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107-818: The Altaians are represented by two ethnographic groups: The Northern and Southern Altaians formed in the Altai area on the basis of tribes of Kimek - Kipchaks . In the Soviet Union until 1991 and the Russian Federation until 2000, the authorities considered the Northern Altaians and the Teleuts to be part of the Altai people. Currently, according to the Resolution of the Government of

214-607: A Tiele group who initially inhabited northwestern Mongolia before migrating to north of Altay Mountains and Irtysh zone. Initially, Golden (1992:202, 227, 263) accepted the identification of Kimeks with Imeks/Yimeks/Yemeks, because the /k/ > ∅, resulting in Kimek > İmek , was indeed attested in several Medieval Kipchak dialects; Golden also thought Yemeks unlikely to be 鹽莫 * jiäm-mâk > Yánmò in Chinese source. However, Golden later changed his mind, reasoning that, as

321-753: A 30,000 strong enemy army and the death of Choghtu. He then entered Central Tibet, where he received from the 5th Dalai Lama the title of Bstan-'dzin Choskyi Rgyal-po (the Dharma King Who Upholds the Religion). He then claimed the title of Khan , the first non-Genghisid Mongol to do so, and summoned the Oirats to completely conquer Tibet, creating the Khoshut Khanate . Among those involved was Kharkhul's son, Erdeni Batur , who

428-750: A Khalkha army of 10,000 near Lake Baikal. After two bloody battles with the Dzungars near Erdene Zuu Monastery and Tomor, Chakhundorji and his brother Jebtsundamba Khutuktu Zanabazar fled across the Gobi Desert to the Qing dynasty and submitted to the Kangxi Emperor . Late in the summer of 1690, Galdan crossed the Kherlen River with a force of 20,000 and engaged a Qing army at Battle of Ulan Butung 350 kilometers north of Beijing near

535-441: A certain sense, a victory for Islam". Ironically, the destruction of the Dzungars by the Qing led to the consolidation of Turkic Muslim power in the region, since Turkic Muslim culture and identity was tolerated or even promoted by the Qing. In 1759, the Qing dynasty proclaimed that the land formerly belonging to the Dzungars was now part of "China" (Dulimbai Gurun) in a Manchu memorial. The Qing ideology of unification portrayed

642-498: A genetic separation of the northern and southern Altaians is undeniable. The southern Altaians are dominated by such variants of the Y chromosome haplogroup as Q-M242 and R1a , and there are also I-M170 and O-M175 . Within the northern Altaians, the R1a haplogroup is dominant, Q-M242 is rarely found, and I-M170 and O-M175 are not found at all. Mitochondrial DNA The maternal genetic ancestry of northern and southern Altaian populations

749-472: A greater variety of West Eurasian haplogroups at low frequencies. Shors, who have sometimes been categorized as northern Altaians,18 exhibited a similar haplogroup profile to other northern Altaian ethnic groups, including moderate frequencies of C, D, and F1, although they lacked others (N9a and U). Haplogroups C and D were the most frequent mtDNA lineages in the Altaians, consistent with the overall picture of

856-525: A historian whose recent research interests focus on genocide, states that the extermination of the Dzungars was "arguably the eighteenth century genocide par excellence". Widespread anti-Dzungar opinion by former Dzungar subjects contributed to their genocide. The Muslim Kazakhs and former people of the Yarkent Khanate in the Tarim Basin (now called Uyghurs ), were treated poorly under by

963-704: A part of the Chuy tribes remained in its successor, the Uyghur Kaganate (740-840), and another part retained their independence. During the Uyghur period, the Chuy tribes consolidated into the nucleus of the tribes known as Kimaks in the Arab and Persian sources. Lev Gumilyov associated one Duolu Chuy tribe, Chumukun 處木昆 (< * čomuqun "immersed in water, drowned") with the Kimeks as both coincidentally occupied

1070-482: A revolt led by his followers. Afaq's son Yahiya Khoja was enthroned but his reign was cut short in 1695 when both he and his father were killed while suppressing local rebellions. In 1696, Akbash Khan was placed on the throne, but the begs of Kashgar refused to recognize him, and instead allied with the Kyrgyz to attack Yarkand, taking Akbash prisoner. The begs of Yarkand went to the Dzungars, who sent troops and ousted

1177-725: A separate Burkhanist republic called the Confederated Republic of Altai (Karakorum-Altai Region), although only as part of the Russian Federation. They also hoped to extend its territory to form a larger Oyrot republic that would include other former subjects of the Dzungar Khanate or even all Turkic peoples of Siberia. Many Altai leaders supported the Mensheviks during the Civil War . After

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1284-518: A strong influence in court and over the khan. In 1533, an especially influential Khoja named Makhdum-i Azam arrived in Kashgar, where he settled and had two sons. These two sons hated each other and they passed down their mutual hatred down to their children. The two lineages came to dominate large parts of the khanate, splitting it between two factions: the Aq Taghliq (White Mountain) in Kashgar and

1391-582: Is now southern Xinjiang , and defeated the Khalkha Mongols to the east. In 1696, Galdan was defeated by the Qing dynasty and lost Outer Mongolia . In 1717, the Dzungars conquered Tibet , but were driven out in 1720 by the Qing. From 1755 to 1758, Qing China took advantage of a Dzungar civil war to conquer Dzungaria and killed 70-80% of the Dzungar population . The destruction of the Dzungars led to

1498-543: Is rich with mythology and supernatural beings . Popular deities included Erlik , the god of the underworld, and Oyrot-Khan, a heroic figure who is a composite blend taken from historical Zungarian (Oirat) Khans and ancient legendary heroes. However, with many migrations, settlement changes, and the presence of Russians and their eventual union with the Russian Empire , the Altaians encountered three world religions: Buddhism , Christianity , and Islam . At first,

1605-536: The 5th Dalai Lama aided him in enlisting the help of Galdan Boshugtu Khan . In 1680, Galdan led 120,000 Dzungars into the Yarkent Khanate. They were aided by the Aq Taghliqs and Hami and Turpan , which had already submitted to the Dzungars. Ismail's son Babak Sultan died in the resistance against in the battle for Kashgar. The general Iwaz Beg died in the defense of Yarkand. The Dzungars defeated

1712-551: The Bogd Khanate of Mongolia and studied at Buddhist centers of learning before and after the rise of the Burkhanist movement in the early 20th century; indicating a significant Buddhist influence on the new religion. Around 1904, the development of Burkhanism among the Altaians was underway. Burkhanism is a monotheistic religion named after Ak-Burkhan, a deity who is believed and recognized by its adherents to have been

1819-575: The Bolshevik victory, a separate Oyrot Autonomous Oblast was established as a national home for the Altais. In the 1940s, during World War II, Joseph Stalin 's government accused Altai nationalists of being pro-Japanese . After the war, the word "Oyrot" was declared to be counter-revolutionary due to its associations with the idea of a larger Oyrot state that could secede from the USSR. Because of that,

1926-775: The Göktürks ' remnants and formed a tribe called Shatuo , which lived in southern Dzungaria , to the west of Lake Barkol . The Shatuo separated from the Chuyue in the middle of the 7th century. (Another component of the Chuyue, the Chigil, were still listed in censuses taken in Tsarist Russia and the early decades of the Soviet Union.) After the disintegration in 743 AD of the Western Turkic Kaganate,

2033-586: The Jesuits under Giuseppe Castiglione , and Chinese court-painters under their direction. ‡ Note: Although Amursana had de facto control of some areas of Dzungaria during 1755–1756, he could never officially become Khan due to the inferior rank of his clan, the Khoid . The Oirats converted to Tibetan Buddhism in 1615. Oirat society was similar to other nomadic societies. It was heavily dependent on animal husbandry but also practiced limited agriculture. After

2140-677: The Kalmyk Khanate but still stayed in contact with the Oirats in the east. Every time a great assembly was called, they sent representatives to attend. In 1632, the Gelug Yellow Hat sect in Qinghai was being repressed by the Khalkha Choghtu Khong Tayiji , so they invited Güshi Khan to come and deal with him. In 1636, Güshi led 10,000 Oirats in an invasion of Qinghai which resulted in the defeat of

2247-534: The Kyrgyz , Tajiks , and Uzbeks when they invaded deep into Central Asia to Yasi (Turkestan) and Tashkent in 1643. In 1653, Sengge succeeded his father Batur, but he faced dissent from his half brothers. With the support of Ochirtu Khan of the Khoshut, this strife ended with Sengge's victory in 1661. In 1667 he captured Erinchin Lobsang Tayiji , the third and last Altan Khan. However, he himself

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2354-524: The Qing conquest of Mongolia , Tibet , and the creation of Xinjiang as a political administrative unit. "Dzungar" is a compound of the Mongolian word jegün (züün), meaning "left" or "east" and γar meaning "hand" or "wing". The region of Dzungaria derives its name from this confederation. Although the Dzungars were located west of the Khalkas , the derivation of their name has been attributed to

2461-851: The Scythians , Xiongnu , the Rouran Khaganate , the Turkic Khanganate , the Uyghur Empire , and the Yenisei Kyrgyz . According to one study in 2016, the Altaians, precisely some Southern Altaians, assimilated local Yeniseian people which were closely related to the Paleo-Eskimo groups. From the 13th to 18th century, the Altai people were dominated politically and culturally by the Mongols . The origin of

2568-619: The Tumed . In 1620, the leaders of the Choros and Torghut Oirats, Kharkhul and Mergen Temene, attacked Ubasi Khong Tayiji , the first Altan Khan of the Khalkha . They were defeated and Kharkhul lost his wife and children to the enemy. An all out war between Ubasi and the Oirats lasted until 1623 when Ubasi was killed. In 1625, a conflict erupted between the Khoshut chief Chöükür and his uterine brother Baibaghas over inheritance issues. Baibaghas

2675-835: The Ural River and Emba River , and from the Aral Wea and Caspian steppes, to the Zhetysu area. After the 840 AD breakup of the Uyghur Khaganate, the Yemeks headed a new political tribal union, creating a new Kimek state. Abu Said Gardizi (d. 1061) wrote that the Kimak federation consisted of seven tribes: Yemeks (Ar. Yamāk < MTrk * Yemǟk or * (Y)imēk ), Eymür , Tatars , Bayandur , Kipchak , Lanikaz and Ajlad . Later, an expanded Kimek Kaganate partially controlled

2782-607: The Zunghar Khanate or Junggar Khanate , was an Inner Asian khanate of Oirat Mongol origin. At its greatest extent, it covered an area from southern Siberia in the north to present-day Kyrgyzstan in the south, and from the Great Wall of China in the east to present-day Kazakhstan in the west. The core of the Dzungar Khanate is today part of northern Xinjiang , also called Dzungaria . About 1620

2889-645: The para-Mongolic-speaking Tatabï, known to Chinese as Kumo Xi . Sümer associates the Kimeks with the Chiks (who were mentioned in Tang Huiyao and Bilge Qaghan inscription ); however, Golden sees little evidence for this. According to Golden (1992), the Quns and Śari (whom Czeglédy (1949:47-48,50) identifies with Yellow Uyghurs ) were possibly induced into the Kimek union or took over said union and absorbed

2996-540: The taiga (boreal forests). However, some Altaians also engaged in small scale agriculture , gathering , and fishing . Most of the Southern Altaians traditionally lived in yurts . Many Northern Altaians mainly built polygonal yurts with conic roofs made out of logs and bark. Some Altai-Kizhi also lived in mud huts with birch bark gable roofs and log or plank walling. The Teleuts and a few Northern Altaians lived in conic homes made out of perches or bark. With

3103-454: The "outer" non-Han Chinese like the Mongols, Oirats, and Tibetans together with the "inner" Han Chinese as "one family" united in the Qing state. The Qing described the phrase "Zhong Wai Yi Jia" (中外一家) or "Nei Wai Yi Jia" (內外一家, "interior and exterior as one family"), to convey this idea of "unification" to different peoples. The Qianlong Emperor took great care to document his successes in

3210-619: The 18th century. In the Tsarist period , the Altai were also known as Oirot or Oyrot (this name means " Oirat " and would later be carried on for the Oyrot Autonomous Oblast ). The name was inherited from their being former subjects of the 17th-century Oirat -led Dzungar Khanate . The Altai report that many of them became addicted to the Russians' vodka , which they called "fire water". With regard to religion, some of

3317-551: The 600,000 or more Dzungars were destroyed by disease and attack which Michael Clarke described as "the complete destruction of not only the Dzungar state but of the Dzungars as a people". It's argued by the historian Peter Perdue that the destruction of the Dzungars was the result of an explicit policy of extermination launched by the Qianlong Emperor which lasted for two years. His commanders were reluctant to carry out his orders, which he repeated several times using

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3424-580: The Altai people. At present, shamanism is practiced by many Telengits, although there is a large amount that also profess Orthodox Christianity. Burkhanism is the main religion of the Altai-Kizhi, the largest group of Altaians, but there is a significant number of Orthodox Christians. The majority of Kumandins, Tubalars, Teleuts, and Chelkans are Russian Orthodox, although there is a significant minority that practice shamanism. A few Altaians are Evangelical Christians and Tibetan Buddhists . In principle,

3531-479: The Altai region, which is especially popular among Altaian youth. According to recent statistical studies, up to 70% or 86 % (data of the Research State Institute of Altaic Studies) of the Altaians continue to profess the "Altai Faith": Burkhanism, shamanism, and other native religions . According to Natalia Zhukovskaia , traditional Altai shamanism is the supreme religion of the majority of

3638-536: The Altai remained shamanists and others (in a trend beginning in the mid-19th century) have converted to the Russian Orthodox Church . In 1904, a millenarian indigenist religious movement called Ak-Jang or Burkhanism arose among these people. Prior to 1917, the Altai were considered to be made up of many different ethnic groups. With the rise of the 1917 Russian revolution , Altai nationalists and Socialist-Revolutionaries attempted to make

3745-500: The Altaians were indifferent and at times even hostile to these foreign faiths and their expansion in the region (modern Altai Republic ). In 1829, a Russian Orthodox mission was founded in the region soon after it became a protectorate of the Russian Empire . The mission and its missionaries were initially culturally sensitive and tolerant to the Altaians and their customs. However, the rise of Russian nationalism during

3852-639: The Ariq Bökid Jorightu Khan Yesüder in seizing the Northern Yuan throne. The Oirats held sway over the Northern Yuan khans until the death of Esen Taishi in 1455, after which they migrated west due to Khalkha Mongol aggression. In 1486, the Oirats became embroiled in a succession dispute which gave Dayan Khan the opportunity to attack them. In the latter half of the 16th century, the Oirats lost more territory to

3959-712: The Black Kyrgyz and ravaged the Fergana Valley . His general Rabtan took Taraz city. From 1685 Galdan's forces aggressively pushed westward, forcing the Kazakhs ever further west. The Dzungars established dominion over the Baraba Tatars and extracted yasaq (tribute) from them. Converting to Orthodox Christianity and becoming Russian subjects was a tactic by the Baraba to find an excuse not to pay yasaq to

4066-457: The Bodhisattvas. But in your hearts you are like man-eating Rakshas . Therefore you were unable to escape from your self incurred retribution with your lives when your crimes were at the lowest [moral level] and your wickedness reached a zenith" The Qing army met almost no resistance and destroyed the Dzungar Khanate within the span of 100 days. The Chinese army, supplemented on the way by Muslim and renegade Dzungar troops, surprised Dawachi at

4173-403: The Buddhist Dzungars, who used them as slave labor, and participated in the Qing invasion and attacked the Dzungars. Uyghur leaders like Khoja Emin or Khojis were granted titles within the Qing nobility, and acted as an intermediary with Muslims from the Tarim Basin. They told the Muslims that the Qing only wanted to kill Oirats and that they would leave the Muslims alone. They also convinced

4280-489: The Choros and Khoid of the Left wing retreated north into the Tarim basin, since then the powerful empire of the Choros became known as the Left Wing, i.e. Zuungar. The region was separately described in contemporary European sources as the Kingdom of the Eleuths , from an infelicitous transcription of the name " Oirats " by French missionaries . This was sometimes vaguely extended to cover wide areas of Central Asia , including Afghanistan . The Oirats were originally from

4387-448: The Dzungars from Tibet in 1720. They brought Kälzang Gyatso with them from Kumbum to Lhasa and installed him as the 7th Dalai Lama in 1721. The people of Turpan and Pichan took advantage of the situation to rebel under a local chief, Amin Khoja , and defected to the Qing dynasty. Tsewang Rabtan died suddenly in 1727 and was succeeded by his son Galdan Tseren . Galdan Tseren drove out his half-brother Lobszangshunu. He continued

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4494-565: The Dzungars. The Oirats had established peace with the Khalkha Mongols since Ligdan Khan died in 1634 and the Khalkhas were preoccupied with the rise of the Qing dynasty . However, when the Jasaghtu Khan Shira lost part of his subjects to the Tüsheet Khan Chikhundorj, Galdan moved his orda near the Altai Mountains to prepare an attack. Chikhundorj attacked the right wing of the Khalkhas and killed Shira in 1687. In 1688, Galdan dispatched troops under his younger brother Dorji-jav against Chikhundorj but they were eventually defeated. Dorji-jav

4601-422: The Kazakhs pushed them into seeking aid from Russia. Tsewang Rabtan 's brother Tseren Dondup invaded the Khoshut Khanate in 1717, deposed Yeshe Gyatso , killed Lha-bzang Khan , and looted Lhasa . The Kangxi Emperor retaliated in 1718, but his military expedition was annihilated by the Dzungars in the Battle of the Salween River , not far from Lhasa. A second and larger expedition sent by Kangxi expelled

4708-534: The Khoshut, Galdan defeated Chechen, and drove Zotov out of Dzungaria. In 1671 The Dalai Lama bestowed the title of Khan on Galdan. Sengge's two sons Sonom Rabdan and Tsewang Rabtan revolted against Galdan but they were defeated. Although, already married Anu-Dara , granddaughter of Ochirtu, he came into conflict with his grandfather in law. Fearing Galdan's popularity, Ochirtu supported his uncle and rival Choqur Ubashi who refused to recognize Galdan's title. The victory over Ochirtu in 1677 resulted Galdan's domination of

4815-423: The Kimek and Kipchak lands west of the Irtysh. In the eleventh to twelfth centuries a Mongol-speaking Naiman tribe displaced the Kimeks and Kipchaks from the Mongolian Altai and Upper Irtysh as it moved west. Between the ninth and thirteenth centuries Kimek tribes were nomadizing in the steppes of the modern Astrakhan Oblast of Russia. A portion of the Kimeks that left the Ob - Irtysh interfluvial region joined

4922-537: The Kimek. As a result, the Kipchaks presumably replaced the Kimeks as the union's dominant group, while the Quns gained ascendancy over the westernmost tribes and became Quman (though difficulties remain with the Qun-Cuman link and how Qun became Cuman, e.g. qun + man "the real Quns"? > * qumman > quman ?). Kimeks were still represented amongst the Cuman– Kipchaks as Yimek ~ Yemek ( Old East Slavic : Polovtsi Yemiakove ). The majority of researchers (Bakikhanov, S.A. Tokarev, A.I. Tamay, S. Sh. Gadzhieva) derive

5029-475: The Kipchak Khanlyk moved west, occupying lands that had earlier belonged to the Oguz. After seizing the Oguz lands, the Kipchaks grew considerably stronger, and the Kimeks became dependents of the Kipchaks. The fall of the Kimek Kaganate in the middle of the 11th century was caused by the migration of Central Asian Mongolian-speaking nomads, displaced by the Mongolian-speaking Khitan state of Liao , which formed in 916 AD in Northern China. The Khitan nomads occupied

5136-419: The Kipchak confederation that survived until the Mongol invasion, and later united with the Nogai confederation of the Kipchak descendants. The last organized tribes of the Nogai in Russian sources were dispersed with the Russian construction of zaseka bulwarks in the Don and Volga regions in the 17th-18th centuries, which separated the cattle breeding populations from their summer pastures. Another part of

5243-436: The Kyrgyz in 1705. The Dzungars installed a non-Chagatayid ruler Mirza Alim Shah Beg, thereby ending the rule of Chagatai khans forever. Abdullah Tarkhan Beg of Hami also rebelled in 1696 and defected to the Qing dynasty . In 1698, Qing troops were stationed in Hami. In 1698 Galdan's successor Tsewang Rabtan reached Tengiz lake and Turkestan, and the Dzungars controlled Zhei-Su and Tashkent until 1745. The Dzungars' war on

5350-452: The Medieval Kipchak dialectal sound-change /k/ > ∅ had not yet happened in the mid-7th century Old Turkic , the identification of Yemeks with Kimeks is disputed. As a result, Golden (2002:660-665) later abandons the Kimeks > Yemeks identification and becomes more amenable to the identification of 鹽莫 Yánmò with Yemeks, by scholars such as Hambis, Zuev , and Kumekov, cited in Golden (1992:202). According to Tishin (2018), Yemeks were simply

5457-441: The Moghul forces without much difficulty and took Ismail and his family prisoner. Galdan installed Abd ar-Rashid Khan II , son of Babak, as puppet khan. In 1681, Galdan invaded the north of Tengeri Mountain and attacked the Kazakh Khanate but failed to take Sayram . In 1683 Galdan's armies under Tsewang Rabtan took Tashkent and Sayram . They reached the Syr Darya and crushed two Kazakh armies. After that Galdan subjugated

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5564-487: The Muslims to aid the Qing in killing Oirates. After the destruction of the Dzungar Oirat people, the Qing dynasty sponsored the settlement of millions of Han, Hui, Xibe, Daur, Solon, Turkic Oasis people (Uyghurs) and Manchus in Dzungaria since the land had been emptied. Stanley W. Toops notes that modern Xinjiang's demographic situation still reflects the settlement initiative of the Qing dynasty. One third of Xinjiang's total population consisted of Han, Hui, and Kazakhs in

5671-436: The Nogai were deported from the Budjak steppes after Russian conquest of Western Ukraine and Moldova in the eighteenth and early nineteenth century. According to C. E. Bosworth (2007) and R. Turaeva (2015) the Kimek tribe was Turkic . According to R. Preucel and S. Mrozowki (2010) and S. Divitçioğlu (2010), the Kimek tribe was Tungusic . Josef Markwart proposed that Kimeks were Turkicized Tatars , who were related to

5778-411: The Oirats. In the next year the Dalai Lama gave the highest title of Boshoghtu (or Boshughtu) Khan to him. From the late 16th century onward, the Yarkent Khanate fell under the influence of the Khojas . The Khojas were Naqshbandi Sufis who claimed descent from the prophet Muhammad or from the Rashidun caliphs . By the reign of Sultan Said Khan in the early 16th century, the Khojas already had

5885-432: The Qara Taghliq (Black Mountain) in Yarkand. Yulbars patronized the Aq Taghliqs and suppressed the Qara Taghliqs, which caused much resentment, and resulted in his assassination in 1670. He was succeeded by his son who ruled from only a brief period before Ismail Khan was enthroned. Ismail reversed the power struggle between the two Muslim factions and drove out the Aq Taghliq leader, Afaq Khoja . Afaq fled to Tibet , where

5992-444: The Qing dynasty. Amin Khoja led the people of Turpan in a retreat into Gansu where they settled in Guazhou . In 1739, Galdan Tseren agreed to the boundary between Khalkha and Dzungar territory. Galdan Tseren died in 1745, triggering widespread rebellion in the Tarim Basin, and starting a succession dispute among his sons. In 1749 Galden Tseren's son Lama Dorji seized the throne from his younger brother, Tsewang Dorji Namjal . He

6099-414: The Qing general Zhaohui. The scene was immortalized in the painting " Zhaohui receives the surrender of Dawachi at Ili " by the Jesuit court painter Ignatius Sichelbart . Dawachi was taken to Beijing, but was pardoned by the Emperor. Together with his captor Khojis , he was made a Prince, and "awarded banner privileges". After defeating the Dzungar Khanate, the Qing planned to install khans for each of

6206-421: The Qing, Amursana fled north to seek refuge with the Russians and died of smallpox in Russian lands in September 1757. In the spring of 1762 his frozen body was brought to Kyakhta for the Manchu to see. The Russians then buried it, refusing the Manchu request that it be handed over for posthumous punishment. Later encounters took place with the remaining Dzungar forces, in the Battle of Khorgos , in which

6313-415: The Russian Federation No. 255 dated March 24, 2000 , the Chelkans, Kumandins, Telengits, Teleuts, and Tubalars were recognized as separate ethnic groups as well as the indigenous small-numbered peoples of the North, Siberia and the Far East . However, in the 2010 Russian Census , the only recognized distinct ethnic groups are the Kumandins and Teleuts. The Altai region came within the sphere of influence of

6420-433: The Siberian mtDNA gene pool. Kimek tribe ( Tokhara Yabghus , Turk Shahis ) The Yemek or Kimek were a Turkic tribe constituting the Kimek-Kipchak confederation , whose other six constituent tribes, according to Abu Said Gardizi (d. 1061), were the Imur (or Imi ), Tatars , Bayandur , Kipchaks , Lanikaz , and Ajlad . Minorsky , citing Marquart, Barthold, Semenov and other sources, proposes that

6527-420: The Southern Altaians can be traced during this period from the result of the mixing of Kipchak and Mongol tribes. Meanwhile, the Northern Altaians were a result of the fusion of Turkic tribes with Samoyeds , Kets , and other indigenous Siberian ethnic groups. The Altaians were annexed by the Four Oirat of Western Mongols in the 16th century. The Mongols called them " Telengid " or " Telengid aimag " in

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6634-402: The area of Tuva during the early 13th century. Their leader, Quduqa Bäki , submitted to Genghis Khan in 1208 and his house intermarried with all four branches of the Genghisid line. During the Toluid Civil War , the Four Oirat ( Choros , Torghut , Dörbet , and Khoid ) sided with Ariq Böke and therefore never accepted Kublaid rule. After the Yuan dynasty 's collapse, the Oirats supported

6741-414: The camp and where able to conduct about 8,000 prisoners to the Chinese camp (an event depicted in the Qing painting " Storming of the Camp at Gädän-Ola "). Only 2,000 soldiers escaped with Dawachi at their head. Dawachi fled into the mountains north of Aksu but was captured by the Uyghur leader Khojis , beg of Uchturpan , at the request of the Chinese, and delivered to the Qing. Dawachi surrendered to

6848-402: The chaos. This was believed to have occurred because ancient religious beliefs could be easily orally transmitted from generation to another. It's also likely that no Burkhanist texts survived the repression and main sources for the beliefs of the religion come from Russian missionaries, travellers, and scholars. Recently, both Burkhanism and traditional Altai shamanism have seen a revival in

6955-450: The connection with the Proto-Mongolic world seriously. Mahmud al-Kashgari does not mention any Kimek, but Yamāk ; Kashgari further remarked that Kara-Khanids like him considered Yemeks to be "a tribe of the Kipchaks", though contemporary Kipchaks considered themselves a different party. The ethnonym Yemäk might have been transcribed in the mid 7th century by Chinese authors as 鹽莫 Yánmò < Middle Chinese * jiäm-mâk , referring

7062-448: The conquest of the Yarkent Khanate in 1680, they used people from the Tarim Basin ( taranchi ) as slave labour to cultivate land in Dzungaria. The Dzungar economy and industry was fairly complex for a nomadic society. They had iron, copper, and silver mines producing raw ore, which the Dzungars made into weapons and shields, including even firearms, bullets, and other utensils. The Dzungars were able to indigenously manufacture firearms to

7169-423: The division into the Burkhanists and shamanists has ceased to be relevant for the contemporary religiosity of the Altaians. According to a number of studies, by the beginning of the 21st century, there were practically no traditional shamans or classical Burkhanists anti-shamanists. The main one was the single " Altai Faith " ( Altay : Алтай јаҥ , romanized:  Altai jang )—a traditional ethnic religion in

7276-438: The fact that most Altaians today wear modern clothes, traditional wear still remains in use. Altai cuisine consists of soups of horseflesh or mutton . Dishes with gopher , badger , marmot , fermented milk , cream (from boiled milk), blood pudding, butter, fried barley flour, and certain vegetables are also staples of Altai cuisine. Popular drinks include aryki (hard liquor made from kumis ). Traditional Altai shamanism

7383-405: The fact that they represented the left wing of the Oirats . In the early 17th century, the head of the Oirat confederation was the leader of the Khoshut, Gushi Khan. When Gushi Khan decided to invade Tibet to replace the local Tsangpa khan in favor of rule by the Gelug , the Oirat army was organized into left and right wing. The right wing consisting of Khoshuts and Torguts remained in Tibet while

7490-435: The faith among the Altaians during the 19th century. The Buddhist missionaries also encouraged the Altaians to unite together against the Russians. However, their activities and preaching were suppressed both by the Russian state and Orthodox Christian missionaries. Buddhism made little headway among the Altaians but many Buddhist ideas and principles filtered into Altai spiritual beliefs. However, some Altaians reportedly visited

7597-602: The form of a synthesis of Burkhanism with the remnants of Altai shamanism, Mongolian and Tibetan Buddhism , and other tribal beliefs and customs. Y Chromosome Altai population can be divided into northern and southern clusters based on linguistics, culture, and genetics. According to a 2012 study that analyzed mtDNA (by PCR - RFLP analysis and control region sequencing) and nonrecombinant Y-DNA (by scoring more than 100 biallelic markers and 17 Y-STRs ) obtained from Altaian samples, northern Altaians are genetically more similar to Yeniseian , Ugric , and Samoyeds to

7704-510: The four Oirat tribes, but Amursana , who had been an ally of the Qing against Dawachi, wanted to rule over all the Oirats. Instead the Qianlong Emperor made him only khan of the Khoid . In the summer, Amursana along with Mongol leader Chingünjav led a revolt against the Qing. Amursana was defeated in the Battle of Oroi-Jalatu (1756), in which Chinese general Zhao Hui attacked the Dzungars at night in present Wusu , Xinjiang. Unable to defeat

7811-403: The influx of Russians near the homeland of the Altaians, there was an increase of the construction of large huts with two to four slope roofs in consequence of Russian influence. Despite the many social and political changes the Altaians have endured, many modern and settled families still keep a yurt in their yards. These yurts are usually used as a summertime kitchen or extra room. Historically,

7918-874: The late 19th century caused the Russification of Orthodox Christianity in the country, and the mostly Russian clergy in Siberia also took up the ideology. This created intolerant views of the natives of Siberia (including the Altaians) and of their culture. This led to the rejection of Christianity by many Altaians, who saw it as a foreign Russian religion. However, Russian rule continued to grow increasingly strict both politically and religiously. Russian Orthodox missionaries regularly confiscated land from Altaians who refused to convert to Christianity. Altaians were often forcefully converted to Christianity. Mongolian and Tibetan Buddhist missionaries attempted to spread

8025-607: The most important of the seven constituent tribes whose representatives met at the Irtysh valley, where the diverse Kimek tribal union emerged, as related by Gardizi . In the Western Turkic Khaganate two Chuy tribes , Chumukun and Chuban, occupied a privileged position of being voting members of the confederation's Onoq elite, while the Chuyue and Chumi tribes did not. A part of the Chuyue tribe intermixed with

8132-678: The name Kīmāk (pronounced Kimäk ) is derived from Iki-Imäk , "the two Imäk", probably referring to the first two clans ( Īmī and Īmāk ) of the federation. On the other hand, Pritsak attempted to connect the Kimek with the Proto-Mongolic Kumo of the Kumo Xi confederation (庫莫奚; Middle Chinese : kʰuo -mɑk̚-ɦei; * qu(o)mâġ-ġay , from * quo "yellowish" plus denominal suffix * -mAk ); Golden judges Pritsak's reconstruction "highly problematic", as Pritsak did not explain how Quomâġ might have produced Kimek ; still, Golden considers

8239-652: The name "Kumyk" from a Turkic ethnonym Kimak , or from another name for Kipchaks — Cuman . A genetic study published in Nature in May 2018 examined the remains of Kimek male buried in Pavlodar Region , Kazakhstan ca. 1350 AD. He was found to be carrying the paternal haplogroup R1b1b and the maternal haplogroup A . It was noted that he was not found to have "elevated East Asian ancestry". Dzungar Khanate The Dzungar Khanate , also written as

8346-579: The north while around two-thirds were Uyghurs in southern Xinjiang's Tarim Basin. Some cities in northern Xinjiang such as Ürümqi and Yining were essentially made by the Qing settlement policy. The elimination of the Buddhist Dzungars led to the rise of Islam and its Muslim Begs as the predominant moral political authority in Xinjiang. Many Muslim Taranchis also moved to northern Xinjiang. According to Henry Schwarz, "the Qing victory was, in

8453-531: The north, while southern Altaians having greater affinities to other Turkic speaking populations of southern Siberia and Central Asia. The same study conducted a high-resolution analysis of Y chromosome Haplogroup Q-M242 that was found in Altaian samples and concluded that southern Altaians and indigenous peoples of the Americas share a recent common ancestor . According to a new study by Russian geneticists,

8560-608: The oblast was renamed to Gorno-Altai Autonomous Oblast . By 1950, Soviet industrialization policies and development in this area resulted in considerable migration of Russians to this republic, reducing the proportion of Altai in the total population from 50% to 20%. In 1990, the Gorno-Altai Autonomous Oblast was declared an autonomous republic, the Gorno-Altai Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic , which

8667-583: The partisans of Amursana were defeated in 1758 by Prince Cäbdan-jab. Again in 1758, at the Battle of Khurungui , General Zhao Hui ambushed and defeated the Dzungarian forces on Mount Khurungui, near Almaty , Kazakhstan . When Amursana rebelled against the Qing dynasty , the Aq Taghliq (i.e. 'White Mountaineers', also known as Āfāqīs ) Khojas Burhanuddin and Jahan rebelled in Yarkand . Their rule

8774-550: The period of the Northern Yuan dynasty , with the region known as Telengid Province. After the fall of the Zunghar Khanate in the 18th century, the Altaians were subjugated by the Qing dynasty , which referred to them as Altan Nuur Uriyangkhai . Altaians are genetically related to the Uriyangkhai , which is a common neighbouring Oirat Mongol ethnic group in Mongolia . The Altai people came into contact with Russians in

8881-575: The ruler Sultan Shah, who executed them and handed Jahan's head to the Qing. The Tarim Basin was pacified in 1759. According to the Qing scholar Wei Yuan (1794–1857), the Dzungar population before the Qing conquest was around 600,000 in 200,000 households. Wei Yuan wrote that about 40 percent of the Dzungar households were killed by smallpox , 20 percent fled to Russia or Kazakh tribes, and 30 percent were killed by Manchu bannermen. For several thousands of li , there were no gers except of those who had surrendered. Wen-Djang Chu wrote that 80 percent of

8988-501: The same ilk as the Mongols, aren’t you? Why did you separate from them? (...) People stood there with their mouths open because of the misery. I was anxious that your misery came to a standstill. And I hope that it will not — with my help — last till the next morning (...) If Heaven wants to strengthen somebody, people cannot injure him even if they want his downfall. ...You want to honour the Yellow Doctrine and pray to Buddha and

9095-404: The same territory, i.e. Semirechye , and that Chumukun were known only to Chinese and Kimek only to Persians and Arabs. The head of the Kimek confederation was titled Shad Tutuq , "Prince Governor" ( tutuk being from Middle Chinese tuo-tuok 都督 "military governor"); as well as Yinal Yabghu , according to Gardizi. By the middle of the eighth century, the Kimeks occupied territory between

9202-459: The site of Borotola in June 1755, about 300 li from Ili . Dawachi had about 10,000 troops, and retreated to Mount Keteng, about 80 li from Ili, while sending messengers for reinforcements, but the messengers were intercepted by the Chinese. The Qing army was able to surprise and capture Dawachi's army at the camp, and a charge was led by the Dzungar renegade Ayusi and 20 of his men, who stormed

9309-587: The sole god. Burkhanism was opposed to both the Russians and the traditional Altai shamans. The hostility towards the shamans was so great that the shamans had to seek protection from Russian authorities. The rise of the Bolsheviks in the first quarter of the 20th century also led to the brutal repression of all religions , which included the indigenous faiths of the Altai people. For the next few decades, public expressions of religion severely declined with only shamanistic and ancient polytheistic beliefs surviving

9416-545: The term jiao (extermination) over and over again. The commanders Hadaha and Agui were punished for only occupying Dzungar lands but letting the people escape. The generals Jaohui and Shuhede were punished for not showing sufficient zeal in exterminating rebels. Qianlong explicitly ordered the Khalkha Mongols to "take the young and strong and massacre them". The elderly, children, and women were spared but they could not preserve their former names or titles. Mark Levene,

9523-604: The territories of the Oguz , Kangly , and Bagjanak tribes, and in the west bordered the Khazar and Bulgar territories. The Kimaks led a semi-settled life, as the Hudūd mentioned a town named * Yimäkiya (> Yamakkiyya > ms. Namakiyya ); while the Kipchaks, in some customs, resembled the contemporary Oghuzes, who were nomadic herders. In the beginning of the eleventh century

9630-483: The total population of the republic, compared with 56.6% with a Russian background, Altaian families are the majority only in certain villages. However, Altaian culture is still the local culture between people and communities. The Southern Altaians were mostly nomadic or semi-nomadic livestock holders. They raised horses , goats , sheep , and cattle . The Northern Altaians mainly engaged in hunting as their primary form of subsistence. Their main prey were animals from

9737-400: The traditional clothing of Southern Altaian men and women was very similar with little differences between the two. Average clothing consisted of long shirts with wide breeches, robes, and fur coats. Other apparel often included fur hats, high boots, and sheepskin coats. Northern Altaians and some Teleuts traditionally wore short breeches, linen shirts, and single-breasted oriental robes. Despite

9844-666: The war against the Kazakhs and the Kalkha Mongols. In retaliation against attacks against his Khalkha subjects, the Yongzheng Emperor of the Qing dynasty sent an invasion force of 10,000, which the Dzungars defeated near the Khoton Lake . The next year however, the Dzungars suffered a defeat against the Khalkhas near Erdene Zuu Monastery . In 1731, the Dzungars attacked Turpan, which had previously defected to

9951-634: The war. He ordered the painting of the 100 most meritorious servitors of the Qing ( 紫光阁功臣像 : brave Qing officers, generals, and also a few Torghut and Dörbed allies, as well as vanquished Choros Oirats, or Muslim Uyghur allies such as Khojis or Amin Khoja ), as well as paintings of the battle scenes whenever the Qing were successful. The faces are in Western realistic style, while the bodies were probably drawn by Chinese court artists. According to contemporary Jesuit painter Jean-Denis Attiret : "During

10058-688: The western Mongols, known as the Oirats , united in the Junggar Basin in Dzungaria . In 1678, Galdan received from the Dalai Lama the title of Boshogtu Khan , making the Dzungars the leading tribe within the Oirats . The Dzungar rulers used the title of Khong Tayiji , which translates into English as "crown prince". Between 1680 and 1688, the Dzungars conquered the Tarim Basin , which

10165-551: The western headwaters of the Liao River . Galdan was forced to retreat and escaped total destruction because the Qing army did not have the supplies or ability to pursue him. In 1696, the Kangxi Emperor led 100,000 troops into Mongolia . Galdan fled from the Kherlen only to be caught by another Qing army attacking from the west. He was defeated in the ensuing Battle of Jao Modo near the upper Tuul River . Galdan's wife, Anu ,

10272-463: The whole duration of this war against the Eleuths and other Tartars, their allies, whenever the imperials troops gained some victories, the painters were ordered to paint them. Those of the most important officers who had played the decisive roles in the events were favoured to appear in the paintings according to what really had happened". These paintings were all made by foreign artists, specifically

10379-577: Was also ended unceremoniously two years later when riots erupted in Yarkand. He was replaced by his brother Muhammad Imin Khan. Muhammad sought help from the Qing dynasty , Khanate of Bukhara , and the Mughal Empire in combating the Dzungars. In 1693, Muhammad conducted a successful attack on the Dzungar Khanate, taking 30,000 captives. Unfortunately Afaq Khoja appeared again and overthrew Muhammad in

10486-600: Was assassinated by his half-brothers Chechen Tayiji and Zotov in a coup in 1670. Sengge's younger brother Galdan Boshugtu Khan had been residing in Tibet at the time. Upon his birth in 1644 he was recognized as the reincarnation of a Tibetan lama who had died the previous year. In 1656 he left for Tibet, where he received education from Lobsang Chökyi Gyaltsen, 4th Panchen Lama and the 5th Dalai Lama. Upon learning of his brother's death, he immediately returned from Tibet and took revenge on Chechen. Allied with Ochirtu Sechen of

10593-471: Was captured by the Dzungars due to the treachery of Ayyub Khoja of Aksu . Jahan's son Sadiq gathered 7,000 men in Khotan and attacked Aksu in retaliation. In the spring of 1755, the Qianlong Emperor sent an army of 50,000 against Dawachi. He presented his invasion as benevolent, and aimed at ending the sufferings of the Dzungars, while ascribing their misery to themselves: "Alas, you Dzungars, you are of

10700-706: Was explored by characterizing coding region SNPs and control region sequences from 490 inhabitants of the Altai Republic. Differences in mtDNA haplogroup profiles were observed among northern Altaian ethnic groups and between northern Altaians and Altai-kizhi, with the Chelkans being extraordinarily distinct. Nevertheless, comparisons among other Altaian ethnic groups revealed some consistent patterns. mtDNA haplogroups B, C, D, and U4 were found in all Altaian populations, but at varying frequencies, whereas southern Altaians (Altai-kizhi, Telengits, and Teleuts) tended to have

10807-638: Was granted the title of Khong Tayiji, married the khan's daughter Amin Dara, and sent back to establish the Dzungar Khanate on the upper Emil River south of the Tarbagatai Mountains . Batur returned to Dzungaria with the title Erdeni (given by the Dalai Lama ) and much booty. During his reign he made three expeditions against the Kazakhs . The conflicts by the Dzungars are remembered in a Kazakh ballad Elim-ai . The Dzungars also went to war against

10914-585: Was killed and the Qing army captured 20,000 cattle and 40,000 sheep. Galdan fled with a small handful of followers. In 1697 he died in the Altai Mountains near Khovd on 4 April. Back in Dzungaria, his nephew Tsewang Rabtan , who had revolted in 1689, was already in control as of 1691. Galdan installed Abd ar-Rashid Khan II , son of Babak, as puppet khan in the Yarkent Khanate . The new khan forced Afaq Khoja to flee again, but Abd ar-Rashid's reign

11021-543: Was killed in battle. Chikhundorj then murdered Degdeehei Mergen Ahai of the Jasaghtu Khan who was on the way to Galdan. To avenge the death of his brother, Galdan established friendly relations with the Russians who were already at war with Chikhundorj over territories near Lake Baikal . Armed with Russian firearms, Galdan led 30,000 Dzungar troops into Khalkha Mongolia in 1688 and defeated Chikhundorj in three days. The Siberian Cossacks , meanwhile, attacked and defeated

11128-641: Was killed in the fight. However, his younger brothers Güshi Khan and Köndölön Ubashi took up the fight and pursued Chöükür from the Ishim River to the Tobol River , attacking and killing his tribal followers in 1630. The infighting among the Oirats caused the Torghut chief Kho Orluk to migrate westwards until they came into conflict with the Nogai Horde , which they destroyed. The Torghuts founded

11235-438: Was not popular and the people greatly disliked them for appropriating anything they needed from clothing to livestock. In February 1758, The Qing sent Yaerhashan and Zhao Hui with 10,000 troops against the Aq Taghliq regime. Zhao Hui was besieged by enemy forces at Yarkand until January 1759, but otherwise the Qing army did not encounter any difficulties on campaign. The khoja brothers fled to Badakhshan where they were captured by

11342-599: Was overthrown by his cousin Dawachi and the Khoid noble Amursana , but they too fought over control of the khanate. As a result of their dispute, in 1753, three of Dawachi's relatives ruling the Dörbet and Bayad defected to the Qing and migrated into Khalkha territory. The next year, Amursana also defected. In 1754, Yusuf, the ruler of Kashgar , rebelled and forcefully converted the Dzungars living there to Islam. His older brother, Jahan Khoja of Yarkand , also rebelled but

11449-530: Was renamed to the Altai Republic in 1992. In the early 21st century, ethnic Altaians make up about 31% of the Altai Republic's population. Today, the special interests of the Altaians are articulated and defended by the Association of Northern Ethnoses of Altai. According to the 2010 Russian census, there was a total of 69,963 Altaians who resided within the Altai Republic. This represented 34.5% of

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