on 1 March 1896, in which Italy's colonial forces were defeated by
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