153-702: Emperor Yingzong of Ming (29 November 1427 – 23 February 1464), personal name Zhu Qizhen , was the sixth and eighth emperor of the Ming dynasty . He ruled as the Zhengtong Emperor from 1435 to 1449, and as the Tianshun Emperor from 1457 until his death in 1464. He was the eldest son and successor of the Xuande Emperor . After ascending the throne, he adopted the era name Zhengtong , which means "right governance". During his first reign,
306-463: A deep understanding of the struggles faced by ordinary people, while harboring disdain for scholars who only gained knowledge from books. In 1352, he joined one of the rebel divisions. He quickly distinguished himself among the rebels and rose to lead his own army. In 1356, he conquered Nanjing and established it as his capital. He formed his own government, consisting of both generals and Confucian scholars, rejecting Mongol rule over China. He adopted
459-438: A definitive form in the provinces. They operate in all provinces except Fujian and in six of the nine border garrisons on the northern border. The immediate consequence of the introduction of grand coordinators was the transfer of command over the troops in the provinces to civilian hands, likely due to the decline in the quality of hereditary officers. The court did not forget about culture either. During Emperor Yingzong's reign,
612-489: A fortune-teller and seer. In 1344, during a plague epidemic, Zhu Yuanzhang's parents and two brothers died. He managed to survive by entering a local Buddhist monastery, which was later closed due to a lack of funds. For the next three years, Zhu wandered as a mendicant monk, becoming familiar with the landscape and people of eastern Henan and northern Anhui. He then returned to the monastery in 1348 and stayed for four years, during which he learned to read, write, and study
765-582: A group of military and civilian figures, but the civil officials never attained the same level of prestige and influence as the military. In 1367, he granted the title of duke ( gong ) to three of his closest collaborators—generals Xu Da and Chang Yuchun , and official Li Shanchang . After the establishment of the Ming dynasty, he also bestowed ranks and titles upon a wider circle of loyal generals. These military leaders were chosen based on their abilities, but their positions were often inherited by their sons. As
918-561: A peaceful life for the inhabitants of his territory. He achieved this by working closely with local elites and understanding the needs of the villagers, having grown up as the son of a poor peasant himself. Zhu's principles also proved beneficial for the economy of the controlled territory. In 1361, he began minting coins, established a monopoly on the sale of salt and tea, and started collecting traditional customs duties in 1362. These measures resulted in an increase in tax revenues, which were crucial for funding successful military campaigns. In
1071-519: A result, the generals became the dominant ruling class, surpassing the bureaucracy in power and influence. The officials had little political autonomy and simply carried out the emperor's orders and requests. This system mirrored the one established during the Yuan dynasty, with the ruling class of Mongols and Semu being replaced by families of distinguished military commanders. These families were often connected through kinship ties with each other and with
1224-500: A reversal from the Hongwu Emperor's policy of suppressing the influence of wealthy landowners. Another historian, Richard Von Glahn, believes that it was an attempt to get the rich people's silver out of their coffers. Additionally, the government reduced silver mining to a minimum. After Wang Zhen gained influence in the government, the eunuchs pushed for the reopening of the silver mines under their supervision. However, due to
1377-707: A reward for his success, Wang Ji was promoted to the rank of Count of Jingyuan, and his deputy Xu Xi took over as Minister of War. Any criticism that resources were being drained from the North to fund the war in the South was suppressed. In 1443–1444 and 1445, the war continued with Ming troops unsuccessfully fighting against Ava. Another campaign took place in 1448–1449, during which the Chinese and Ava successfully defeated Si Renfa's son, Si Jifa, who resided in Mong Yang west of
1530-562: A security threat. This caused the Ming authorities to become increasingly hostile and fearful. In 1449, the Mongols were only given a fifth of the required goods, which led them to resort to force. The immediate cause of the war was Esen's request for an imperial princess for his son. After the death of the Yongle Emperor, the state of defense along the northern borders began to deteriorate gradually. The quality of training, as well as
1683-538: A sedan chair and two horses. The Jingtai Emperor met him at the side door of the palace, and Emperor Yingzong renounced all claims to the throne. He was then assigned to the Southern Palace in the southeast of the Forbidden City, where he spent the next six and a half years as a virtual prisoner. His wives also lived with him there, and during this time, he fathered three sons (fifth to seventh). However,
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#17327651634441836-456: A significant advantage over other rivals, but also increased his prestige among his own people. The fighting began when the Han army attacked Nanjing in 1360, but they were quickly defeated by Zhu. In 1361, the war spread to the Han province of Jiangxi, which changed hands multiple times. By the following year, Zhu had gained control of the province. In January 1363, Zhang Shicheng's army launched
1989-554: A significant decrease in population in certain areas. On the other hand, bandits and vagabonds multiplied. The economic decline in China from the early 1440s to the mid-1460s resulted in a decrease in porcelain production, particularly for export. Even the emperor's ban on the private sale of blue-and-white porcelain in 1439, which aimed to protect the state monopoly, did not contribute to the growth of production. In fact, in January 1448,
2142-399: A small number of relatives who were appointed to important positions. In the unstable political climate, family ties were crucial for ensuring loyalty and reliability. The rivalry between Peng and Zhao escalated into a full-blown conflict. Guo was initially captured, but was later freed by his sons and Zhu, which only increased his reliance on Zhu. After Peng's death in 1353, Zhao emerged as
2295-492: A strong and decisive monarch was expected to make decisions independently, with the advice of ministers. This system did not account for the scenario of a child ruler, leaving no provisions or precedents for how to handle the situation. At court, the most respected and highest-ranking individual was the Grand Empress Dowager Zhang, who effectively, though not formally, became the regent. Empress Dowager Sun
2448-470: A strong figure among the Grand Secretaries. His colleague Ma Yu ( 馬愉 ) only handled routine work, and the new Grand Secretaries appointed in the late 1440s—Gao Gu ( 高穀 ), Chen Xun ( 陳循 ), and Miao Zhong ( 苗衷 )—did not have a significant impact on politics. So far, the system of grand coordinators ( xunfu ), who manage the "three provincial offices" (civil, military, and surveillance), has taken
2601-405: A strong state and an active monarch. As an independent ruler, Zhu advocated for moderation in tax collection. However, other rebel leaders and his own generals prioritized military needs and often confiscated grain from peasants to feed their soldiers or prevent it from falling into the hands of their enemies. In contrast, Zhu placed great importance on maintaining orderly government and promoting
2754-468: A surprise attack on Anfeng, the residence of Song emperor Han Lin'er, resulting in the death of Liu Futong , the de facto leader of the regime. Despite being formally under the control of the Song government, Zhu offered his army to assist Han Lin'er, who was still highly respected among the troops. As a result, the powerless Han Lin'er was relocated to Chuzhou , located west of Nanjing on the opposite side of
2907-491: A villager from the right bank of the Huai River . His difficult upbringing never left his mind, and even as emperor, he held onto the ideal of a self-sufficient village life in peace, a dream that was unattainable in his youth. He made every effort to make this dream a reality for his subjects. The ultimate goal of the Hongwu Emperor's reforms was to achieve political stability for the state. All policies, institutions, and
3060-551: A work on the moral patterns of On the Five Relationships ( 五倫書 ; Wǔlúnshū ) with 62 volumes was published. The emperor also wrote a preface to the new edition of the Song work on acupuncture Illustrated Manual of Acupuncture Points on a Bronze Figure ( 铜人腧穴针灸图经 ; Tóngrén Shùxué Zhēnjiǔ Tújīng ) in 3 volumes. This work included text and illustrations engraved in stone and a bronze sculpture with 360 acupuncture points. The original illustrations and statue, created during
3213-445: Is used to denote important turning points in Chinese history. As Charles Patrick Fitzgerald writes: the event was a landmark in the Ming period. The era of Chinese military supremacy had ended, and henceforth the empire was on defensive on the northern frontier, a defensive which increasingly failed to withstand the nomad onslaughts. After news of the emperor's capture reached Beijing, Empress Dowager Sun, Yingzong's mother, proclaimed
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#17327651634443366-704: The Forbidden City , a 72-hectare complex of palaces and buildings in Beijing . Prior to 1420, the emperors' residence was located in a similar complex in Nanjing . The Ming dynasty was founded by Zhu Yuanzhang (the Hongwu Emperor) , who was one of the leaders of the Red Turban peasant rebellion . Despite humble beginnings, he successfully built his own state, defeated other rebel leaders, and drove
3519-551: The Jianwen Emperor , had personally led armies into battle. On 3 August, the emperor entrusted his younger brother, Zhu Qiyu , with the provisional administration of Beijing and departed the city on 4 August. However, due to a storm, he arrived at Xuanfu seven days later. The emperor was accompanied by 20 experienced generals, most of whom held noble titles, and an equal number of high-ranking officials. They were also accompanied by hundreds of lower-ranking dignitaries. While
3672-537: The Song dynasty , had eroded and faded, so both were remade. In the mid-1430s, a sixty-year cold period began in the Northern Hemisphere , accompanied by sporadic floods and droughts that resulted in crop failures, leading to famines and epidemics. China was also struck by a series of natural disasters in the late 1430s and 1440s, with floods, droughts, epidemics, and famines occurring in succession. In 1448,
3825-543: The Wanli Emperor , who ruled for 48 years (r. 1572–1620); the shortest was his successor, the Taichang Emperor , who ruled for only 29 days in 1620. The youngest ruler at the time of his ascension was Emperor Yingzong , who was only 9 years old, while the oldest ruler at the time of his death was the Hongwu Emperor, who died at the age of 71. The emperor of the Ming dynasty, as well as the emperors during
3978-427: The imperial era of China (221 BC–1912), was known as the " Son of Heaven ". He was seen as the intermediary between humans and heaven and was responsible for conducting numerous rituals to honor the supreme deities who safeguarded the empire, including the heavens, the earth, and the imperial ancestors. Additionally, he participated in various ceremonies to commemorate significant events in both his own life and that of
4131-538: The Chief Military Commission was in charge of the army. However, under later emperors, the civil administration, which was the core of the government, became primarily focused on supporting the army financially and logistically. Initially, the provinces were under the control of the general, with the civil authorities also reporting to them. However, in the 1370s, the military's influence decreased as ministers were appointed to leadership positions in
4284-462: The Chinese government's refusal to recognize them. The closure of these mints had far-reaching consequences, causing problems in places like Japan and Java. Japan, which had not minted coins since the 10th century, relied heavily on imports from China. The disruption of this supply in the early 15th century had a significant impact on the Japanese economy and even led to political turmoil, resulting in
4437-618: The Confucian belief that the ruler's moral example was the most important factor. The Hongwu Emperor also prioritized the safety of his people and the loyalty of his subordinates, demonstrating pragmatism and caution in military affairs. He maintained a disciplined army and made efforts to minimize the impact of war on civilians. Although the peak of his political system crumbled in a civil war shortly after his death, other results of his reforms , such as local and regional institutions for Ming state administration and self-government, as well as
4590-617: The Directorate of Ceremonial, the most powerful office in the Imperial Palace. They had all held their positions under the previous emperor. The empress dowager acted as a mediator between the grand secretaries and the head eunuchs. The emperor's exclusion from decision-making was considered illegal, but it allowed for the successful rule of experienced statesmen, particularly the Three Yangs. This period of political stability
4743-417: The Han's territories. Numerous Han prefectural and county commanders surrendered without resistance, and Huguang was pacified by General Xu Da by April 1365. By February 1365, Generals Chang Yuchun and Deng Yu had gained control over central and southern Jiangxi. This annexation of territories provided Zhu with a significant population advantage over its adversaries. The main threats to Zhu at this time were
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4896-542: The Imperial Guard, which he did not hesitate to use against his opponents, and he also had influence among the ministers. With these advantages, Wang Zhen easily gained the upper hand in politics. While he had held back during Lady Zhang's lifetime, after her death, he began to push the Grand Secretaries, who were now in their seventies, out of active politics. Yang Shiqi died in 1444, and two years later, Yang Pu also died. After their deaths, only Cao Nai ( 曹鼐 ) remained
5049-562: The Irrawaddy River. In March 1449, Emperor Yingzong celebrated the victory. These wars ultimately solidified Ming power in Yunnan, but at a high cost. Local rulers acknowledged Ming sovereignty and paid tribute to Beijing until the 16th century. Domestically, these wars were a success for Wang Zhen, increasing his prestige and reputation as a statesman. However, they also revealed a lack of financial reserves and experienced generals on
5202-454: The Jinhua school, had a clear vision of a unified state governed by a small but efficient bureaucracy. They aimed to eliminate corruption, which was prevalent during the end of the Yuan dynasty. They believed that the state and its laws could be used to improve public morals and customs. While their motives may have differed from the emperor's, they shared a desire to bring about change through
5355-715: The Manchu-led Eight Banners of the Qing dynasty to enter the Central Plains . The Manchus then occupied northern China that same year. Despite losing control of the north, members of the Ming imperial family continued to rule over southern China . However, they were gradually pushed out by the Manchus until the last Ming emperor, Zhu Youlang , was executed in 1662 in Burma. Later historians referred to
5508-523: The Ming army, from his acquaintances who had already joined the rebels, and became their leader. Thanks to his abilities, he rose to prominence quickly, leading a 700-man squad by the spring of 1353 and becoming Guo's most trusted subordinate. Skilled in both military tactics and political maneuvering, he even married Guo's adopted daughter, surnamed Ma. A strong relationship developed between Lady Ma and Zhu, which would later give her great influence at court as empress. Unlike other leaders of his time, Zhu had
5661-451: The Ming dynasty, who were all members of the House of Zhu , ruled over the whole of China proper spanning 276 years. During their reign, China experienced a long period of economic growth and political stability. Below is a complete list of the emperors of the Ming dynasty , including their personal , temple , posthumous , and era names . The longest-reigning emperor of the dynasty was
5814-573: The Ming, the local regime refused to submit. In response, General Fu Youde was ordered to lead an attack from the north in 1371. Simultaneously, Tang He and Liao Yongzhong advanced with a fleet up the Yangtze River. Although they initially faced resistance, they were able to push forward with the help of artillery and the enemy's decision to send part of their defenders north against the second army's successful advance. By September 1371, Sichuan had been conquered. This victory ensured stability in
5967-491: The Ministry of War assembled a detachment of 7,112 physically fit 11–12-year-old youths, as ordered by the emperor, and the prince was appointed as their commander. He also began his education in reading and writing, with his first teacher likely being the eunuch and former pedagogue, Wang Zhen . The Xuande Emperor died on 31 January 1435 after a brief illness, less than two months. At the time of his father's death, Zhu Qizhen
6120-630: The Mongol warlord Köke Temür in northern China and Zhang Shicheng, who was based in Suzhou. Expansion of the army with former Han troops required a reorganization of the military. Therefore, in 1364, Zhu implemented the Weisuo system, which involved the formation of guards ( wei ) comprising 5,600 soldiers. These guards were further divided into 5 battalions ( qianhusuo ) of 1,120 soldiers each, with 10 companies ( baihusuo ) in each battalion. After 1364,
6273-407: The Mongols out of China. On Chinese New Year in 1368, Zhu Yuanzhang declared the establishment of a new imperial dynasty titled Da Ming and declared himself its first emperor. The emperors of the Ming dynasty inherited the throne according to the principle of primogeniture . According to the Hongwu Emperor's Ancestral Instructions , the successor to the throne was always the eldest son of
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6426-460: The Mongols, with Wang Zhen overseeing the profitable trade through a network of eunuch-trustees in border towns. As Essen's power grew, his need for goods also increased, leading to protests from the Chinese against the influx of Mongols. By the late 1440s, up to two thousand Mongols were arriving in Datong, the main trading center, every year. The presence of such large groups of armed horsemen posed
6579-461: The Nanchang garrison , led by Deng Yu ( 鄧兪 ), held out until early June 1363. In mid-August, Zhu's army and fleet finally set out from Nanjing with approximately 100,000 soldiers. The two fleets clashed on Lake Poyang on 29 August 1363, engaging in a four-day battle that resulted in the defeat of the Han fleet and the death of Chen Youliang. In 1364–1365, Zhu focused on conquering and absorbing
6732-464: The Yangtze River. However, the army remained stationed in the north until August 1363. The departure of Zhu's main forces to the north presented Chen with an opportunity to turn the tide of the war. He quickly raised an army of 300,000, outnumbering Zhu's remaining forces. Chen's plan was to capture Nanchang and then rally the local leaders in Jiangxi to join his cause and attack Nanjing. However,
6885-544: The Yellow River breached its dams, causing the waters to flow into northern Jiangsu . The following year, another dam broke, diverting part of the Yellow River's flow into the Guo River and then the Huai River , eventually reaching the sea in southern Jiangsu. Flooding persisted into the 1450s, and the changing course of the Yellow River posed a threat to the water supply of Beijing. The government attempted to assist
7038-514: The army camped at the Tumu post station , without a source of water. On the morning of 1 September, 20,000 Mongols launched a surprise attack on the Ming army, resulting in their defeat. Due to hunger and thirst, the Ming soldiers were unable to put up much resistance and only a few high-ranking officials were able to escape. Among the casualties were Wang Zhen, two dukes, two marquises, five counts, several generals, and hundreds of officials. The emperor
7191-456: The army was made up of 17 guards consisting of veterans who had previously served before 1363. The older veterans were demobilized, while the others were assigned to the garrison in Nanjing where they worked as military peasants, using their production to provide food for the army. Additional soldiers, who were reliable but had shorter periods of service, were acquired during the conquest of southern Anhui and central Zhejiang. They were stationed in
7344-502: The attacking troops, and the plan was executed with ease due to the attacking army's superiority. The ten-month siege of Suzhou began in December 1366. In January 1367, Han Lin'er drowned in the Yangtze River. As a result, Zhu's state of Wu officially declared its independence. A year later, in 1368, Zhu Yuanzhang proclaimed himself emperor and changed the name of the state. He followed the Mongol tradition of elevating titles and named
7497-560: The ban was reinforced and extended to forbid the production of porcelain in any colors other than blue and white (such as yellow, purple, red, green, dark blue, and light blue) for private sale in Raozhou prefecture, where Jingdezhen , known for its porcelain, is located. These prohibitions may have been one of the reasons for the scarcity of porcelain from the Zhengtong, Jingtai and Tianshun eras (1436–1464). The "Three Yangs" responded to
7650-406: The ban, the Ministry of Revenue continued to prohibit coinage until 1453. By the mid-1450s, private coins from Jiangnan had become more prevalent in the markets of Beijing, replacing Yongle's coins. Suggestions to combat private coinage by opening state mints were rejected, leading to the proliferation of illegal mints. These private coins were of lower quality, often containing tin or iron, but due to
7803-602: The basics of Buddhism. In 1352, when the Mongol army burned down the monks' dwellings during the Red Turban Rebellion , Zhu joined one of the rebel divisions. The harsh taxation policies, famine, and catastrophic flooding in the Yellow River basin, caused by inadequate flood control measures, led to widespread opposition to the rule of the Mongol Yuan dynasty. This discontent was further fueled by
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#17327651634447956-520: The beginning of 1360, Zhu controlled the southwestern part of Jiangsu, all of Anhui south of the Yangtze River, and the inland of Zhejiang. By 1393, these territories had a population of 7.8 million. The domain (known as the Kingdom of Wu since 1363), led by Zhang Shicheng, had comparable power with a larger population but worse organization. Chen Youlang's state of Han had a similar situation. The state of Han , located west of Zhu's territory, included
8109-478: The border relied on agriculture for their livelihood and sought support from the Ming authorities. However, the Ming government focused on trading tea for horses in Gansu, with tribes in present-day Qinghai , rather than on the border with the Mongols. This trade involved exchanging a million jin (258 tons) of tea for 14 thousand horses every three years. The Ming authorities tightly regulated and restricted trade with
8262-426: The border with Zhang's state was fortified on both sides and remained stable until 1366. In Zhejiang , from 1358 to 1359, he controlled four impoverished inland prefectures, while Zhang Shicheng held control over four prosperous northern coastal prefectures, and Fang Guozhen occupied the eastern coast of the province. In the summer of 1359, the Mongol warlord Chaghan Temur expelled Han Lin'er from Kaifeng . Han
8415-464: The campaign against the Mongols. This decision was met with protest from Minister of War, Kuang Ye ( 鄺埜 ), and his deputy, Yu Qian . Later, Minister of Personnel, Wang Zhi ( 王直 ), also joined in the protest on behalf of a number of concerned officials. They believed that the emperor's participation in the expedition was an unacceptably risky adventure. However, Emperor Yingzong defended his decision by citing precedents—all previous Ming emperors, except for
8568-463: The captured prince Maidilibala to Mongolia. A favorite passage of the Hongwu Emperor from Daode jing ( The Way and Its Power ): Let the state be small and the people few: So that the people... So that the people... Though adjoining states be within sight of one another The Hongwu Emperor's public statements were filled with sympathy for the peasants and a deep distrust of the wealthy landowners and scholars. He often referred to himself as
8721-459: The central and eastern armies were ultimately defeated by the Mongols. These failures in 1372 shattered the Hongwu Emperor's dream of becoming the heir to the entire Yuan Empire, both in China and on the steppe. Furthermore, Japanese piracy increased and rebellions broke out in the provinces of Guangxi , Huguang , Sichuan, and Shaanxi. As a result, the Chinese forces in the north shifted their focus to defense, and two years later, they returned
8874-480: The city. After conquering it, he renamed the city Yingtian, which means "In response to Heaven". In May 1356, Han Lin'er appointed Zhu as the head of Jiangnan Province, one of the five provinces of the Song state. Guo's remaining son was chosen as his deputy. However, Zhu soon accused Guo's son of plotting against him and had him executed. This allowed Zhu to establish clear leadership and he immediately began to build his administration. However, he could not fully trust
9027-454: The concept of country administration from them and implemented it in the territory he controlled, eventually expanding it to the entire country. He gradually defeated rival rebel leaders, with the decisive moment being his victory over Chen Youliang in the Battle of Lake Poyang in 1363. In 1364, he declared himself King of Wu. In 1367, however, he still acknowledged his formal subordination to
9180-609: The cooperation of Xu Youzhen, who headed the Grand Secretariat, and had him arrested and banished to Yunnan. This move prompted the resignation of Xue Xuan and Minister of Justice Xuan Ni ( 軒輗 ) in protest. List of emperors of the Ming dynasty The Ming dynasty (1368–1644) was an imperial dynasty of China that succeeded the Mongol -led Yuan dynasty and preceded the Manchu -led Qing dynasty . Sixteen emperors of
9333-557: The deposed Jingtai Emperor was likely strangled and his reputation tarnished. In contrast, Wang Zhen was given an official burial, a statue in the Zhihua Temple , and the posthumous name "Jingzhong" ( 旌忠 ). These purges only served to make Emperor Yingzong's regime unpopular. In an attempt to improve his image, the emperor appointed respected scholars Xue Xuan ( 薛瑄 ) and Li Xian ( 李賢 ) to the Grand Secretariat. In late June 1457, Shi Heng and Cao Jixiang decided that they no longer needed
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#17327651634449486-512: The division of Japan into competing domains during the Sengoku period . In the first quarter of the 15th century, on the southwestern borders of the Ming dynasty, one of the Shan states, Möng Mao , called Luchuan by the Ming, grew in strength under the rule of the ambitious Si Renfa, who ruled from 1413. By 1436, Si Renfa had begun to pose a threat to Ming positions in the area. In 1438, Mu Sheng ,
9639-467: The dominant currency for small transactions in cities. In 1436, the Minister of Revenue proposed to buy out old banknotes and replace them with new ones covered in silver, but this proposal was ultimately unsuccessful. Around the same time (in the mid-1430s), the government began to tolerate the use of coins in commerce, although their prohibition was not consistently enforced even before this time. While
9792-433: The dominant leader in the region, leaving Guo and Zhu isolated. Zhao sent Guo to the east and Zhu with a small detachment to the south, hoping to divide them and be able to destroy them. However, contrary to Zhao's expectations, Zhu successfully occupied several counties and bolstered his army to 20,000 soldiers. Guo moved with Zhao's ten thousand men to join him. In the beginning of 1355, Zhu, Guo, and Zhang Shicheng , who
9945-523: The early 1440s. In 1440, Yang Rong, a prominent figure at the age of sixty-nine, died. On 8 June 1442, the emperor entered into marriage with Lady Qian , and on 18 November 1442, just a few days before his fifteenth birthday, he assumed control of the government. Two days later, Grand Empress Dowager Zhang died. Wang Zhen had finally gained his freedom. He possessed great talent, was direct, attentive, and charismatic, but over time, he became conceited. His power primarily stemmed from his personal influence over
10098-406: The economic problems mentioned above by cutting state spending. This was made worse by the struggles in the southwest during the 1430s and 1440s, which led to a decline in mining in the region. As a result, they cancelled overseas expeditions and restricted official foreign trade. These austerity measures were easier for them to accept because they directly affected the economic power of the eunuchs in
10251-404: The emperor and empress, or his heir, followed by younger sons of the empress. However, sons of concubines were excluded from the line of succession. It was a strict rule that conservative officials strongly insisted on following. Even the Wanli Emperor , who for two decades tried to appoint his third son, Zhu Changxun , as crown prince, was eventually forced to step down and appoint his eldest son,
10404-502: The emperor and the other half occupying strategic locations in Beijing. The conspirators had contacted Emperor Yingzong two days prior to the coup, although there is another version that suggests it was a surprise for him. This event became known as the duomen —"forcing the palace gate", but later this name was considered too vulgar and the term fubi —"restoration of the throne"—began to be used. The emperor initially honored and promoted
10557-481: The emperor met with his generals in the captured city of Kaifeng to confirm plans for the campaign. In mid-August, the Ming army resumed its march and reached Dadu (present-day Beijing ) in early September. They defeated the Mongol army outside the city and then occupied it, while the Yuan emperor Toghon Temür fled north to Shangdu . The city was renamed Beiping (Pacified North) by the Chinese. The campaign then continued with an attack on Shanxi . In January 1369,
10710-400: The emperor ordered four generals and 45,000 soldiers from the Beijing garrison to advance to Datong and Xuanfu to guard the border. However, on 30 July, news reached Beijing that the Mongols had launched a large-scale invasion and had already attacked Datong. Without consulting the government, Emperor Yingzong ordered the Beijing garrison to be mobilized on 1 August and decided to personally lead
10863-439: The emperor to continue on. The army reached Datong on 18 August, with more soldiers dying from starvation during the journey than from skirmishes with Mongol troops. Two days later, Emperor Yingzong finally issued the order to return. Upon reaching Xuanfu on 30 August, the emperor learned that the rearguard had been defeated by the Mongols and that the auxiliary detachment of 40,000 men had been completely destroyed. The next evening,
11016-475: The emperor's two-year-old son, Zhu Jianshen, as crown prince. She also appointed the emperor's brother, Zhu Qiyu, to administer the country. However, officials demanded punishment for the followers of Wang Zhen, whom they believed were responsible for the disaster. When Zhu Qiyu refused, the officials became angry and killed two of Wang's allies. At the insistence of Yu Qian, Zhu Qiyu eventually agreed to confiscate Wang Zhen's fortune and execute his relatives. Yu Qian
11169-447: The emperor, who held his teacher in the highest regard. Wang Zhen was also a skilled politician. He formed alliances with Xu Xi ( 徐晞 ), who was later promoted to Minister of War, as well as Imperial Guard commander Ma Shun and his deputy and nephew Wang Shan, and Left Vice Minister of War Wang Ji , who previously organized the "youth-guards" ( 幼軍 ) of the young emperor, later also appointed as Minister of War. Wang Zhen also had control over
11322-582: The emperors of the Ming regimes in southern China as the rulers of the Southern Ming dynasty . This is a list of individuals who did not reign as emperor during their lifetime but were later recognized as Ming emperors posthumously. Legend: Hongwu Emperor The Hongwu Emperor (21 October 1328 – 24 June 1398), also known by his temple name as the Emperor Taizu of Ming , personal name Zhu Yuanzhang , courtesy name Guorui ,
11475-695: The empire "Great Ming" ( Da Ming ; 大明 ; 'Great Radiance'). He also renamed the upcoming "second year of the Wu era" as the "first year of the Hongwu era" ( 洪武 ; 'vastly martial'). In the autumn of 1367, Zhu's troops launched an attack against Fang Guozhen. By December of that year, they had successfully taken control of the entire coast. In November 1367, Hu Mei 's army, along with the fleets of Tang He and Liao Yongzhong, began their journey south. By February 1368, they had easily conquered Fujian, and by April 1368, they had also taken control of Guangdong. In July 1368, with
11628-471: The empire was Nanjing (Southern Capital), which was known as Yingtian until 1368. In the 1360s and 1370s, the capital underwent extensive construction. A workforce of 200,000 individuals surrounded the city with walls that were almost 26 km long, making them the longest in the world at the time. Additionally, an imperial palace and government quarter were built. In 1368, the emperor resided in Kaifeng during
11781-401: The empire was at its height of prosperity and power. As the first child emperor of the Ming dynasty, Emperor Yingzong's rule was heavily influenced by high dignitaries at court. Initially, his grandmother, Grand Empress Dowager Zhang , along with the "Three Yangs" ( Yang Shiqi , Yang Rong , and Yang Pu ), held the highest positions of power. However, in 1442, the emperor began to listen more to
11934-574: The empire, such as the promotion of an heir, a concubine, the granting of fiefs, the reception of envoys, and the metropolitan examinations . During his daily audiences, his subjects were expected to demonstrate their submission by prostrating themselves before him. However, in reality, the majority of decisions were made by the Grand Secretariat and the ministries. When he traveled, he was accompanied by an impressive entourage and protected by his imperial guard. The Ming emperors resided in
12087-456: The enemy could exploit the potential of the newly conquered territories. However, their offensive was repulsed in the spring of 1365. Before launching a final attack on the enemy's heartland, the Suzhou region, Zhu and his generals decided to first "cut off the wings" of Wu by occupying the territory north of the Yangtze and the Wu part of Zhejiang. Xu Da was appointed as the supreme commander of
12240-503: The entire country was expected to obey his decrees. However, this power came at a cost, as the Hongwu Emperor tightly controlled his power through numerous purges. As the dynasty progressed, the subsequent emperors lacked the decisiveness of their founder and were subject to traditional limitations. The emperor was not expected to make independent decisions regarding the direction of the country. Instead, memoranda and demands were presented to them with proposed solutions. The emperor's role
12393-548: The eunuch Wang Zhen . In 1449, at Wang Zhen's suggestion, Emperor Yingzong personally led the army against the Mongol army of Esen Taishi . Unfortunately, at the Battle of Tumu Fortress , the Ming army was defeated and the emperor was captured. This event shocked the government and the country, leading the court to elevate Yingzong's brother, Zhu Qiyu, to the throne as the Jingtai Emperor . During his captivity, Emperor Yingzong had established good relations with Esen and
12546-481: The eyes of the Yuan dynasty. Guo submitted to Peng, while his four colleagues submitted to Zhao. On 15 April 1352, Zhu Yuanzhang arrived in the city. Despite starting as a rank-and-file fighter, his exceptional leadership, decisiveness, warrior skills, and intelligence quickly gained him significant authority. Not only was Zhu known for his intelligence, but also for his unattractive appearance. He swiftly recruited 24 companions, who would eventually become generals in
12699-588: The financial and examination systems , proved to be resilient. The census, land registration and tax system, and the Weisuo military system all endured until the end of the dynasty. His descendants continued to rule over all of China until 1644, and the southern region for an additional seventeen years. Zhu Yuanzhang was born in 1328 in Zhongli ( 鍾離 ) village, located in Haozhou (present-day Fengyang , Anhui ). He
12852-524: The following four-year war, he drove out the Mongol armies loyal to the Yuan dynasty and unified the country. However, his attempt to conquer Mongolia ended in failure. During the thirty-year reign of the Hongwu Emperor, Ming China experienced significant growth and recovered from the effects of prolonged wars. The emperor had a strong understanding of the structure of society and believed in implementing reforms to improve institutions. This approach differed from
13005-425: The former Han territory, with field armies concentrated in Nanchang and Wuchang, and garrisons scattered across Jiangxi and Huguang. The remaining soldiers, mostly former Han soldiers, were joined by some veterans in the field armies sent to fight against the state of Wu under the leadership of Generals Xu Da and Chang Yuchun. After Chen Youliang's defeat, Zhu took on the title of King of Wu ( Wu wang ) starting from
13158-437: The former emperor that he had been reinstated and bringing him to the throne room. This coup was orchestrated by a small group, led by the eunuch-general Cao Jixiang ( 曹吉祥 ), along with generals Shi Heng ( 石亨 ), Zhang Yue ( 張軏 ), and strategist Xu Youzhen ( 徐有貞 ). The initial invasion of the Southern Palace was carried out by 400 men, primarily consisting of Mongols. Later, an additional 2,800 men joined, with half of them escorting
13311-519: The future Taichang Emperor . The only successful violator of the succession rules was the Yongle Emperor, the third emperor of the dynasty. He gained power in a three-year civil war against his nephew, the Jianwen Emperor . The emperor, or huangdi , was the supreme head of state , a tradition that dates back to the Qin dynasty (221–206 BC) and was continued by the Ming dynasty. In theory, he held ultimate authority over all officials and generals, and
13464-544: The future capital, named Zhongdu ( 中都 ; 'Central Capital'), began with grand plans. The area had been largely abandoned since the famine of the 1340s, so landless families from the south were resettled in Fengyang. However, in 1375, the emperor ultimately abandoned the idea of relocating the capital and the construction was halted. Upon ascending to the throne, the Hongwu Emperor appointed his wife as empress and his eldest son, Zhu Biao, as his heir. He surrounded himself with
13617-517: The future, as well as any changes to his laws. The compilation of the new code, known as the Great Ming Code , began in 1364. This code, which was heavily influenced by Confucian principles, was largely based on the old Tang Code of 653. The initial wording was agreed upon in 1367, and the final version was adopted in 1397. It remained unchanged until the fall of the empire, although additional provisions were later added. The capital of
13770-490: The imperial family. The administrative structure of the Ming dynasty was modeled after the Yuan model. The civil administration was led by the Central Secretariat , headed by two Grand Councilors who were informally known as Prime Ministers. This Secretariat was responsible for six ministries: Personnel , Revenue , Rites , War , Justice , and (Public) Works . The Censorate oversaw the administration, while
13923-485: The imperial palace, who were competing with other groups for power. The eunuchs were the ones involved in maritime expeditions and had a vested interest in silver mining, which was also limited in the mid-1430s. By the end of the Xuande era, the government had recognized the failure to enforce baochao banknotes as the main currency and began tolerating silver. In 1433, Governor of South Zhili , Zhou Chen ( 周忱 ), introduced
14076-579: The imperial throne. Zhu Qizhen was born on 29 November 1427, as the elder of the two sons of the Xuande Emperor . His mother, Lady Sun , was one of the emperor's concubines. On 20 February 1428, he was created crown prince, and in March of the same year, the Xuande Emperor promoted Lady Sun to empress. The father was overjoyed by his son's birth and showed him love and affection. He also ensured that Zhu Qizhen received proper military training. In 1433,
14229-550: The imperial title. In June, Li conquered Yingchang and Ajushiridara fled. However, his empress and son Maidilibala were captured along with more than 50,000 soldiers. The Mongolian ruler continued to flee until reaching Karakorum, where the remnants of Köke's army had also retreated. After successfully defeating the Mongols, the Ming government shifted its focus to the Xia state in Sichuan. Despite maintaining positive relations with
14382-534: The leader of a group of silver miners in the mountains between Zhejiang and Fujian openly rebelled, gathering followers and forming an army. In the interior of Fujian, two brothers, Deng Maoqi ( 鄧茂七 ) and Deng Maoba ( 鄧茂八 ), opposed the exploitation of tenants. The tenants themselves demanded that landlords cancel payments beyond the scope of their leases. In March 1448, the Deng brothers rebelled and began to conquer one county after another. The government attempted to calm
14535-577: The leader of the Eastern Mongols, Arughtai , was defeated in battle by the Oirats. This gave the Oirats control over Mongolia, and their chief Toghon solidified their power by arranging for his daughter to marry the young Khan of the Eastern Mongols, Toghtoa Bukha . After Toghon's death in 1440, his son Esen took over as ruler of Mongolia. Esen was more ambitious than his father, and in 1443 and 1445, he launched attacks on Hami , an important city on
14688-402: The living conditions were poor and the supply of resources was limited. Despite this, officials still requested permission to congratulate Emperor Yingzong on his birthday every year, but the government consistently refused. On the night of 11 February 1457, the quiet atmosphere of the Southern Palace was abruptly shattered by a group of soldiers who forcefully entered the building, announcing to
14841-541: The local Yuan commander, Chen Esen, who then surrendered to him. However, in September 1355, during an attempt to conquer Jiqing (present-day Nanjing), Chen Esen betrayed Guo Tianxu. In the ensuing battles, Guo Tianxu, Zhang Tianyu and Chen Esen himself were killed. In March 1356, Zhu once again marched on Jiqing. The new Mongol commander, Chen Zhaoxian ( 陳兆先 ), who was the nephew and successor of Chen Esen, surrendered with 36,000 men. In April 1356, Zhu successfully entered
14994-512: The low productivity of mining and the high demands of the eunuchs, there were a series of mining uprisings in Fujian, Zhejiang, and Jiangxi. After Emperor Yingzong was captured in a war with the Mongols in 1449, the new government restricted mining once again. However, when Emperor Yingzong returned to power in 1457, the restrictions were lifted. Despite this, mining yields remained low. The government's decision to allow payment in silver resulted in
15147-467: The loyalty of his generals. Until the victory at Lake Poyang in 1363, there were instances of betrayal and defection to the enemy. He was now in command of an army of 100,000 soldiers, which was divided into divisions or wings ( 翼 ; yi ). In Nanjing itself, there were eight divisions and one per prefecture. From 1355 to 1357, he launched attacks against Zhang Shicheng in the direction of Suzhou and successfully occupied southern Jiangxi ; after this,
15300-409: The main Red Turban leader, Han Lin'er , who claimed to be the successor of the Song dynasty . In early 1368, after successfully dominating southern and central China, he chose to rename his state. He decided on the name Da Ming , which translates to "Great Radiance", for his empire. Additionally, he designated Hongwu , meaning "Vastly Martial", as the name of the era and the motto of his reign. In
15453-415: The main army, led by Xu Da, captured Taiyuan , while Köke Temür retreated to Gansu . In the spring of 1369, Ming troops also began to occupy Shaanxi . The province was fully taken by September 1369, but border skirmishes with Köke Temür's troops persisted until 1370. In 1370, the Ming government launched a two-pronged attack on Mongolia. Generals Li Wenzhong and Feng Sheng led an attack from Beijing to
15606-410: The military commander of Yunnan, was ordered to attack Möng Mao with an army of conscripts from Guizhou and Huguang. Initially, the Ming army was successful in defeating the enemy, but they soon encountered supply problems and struggled to adapt to the subtropical climate. As a result, the weakened Ming army suffered a heavy defeat in 1440. Wang Zhen believed that Grand Empress Dowager Zhang's tax policy
15759-488: The months of June–August and October–November, leading to the city being known as Beijing (Northern Capital). In 1369, the Hongwu Emperor proposed a debate on the relocation of the capital. In August, his suggestion to move the capital to Fengyang (then known as Linhuai), the emperor's hometown in northern Anhui , on the south bank of the Huai River, approximately 100 km north of Nanjing, was approved. Construction of
15912-487: The new emperor. Despite this, Lady Zhang still held significant influence in the government. In contrast, the editors of the History of Ming , the official history of the Ming dynasty completed in 1739, portrayed Empress Dowager Zhang as a supporter of Zhu Qizhen's rights. According to their version, she summoned all three Grand Secretaries—Yang Shiqi, Yang Rong, and Yang Pu—to her and emphasized that her grandson Zhu Qizhen
16065-481: The new year (4 February) of 1364, which was the same title used by Zhang Shicheng since October 1363. Despite this, he still acknowledged his subordinate status to emperor Han Lin'er and used the Song era of Longfeng as long as Han was alive. However, he ran his own administration, following the model of the Yuan dynasty. In 1365–67, Zhu conquered the Zhang's state of Wu. Zhang attempted to attack in late 1364, before
16218-499: The north, while Xu Da attacked from Xi'an against Köke Temür. In early May 1370, Köke Temür was defeated and fled to Karakorum . The Ming forces captured over 84,000 of his troops and continued to advance westward along the Yellow River. At the same time, Li's forces advanced to Shangdu, where the Yuan emperor Toghon Temür retreated further north to Yingchang and died in May 1370. His twenty-three-year-old son Ayushiridara then assumed
16371-400: The northern frontier. In response to the increased demand for silver due to the implementation of silver-based taxes in 1436, the government took action by shutting down silver mines and prohibiting small-scale silver mining along the border of Zhejiang and Fujian two years later. However, in an area with a high population and limited job opportunities, illegal silver mining persisted. In 1447,
16524-475: The number of mobilized soldiers is unknown, it is often estimated to be around half a million. However, this number is likely an exaggeration from a single contemporary source, as the actual number was likely much lower. Even under optimal conditions, it would have been difficult to supply such a large army. However, the troops were hastily assembled, poorly prepared, and incompetently led. Despite pleas from many members of his entourage to turn back, Wang Zhen advised
16677-597: The organizers of the coup, but once he solidified his position as the leader of the government, he gradually removed them one by one. Xu Youzhen was dismissed in August 1457, Shi Heng died in prison in February 1460, and Cao Jixiang and his family were executed for treason in August 1461. However, the new regime wasted no time in purging the Jingtai Emperor's followers, many of whom were innocent, such as Yu Qian. Even
16830-461: The payment of land tax in silver instead of rice in the most tax-burdened prefectures. From 1436, the officers of the Beijing garrison were paid in silver. In the same year, the land tax in South Zhili, Zhejiang , Jiangxi , and Huguang was also converted to silver; this transition was accompanied by a tax cut. According to historian Ray Huang , this was a concession to southern landowners and
16983-652: The post of governor of Jiangxi province. The ideology of the Red Turbans did not resonate with Zhu. Instead of trying to establish a new intellectual elite based on the Manichean-Buddhist beliefs of the White Lotus , he chose to collaborate with Confucian intellectuals. This shift in approach transformed him from a leader of a popular sectarian uprising to the leader of a political movement seeking traditional legitimacy. Nevertheless, he still relied on
17136-492: The presence of Taoist and Buddhist secret societies and sects, with the most prominent being the White Lotus society. In 1351, a rebellion known as the Red Turban Rebellion erupted and quickly spread throughout northern China. Despite the initial disorganization of the Mongol troops, they were able to launch a counteroffensive and advance along the Grand Canal . In October 1352, the Mongols captured Xuzhou , causing
17289-593: The provinces of Jiangxi and Hubei . Zhang, based in Suzhou , controlled the lower reaches of the Yangtze, from the eastern borders of Zhu's dominions to the sea. While Zhu, Zhang, and Chen divided up the Yangtze River Basin, the rest of southern and central China was largely under the control of "one-province" regimes. Fang Guozhen controlled the eastern Chinese coast, Ming Yuzhen ruled in Sichuan , and
17442-420: The rapid decline of banknotes, much to the dismay of the statesmen. By the 1430s, banknotes had practically disappeared from use, with the state only using them to pay employees to a limited extent and withdrawing them as a compulsory payment for trade fees. However, these small transactions were relatively isolated from the country's economy. While silver was used for large payments and taxes, copper coins remained
17595-557: The re-publishing of sets of Buddhist and Taoist classics was completed. Specifically, in 1440, the Buddhist collection Chinese Buddhist Canon ( 大藏經 ; Dàzàngjīng ; 'Great Storage of Scriptures') consisting of 6361 volumes in 636 books was published, with a preface written by the emperor. In 1445, the Taoist collection Zhengtong-era Daoist Canon ( 正統道藏 ; Zhèngtǒng dàocáng ) was published in 481 books of 5305 volumes. Additionally, in 1443,
17748-551: The rebel Song emperor Han Lin'er appointed Guo's eldest son, Guo Tianxu, as his successor. Guo's brother-in-law, Zhang Tianyu, was chosen as the first deputy of the new commander, with Zhu as the second deputy. In order to cross the Yangtze River, the Hezhou rebels required a fleet, which they acquired in July 1355 when a group of rebels from Chao Lake arrived. They successfully crossed the river that same month. Zhu immediately defeated
17901-407: The rebel commanders Peng Da and Zhao Yunyong to flee south to Haozhou. In Haozhou, the Yuan dynasty's power fell in the spring of 1352. Guo Zixing , Sun Deyai, and three other leaders, with the support of the local elite, organized the army and took control in order to establish order in the city and its surrounding areas. The arrival of Peng and Zhao was seen as a clear connection to the rebels in
18054-429: The rebel miners were defeated by troops on the border between Fujian and Jiangsu. The Deng brothers were captured in February 1449, and their successors were defeated in May of the same year. According to Japanese historian Tanaka Masayoshi, the Deng brothers' revolt was the first Chinese peasant uprising aimed at challenging class relations within the village. The miners' revolt was ultimately suppressed by August 1449, and
18207-468: The reinforcement of Yang Jing 's army from Huguang, Guangxi province was also occupied. At the same time as the southern campaign, Zhu sent a 250,000-strong army, led by Xu Da and Chang Yuchun, to conquer the North China Plain. By March 1368, both land and naval forces had successfully captured Shandong. In May, Henan was also occupied. A pause was taken for agricultural work, during which
18360-456: The release of the former ruler and sent two delegations to China to negotiate his return. However, it was not until September 1450 that Emperor Yingzong was successfully returned. During his twelve and a half months in captivity, he was treated fairly by the Oirats and returned to China as their friend. On 19 September, Emperor Yingzong arrived in Beijing. Officials were forbidden to greet him, and only two or three people were sent to meet him with
18513-514: The remaining Fujian rebels were dispersed by 1452. The emperor's successes in the southeast and southwest may have led him to overestimate the strength of the Ming troops and his own willingness to personally lead the army. The Mongols were divided into three main groups: the Uriankhai in the southeast, the Eastern Mongols (also known as Tatars) in the east, and the Oirats in the west. In 1434,
18666-531: The route from China to Central Asia near the Chinese border. In 1448, he successfully conquered it. He also attempted to gain the support of the Mongol divisions in the Ming army in western Gansu . In the east, his influence extended all the way to the borders of Korea. In Beijing, the unification of Mongolia was perceived as a threat by Wang Zhen's opponents. The Mongols were primarily interested in free trade with China, specifically exchanging horses for luxury goods such as tea and silk. Some Mongols who resided along
18819-545: The scarcity of old coins, merchants had no choice but to use them, even at a nominal value . Some merchants refused to accept Ming coins altogether, while others only accepted silver. The shortage of currency resulted in a return to barter in certain regions, including Yunnan , Guizhou , Sichuan , Jiangxi , Huguang , Shaanxi , and Shanxi . Private mints in Ming China also had an impact on foreign trade, as their coins were accepted as currency in other countries, despite
18972-602: The second to fourth campaigns in the Luchuan–Pingmian campaigns from 1441 to 1449. This was the first time in the history of the Ming dynasty that a civil official was given supreme command of the troops. Under Wang Ji's leadership, a Ming army of 50,000 soldiers successfully defeated the Shans. Si Renfa was captured by the Burmese state and the Ming ally of Ava, and the territory of Luchuan was divided among other Shan states. As
19125-402: The secretaries having to take his opinions into account. Lady Zhang, however, viewed Wang Zhen's influence on the emperor as dangerous and attempted to restrict him, even going so far as to order him to commit suicide in 1437. Despite this, the emperor, with the support of some officials, managed to prevent the order from being carried out. The political landscape underwent significant changes in
19278-399: The situation by forgiving unpaid taxes and granting a three-year exemption from compulsory labor for the population in the region. However, the more radical faction of the rebels, numbering several hundred thousand men, refused to back down. The local militia was unable to handle the situation, prompting the government to send an army of 50,000 to the southeast in September 1448. In late 1448,
19431-575: The social and economic structure of society were designed to serve this purpose. The chaos and foreign rule that led to the establishment of a new dynasty only reinforced his determination to maintain order. The emperor was meticulous in his efforts to establish a new society after the fall of the Yuan dynasty. He was a dynamic and innovative legislator, constantly issuing, revising, and modifying laws throughout his reign. However, these frequent changes sometimes sparked protests from officials. The emperor's legislation focused on four main themes. The first
19584-661: The southwestern border for the next ten years, until the pro-Mongol Yunnan was conquered in 1381-1382. In 1372, the emperor launched a massive attack on Mongolia, with Xu Da leading a 150,000-strong army from Shanxi through the Gobi to Karakorum. In the west, Feng Sheng was assigned to conquer the western part of the Gansu Corridor with 50,000 cavalrymen, while Li Wenzhong was tasked with attacking eastern Mongolia and Manchuria with another 50,000 soldiers. Although Feng Sheng's forces were able to successfully complete their mission,
19737-519: The state's coin production. In the northern cities, particularly Beijing, coins were the primary form of currency during the 15th century. This led officials to criticize them as the reason for the failure of banknotes. In 1447, the Governor of North Zhili called for a renewed campaign against coinage, citing its exclusive use in trade in Beijing and the Grand Canal cities as the cause of the banknotes' failure. Despite efforts by his successor to lift
19890-580: The steppe in November 1449. The Ming government restored the border but did not take any further offensive action. Historians at the time, in an effort to avoid what is an obvious taboo of the country's head of state becoming a prisoner of war, referred to this chapter of Emperor Yingzong's life as the "Northern Hunt" ( 北狩 ). In Chinese historiography, the consequences of the Tumu crisis are often referred to as Tumu zhi bian . The term bian means "to turn" and
20043-567: The support of his officers who shared his devotion to the teachings of the White Lotus. In 1354, he began working with Li Shanchang , a landowner from Dingyuan County, the first county conquered by Zhu. Li Shanchang was responsible for running the civil administration, and as Zhu conquered more cities, he recruited more scholars to join his cause. After repeated requests from Zhu in 1360, a group of prominent scholars, led by Song Lian and Liu Ji , joined his service. These scholars, known as
20196-455: The territories he conquered. However, Zhu feared the advance of the Yuan troops in the southern direction, all the way to Nanjing. As a result, he proposed cooperation with Chaghan Temur. After Chaghan Temur's army was unable to make progress in Shandong and he was murdered in the summer of 1362, the threat from the Yuan side disappeared. As a result, Zhu rejected the Yuan government's offer of
20349-406: The trio of Yuan loyalists ( Chen Youding , He Zhen , and Basalawarmi ) controlled Fujian , Guangdong , and Yunnan . These provincial regimes were unable to threaten the "big three", but were strong in defense. The war between Zhu's Jiangnan and Chen Youliang's Han state from 1360 to 1363 had a devastating impact on the balance of power in the Yangtze River Basin. This conflict not only gave Zhu
20502-526: The use of coins was officially not allowed until 1436, in response to a petition from a prefect of Guangxi , the government had actually stopped the production of coins in either 1433 or 1436. With the closure of the mints, the shortage of coins worsened over time. Entrepreneurs responded to the demand for coins by producing them privately, which was illegal. Despite the efforts of disgruntled officials in Beijing, they were unable to suppress this private production. However, they also did not take action to restore
20655-463: The victims by remitting taxes in large quantities, particularly during the regency of Grand Empress Dowager Zhang, who consistently showed concern for the impoverished. However, despite these efforts, dissatisfaction among the population continued to grow. This was largely due to the compulsory work system, which placed an unbearable burden on the people in some regions. As a result, artisans evaded state demands and peasants abandoned their land, leading to
20808-620: The weapons and equipment, were declining. In fact, soldiers from the Beijing garrison were even being used for the construction of government and private buildings. At this time, the Great Wall had not yet been built, and the border was only guarded by patrol battalions. These battalions were expected to hold off the enemy until the main forces arrived, according to the plans. The main forces were located in three fortified cities—Xuanfu, Datong, and Beijing—each housing several tens of thousands of soldiers. The largest force, consisting of 160,000 men,
20961-412: Was a broad desire to restore order and morality in society. The second was the regulation of the bureaucracy, including disciplining followers and managing the government. The third was the removal of corrupt and unreliable officials. Finally, the emperor also sought to resist the natural decline that comes with time. As the patriarch of the family, he aimed to prevent the decay of society and the dynasty in
21114-576: Was also occasionally consulted, but she held a lower status than her mother-in-law. Lady Zhang was the leader of the council, which consisted of three Grand Secretaries and three eunuchs. The Grand Secretaries, known as the "Three Yangs"—Yang Shiqi, Yang Rong, and Yang Pu—had been in their positions for many years, with Yang Pu serving as Grand Secretary since 1424 and the other two since 1402. They were highly skilled, influential, and respected. The eunuchs, Wang Jin , Fan Hong , and Jin Ying , were in charge of
21267-410: Was captured and on 3 September was sent to Esen's main camp near Xuanfu. After reclaiming the area, the Ming troops recovered tens of thousands of firearms, armor, and other equipment. Despite their initial success, the Mongols failed in their attempts to occupy Xuanfu and Datong by using the captured Emperor Yingzong. They were also unsuccessful in their pursuit of Beijing and eventually retreated back to
21420-410: Was eventually released in 1450. After Emperor Yingzong returned to his homeland, his brother felt threatened and ordered him to stay in the Southern Palace within the Forbidden City . He also restricted Emperor Yingzong's contact with the outside world. Essentially, Emperor Yingzong was placed under house arrest. In early 1457, the Jingtai Emperor fell ill and, since his only son had died in 1453, there
21573-494: Was later seen as a golden age by future generations. The eunuch Wang Zhen served as the teacher, tutor, and confidant of the emperor. He was from the northern Chinese province of Shanxi , just like Lady Zhang, and was significantly younger than the other members of the Imperial Council, being in his thirties. It quickly became evident that the emperor placed complete trust in him, leading to an increase in his power and
21726-558: Was left with only a few hundred soldiers, but as Chaghan Temur focused on conquering Shandong , Han's group was able to survive in Anfeng, a prefectural city in the west of Anhui. After the retreat from Kaifeng, the Song government's power weakened rapidly. Apart from Zhu Yuanzhang's effectively independent Jiangnan, no Song province survived 1362. In 1361, Han Lin'er appointed Zhu as the Duke of Wu ( Wu Guogong ) and recognized his rule in all
21879-486: Was located further east, made the decision to leave the war-torn territories and cross the Yangtze River to the prosperous southern regions that had not yet been affected by the war. However, a dispute arose between Guo and Zhu over the city of Hezhou, situated on the banks of the Yangtze River. Zhu even formed an alliance with Sun Deyai, Guo's old enemy. Before the conflict could escalate, Guo died. Following this,
22032-476: Was necessary to reach a broad consensus among court dignitaries before making any significant decisions. In the late 1620s, peasant uprisings erupted in northern China . The weakened Ming government was unable to suppress them, and in 1644, the rebels even captured Beijing, leading to the Chongzhen Emperor 's suicide. To defeat the rebels, Wu Sangui , the last Ming general in the northeast, invited
22185-496: Was no heir to the throne. Taking advantage of this opportunity, Emperor Yingzong organized a palace coup and regained power in February 1457. The era name of his second reign was Tianshun , which means "obedience to Heaven". The following month, the Jingtai Emperor died. Emperor Yingzong ruled for another seven years before his death in 1464 at the age of thirty-six. His eldest son, the Chenghua Emperor , then ascended to
22338-484: Was now emperor. Thereupon, the Grand Secretaries expressed their allegiance to the young prince, followed by the entire court. Emperor Yingzong's ascension to the throne was in accordance with the rules, as he was the eldest son of the deceased emperor and the officially created crown prince. However, the laws established by the founder of the dynasty, the Hongwu Emperor , enshrined a system of government in which
22491-574: Was only seven years old, prompting a proposal to place his uncle, Zhu Zhanshan, Prince of Xiang and Xuande's younger brother, on the throne. According to the 17th century Chinese historian Mao Qiling , Zhu Zhanshan was supported by the Grand Empress Dowager Zhang , who was both his and Xuande's mother. However, Empress Dowager Sun quickly intervened and prevented Zhu Zhanshan's ascension, resulting in Zhu Qizhen being crowned as
22644-477: Was stationed in Beijing. The reserves were scattered throughout northeastern China, in North Zhili, Shandong, and Henan. However, since Xuanfu was less than 200 km from Beijing, the defense system lacked depth and relied on a quick and decisive response to any potential attack. In the summer of 1449, unrest was spreading on the northern border. On 20 July, news arrived of a Mongol raid led by Esen. In response,
22797-486: Was the founding emperor of the Ming dynasty , reigning from 1368 to 1398. In the mid-14th century, China was plagued by epidemics, famines, and peasant uprisings during the rule of the Mongol Yuan dynasty . Zhu Yuanzhang, who lost his parents during this tumultuous time, was forced to survive by begging as an itinerant monk . This difficult upbringing had a profound impact on the future emperor's life. He developed
22950-401: Was the youngest of four sons in a poor peasant family. He was given the name Zhu Chongba ( 朱重八 ) at birth, but later used the name Zhu Xingzong ( 朱興宗 ) in adulthood. After joining the rebels, he went by the name Zhu Yuanzhang. His father, Zhu Wusi , lived in Nanjing but fled to the countryside to avoid tax collectors. His paternal grandfather was a gold miner, and his maternal grandfather was
23103-473: Was then appointed as Minister of War and successfully stabilized the situation by organizing the defense of Beijing with a new army. On 17 September, Zhu Qiyu ascended the throne as the Jingtai Emperor and declared the captured brother as Tàishàng Huángdi ( 太上皇帝 ; 'Emperor Emeritus'). The new Jingtai regime aimed to discredit the previous ruler, who had been deemed a failure. Border commanders were instructed not to communicate with him. Esen attempted to secure
23256-485: Was to either confirm the submitted proposals or negotiate an alternative solution with the submitters. Similarly, the emperors appointed officials and generals based on recommendations from the Ministry of Personnel or the Ministry of War . In the case of high dignitaries, the ruler was given a choice between two to three candidates. Major issues were typically discussed at official audiences or informal meetings, and it
23409-402: Was too lenient and saw the war as an opportunity to increase state revenue. As a result, he pushed for a new campaign to be launched. Reinforcements were sent from Sichuan, Guizhou, and Huguang to Yunnan, and in early 1441, Minister of War Wang Ji was placed in overall command. Wang Ji was an experienced civil official who had held the position of Minister of War since 1435. He had also commanded
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