158-652: The Second Anglo-Dutch War , or Second Dutch War , began on 4 March 1665, and concluded with the signing of the Treaty of Breda on 31 July 1667. One in a series of naval conflicts between England and the Dutch Republic , its causes were a combination of political differences and commercial disputes. Despite several major battles, neither the English Royal Navy nor the Dutch States Navy
316-597: A Dutch agreement to bear the costs of the war. In December 1665, Louis withdrew his ambassadors from London, signalling his intention to declare war. Downing now contacted the Orangist party in Overijssel, which had suffered severely from von Galen's invasion, asking that they demand the States General make peace with England. De Witt's position was too strong for this to succeed, and on 11 December he declared
474-620: A Dutch company. The term New Netherland Dutch generally includes all the Europeans who came to live there, but may also refer to Africans, Indo-Caribbeans , South Americans, and even the Indians who were integral to the society. Dutch was the official language and likely the lingua franca of the province, although other languages were also spoken. There were various Algonquian languages ; Walloons and Huguenots tended to speak French, and Scandinavians and Germans brought their own tongues. It
632-784: A French squadron under Joseph-Antoine de La Barre in January 1667 allowed the French to occupy the English half of St Kitts and Montserrat , leaving only Nevis of the Leeward Islands in English hands, together with Jamaica and Barbados to the west. A Dutch force under Admiral Abraham Crijnssen , organised by the province of Zeeland, not the States General, arrived at Cayenne in February 1667 and captured Suriname from
790-545: A charter for a utopian society that included equal education of all classes, joint ownership of property, and a democratically elected government. Pieter Corneliszoon Plockhoy attempted such a settlement near the site of Zwaanendael, but it was largely destroyed in 1664 by the British. A few Dutch settlers to New Netherland made their home at Fort Goede Hoop on the Fresh River . As early as 1637, English settlers from
948-536: A colonist was murdered in an act of revenge for some killings that had taken place years earlier and the Indians refused to turn over the perpetrator. Kieft suggested that they be taught a lesson by ransacking their villages. In an attempt to gain public support, he created the Citizens Commission the Council of Twelve Men . The Council did not rubber-stamp his ideas, as he had expected them to, but took
1106-693: A diplomatic triumph; the period immediately following is often considered the high point of the Dutch Golden Age . New Netherland New Netherland ( Dutch : Nieuw Nederland ) was a 17th-century colonial province of the Dutch Republic located on the East Coast of what is now the United States . The claimed territories extended from the Delmarva Peninsula to Cape Cod . Settlements were established in what became
1264-579: A fleet of 21 ships led by Vice Admiral Cornelis Evertsen the Youngest and Commodore Jacob Binckes , then the largest ever seen in America. They chose Anthony Colve as governor and renamed the city New Orange, reflecting the installation of William of Orange as Stadtholder of Holland in 1672; he became King William III of England in 1689. Nevertheless, the Dutch Republic needed money after
1422-574: A free hand in the Spanish Netherlands. This put De Witt under pressure to reach agreement, which increased after France and Portugal agreed an anti-Spanish alliance in March. The role of mediator in peace talks provided prestige and the opportunity to build relationships; since Louis and Leopold both wanted the position, they compromised by using Swedish diplomats. Key players in the vital Baltic trade in grain, iron and shipping supplies,
1580-613: A generation. A Dutch attack on the English anchorage at Harwich had to be abandoned however after the battle of Landguard Fort ended in Dutch failure. The Dutch success made a major psychological impact throughout England, with London feeling especially vulnerable just a year after the Great Fire of London . However, for a second time, the Dutch had been unable to land substantial land forces in Britain, or even do substantial damage to
1738-589: A government from which they had formerly fled. On 27 August 1664, four English frigates led by Richard Nicolls sailed into New Amsterdam's harbor and demanded New Netherland's surrender. They met no resistance to the capture of New Amsterdam , since requests for troops to protect the Dutch colonists from their English neighbors and Native Americans had been ignored. This left New Amsterdam effectively defenseless, but Stuyvesant negotiated good terms from his "too powerful enemies". Article VIII of these terms confirmed that New Netherlanders "shall keep and enjoy
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#17327723469841896-560: A major part of the United States, and instead retain a tropical colony, would seem strange by present-day standards. However, in the 17th century tropical colonies producing agricultural products which could not be grown in Europe were deemed more valuable than ones with a climate similar to that of Europe where Europeans could settle in comfort. The peace was generally seen as a personal triumph for Johan de Witt and an embarrassment to
2054-506: A map drawn in 1616. Hendricksz made his voyages aboard the IJseren Vercken (Iron Hog), a vessel built in America. Despite the survey, the company was unable to secure an exclusive patent from the States General for the area between the 38th and 40th parallels. The States General issued patents in 1614 for the development of New Netherland as a private, commercial venture. Soon after, traders built Fort Nassau on Castle Island in
2212-461: A matter of urgency. Backed by assurances from Louis that he would force the Dutch to agree concessions, the English increased their demands and Van Beverningh told De Witt a major military victory was needed to improve their bargaining position. An opportunity was provided by Charles, who decommissioned most of the Royal Navy in late 1666 as a cost-saving measure. The Dutch took full advantage in
2370-468: A passage to China with the yachts Craen and Vos , captained by Jan Cornelisz Mey and Symon Willemsz Cat respectively. Adriaen Block , Hendrick Christiaensen , and Cornelius Jacobsen Mey explored, surveyed, and mapped the area between Maryland and Massachusetts in four voyages made between 1611 and 1614. These surveys and charts were consolidated in Block's map, which used the name New Netherland for
2528-460: A primary goal. The legislators preferred the formula of trading posts with small populations and a military presence to protect them, which was working in the East Indies, versus encouraging mass immigration and establishing large colonies. The company did not focus on colonization in America until 1654 when it was forced to surrender Dutch Brazil and forfeit the richest sugar-producing area in
2686-547: A signalling system allowing commanders to control their fleets, something the Dutch then lacked. Over the course of the war, the formation was employed by both, although it better suited the heavier ships used by the Royal Navy, and its emphasis on gunnery to sink opponents. The Dutch preferred the use of boarding , with individual ships fighting one another. Difficulties in communicating orders meant during combat many captains focused on avoiding collisions rather than engaging
2844-528: A significant numerical advantage. However, most of the French ships were based in the Mediterranean Sea , and despite leaving Toulon in April, delays meant they failed to arrive in time. One contemporary diplomat suggested the relatively new and inexperienced French navy did so deliberately, being "dismayed by the difficulties of the enterprise" Nevertheless, the threat of French intervention forced
3002-412: A strong Dutch army for lack of money and for fear that it would strengthen the position of the young William III . That same year de Witt was assassinated, and William became stadtholder. Treaty of Breda (1667) The Peace of Breda , or Treaty of Breda was signed in the Dutch city of Breda , on 31 July 1667. It consisted of three separate treaties between England and each of its opponents in
3160-590: A strong link between the RAC and government policy. Huge profits from Asian spices led to conflict even in times of peace, as the Dutch East India Company , or VOC, first created, then enforced, their monopoly over production and trade. By 1663, indigenous and European competitors like the Portuguese had been eliminated, leaving only nutmeg plantations on Run . These had been established by
3318-562: A third option not considered by Clarendon: a secret alliance with France. In April, Charles concluded his first secret treaty with Louis, stipulating that England would not enter into alliances that might oppose a French conquest of the Spanish Netherlands . In May, the French invaded, starting the War of Devolution . Charles hoped, by means of stalling the talks at Breda, to gain enough time to ready his fleet to obtain concessions from
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#17327723469843476-623: Is likely that the Africans in Manhattan spoke their mother tongues but were taught Dutch from 1638 by Adam Roelantsz van Dokkum. The arrival of refugees from New Holland in Brazil may have brought speakers of Portuguese, Spanish, and Ladino (with Hebrew as a liturgical language). Commercial activity in the harbor could have been transacted simultaneously in any of a number of tongues. The Dutch West India Company introduced slavery in 1625 with
3634-405: Is often credited with forcing France to return most of their gains at Aix-la-Chapelle , whereas the terms had already been agreed by Louis and Leopold in January 1668. In the longer term, Breda was the point when the English and Dutch came to view France as a greater threat than each other; whilst Charles' preference for a French alliance led to the 1670 Secret Treaty of Dover , the long-term trend
3792-622: Is the Reformed Church in America. The colonists had to attract the Indians and other non-believers to God's word, "through attitude and by example" but not "to persecute someone by reason of his religion, and to leave everyone the freedom of his conscience." In addition, the laws and ordinances of the states of Holland were incorporated by reference in those first instructions to the Governors Island settlers in 1624. There were two test cases during Stuyvesant's governorship in which
3950-462: The Algonquian and Iroquois population, possibly at Schenectady , Esopus , Quinnipiac , Communipaw , and elsewhere. In 1624, New Netherland became a province of the Dutch Republic, which had lowered the northern border of its North American dominion to 42 degrees latitude in acknowledgment of the claim by the English north of Cape Cod. The Dutch named the three main rivers of the province
4108-619: The Dutch Republic at the time, as well as by the character of those who immigrated to it. It was during the early British colonial period that the New Netherlanders actually developed the land and society that had an enduring impact on the Capital District , the Hudson Valley , North Jersey , western Long Island , New York City , Fairfield County, and ultimately the United States. The concept of tolerance
4266-514: The Dutch navy was re-organised around sixty-four newly built and larger Ships of the line , each with between 40 and 60 guns. However, they remained inferior to English vessels such as HMS Sovereign of the Seas , which carried over 100 guns. In 1664, it was decided to create a new core of even heavier ships, which were mostly still under construction when fighting began in 1665. Stronger finances allowed
4424-562: The Four Days' Battle , a Dutch marine contingent had been ready to land in Kent or Essex following a possible Dutch victory at sea. The Dutch fleet was, however, unable to force a safe passage into the Thames as navigational buoys had been removed and a strong English squadron was ready to dispute their passage. But now there was no English fleet able to contest a similar attack. De Witt conceived
4582-603: The Iroquois Confederacy ) conquered the Mahicans, who retreated to Connecticut. The Mohawks gained a near-monopoly in the fur trade with the Dutch, as they controlled the upstate Adirondacks and Mohawk Valley through the center of New York. The Algonquin Lenape population around New York Bay and along the lower Hudson River were seasonally migrational people. The Dutch called the numerous band collectively
4740-585: The Lenape . After gaining support from the Queen of Sweden , Minuit chose the west bank of the Delaware River to establish a colony there in 1638, calling it New Sweden . As expected, the government in New Amsterdam took no action other than to protest. Small settlements centered on Fort Christina sprang up as the colony slowly grew, mostly populated by Swedes , Finns , and Dutch . In 1651,
4898-627: The Manhattans ( Pavonia and Staten Island ) were attacked in an incident that is known as the Peach War . These raids are sometimes considered revenge for the murder of a Munsee woman attempting to pluck a peach, though it is possible that they were an attempt to disrupt the attack on New Sweden. A new experimental settlement on Delaware Bay was begun in 1663, just before the British takeover in 1664. Franciscus van den Enden had drawn up
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5056-794: The Manhattoe , in exchange for traded goods worth 60 guilders , often said to be worth US$ 24. The figure of 60 guilders comes from a letter by a representative of the Dutch Estates General and member of the board of the Dutch West India Company , Pieter Janszoon Schagen, to the Estates General in November 1626. In 1846, New York historian John Romeyn Brodhead converted the figure of Fl 60 (or 60 guilders) to US$ 24 (he arrived at $ 24 = Fl 60/2.5, because
5214-482: The Massachusetts Bay Colony began to settle along its banks and on Lange Eylandt , some with permission from the colonial government and others with complete disregard for it. The English colonies grew more rapidly than New Netherland as they were motivated by a desire to establish communities with religious roots, rather than for trade purposes. The wal or rampart at New Amsterdam ( Wall Street )
5372-578: The Navigation Acts ; goods transported along the Rhine or Scheldt to Amsterdam could be carried by Dutch ships to England without being subject to tariffs. England also accepted the principle of "free ships make free goods", which prevented the Royal Navy from intercepting Dutch ships during wars in which the Dutch were neutral. These terms were preliminary, with a definitive text signed on 17 February 1668. The Danish and French treaties followed
5530-599: The Orangist opposition. They were supported by Louis, who viewed the Orangists as English agents. Angered by the delay, the States of Zeeland , Gelderland , Groningen , Overijssel and Friesland threatened to stop paying for a war 'continued only by Holland's obstinacy.' The parties eventually settled on Breda, but French military preparations led the Orangists to accuse De Witt of deliberately stalling to allow Louis
5688-807: The Royal African Company , or RAC, whose purpose was to challenge Dutch dominance of the Atlantic slave trade . Investors included senior politicians such as George Carteret , Shaftesbury and Arlington , creating a strong link between the RAC and government policy. The Atlantic trade was a three way process, whereby slaves from West Africa were transported to Sugar plantations in the Caribbean , which in turn were supplied by colonies in North America . These links meant conflict in one region often led to fighting in all three. In August 1664,
5846-599: The Second Anglo-Dutch War : the Dutch Republic , France , and Denmark–Norway . It also included a separate Anglo-Dutch commercial agreement. Negotiations had been in progress since late 1666 but were slow, as both sides tried to improve their positions. This changed after the French invasion of the Spanish Netherlands in late May, which the Dutch viewed as a more serious threat. War-weariness in England
6004-536: The Spanish Netherlands . The 1648 Peace of Münster permanently closed the Scheldt estuary and the port of Antwerp , which did not recover economically until the 19th century. The combination gave Amsterdam effective control of trade in North-West Europe. Louis considered the Spanish Netherlands his by right of marriage to Maria Theresa of Spain but hoped to acquire them peacefully. Negotiations with
6162-551: The Swedish South Company encroached on its southern flank, while its eastern border was redrawn to accommodate the English colonies of an expanding New England Confederation . The colony experienced dramatic growth during the 1650s and became a major center for trade across the North Atlantic . The Dutch conquered New Sweden in 1655 but, during the Second Anglo-Dutch War , surrendered New Netherland to
6320-432: The Treaty of Westminster concluded the war. It took until 10 November 1674 for the new English governor Edmund Andros to take over from governor Anthony Colve. New Netherland grew into the largest metropolitan area in the United States, and it left an enduring legacy on American cultural and political life, "a secular broadmindedness and mercantile pragmatism" greatly influenced by the social and political climate in
6478-568: The Vlie estuary were destroyed in an action known as Holmes's Bonfire . Over a period of eighteen months from 1665 to 1666, the Great Plague of London killed more than a quarter of its population. In September 1666, the Fire of London destroyed much of the city, causing huge economic damage, and public opinion now turned against the war. Charles could no longer rely on London merchants to supply
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6636-749: The Zuyd Rivier ( South River ), the Noort Rivier ( North River ), and the Versche Rivier ( Fresh River ). Discovery, charting, and permanent settlement were needed to maintain a territorial claim. To this end in May 1624, the GWC landed 30 families at Fort Orange and Noten Eylant (today's Governors Island ) at the mouth of the North River. They disembarked from the ship Nieu Nederlandt , under
6794-548: The patroons of Zwaanendael , Samuel Blommaert and Samuel Godijn was destroyed by the local Indigenous population soon after its founding in 1631 during the absence of their agent, David Pietersen de Vries . Peter Minuit , who had obtained a deed for Manhattan from the Lenape (and was soon after dismissed as director), knew that the Dutch would be unable to defend the southern flank of their North American territory and had not signed treaties with or purchased land there from
6952-456: The "most advanced, complex, expensive and manpower-intensive weapons systems of their day". With the fleets involved increasing to over 100 ships per side, maximising firepower required greater levels of organisation, discipline and co-ordination. One solution to these problems was the Line of battle formation. In 1664, the Royal Navy issued new "Fighting Instructions", formalising the "line of battle" as standard practice. They also established
7110-437: The 1660 Stuart Restoration as an opportunity to rebuild relationships. He hoped to negotiate overlapping defensive agreements with England and France to ensure peace, and continued Dutch economic dominance. However, the English saw little benefit in preserving this system, and wanted concessions the Dutch were not prepared to grant. When merchants in the City of London demanded increased Protectionism , Charles II renewed
7268-423: The 1662 treaty, calculating this would make it harder for the Dutch to oppose his occupation of the Spanish Netherlands. He also paid Sweden to remain neutral, while influencing Denmark–Norway to join the war. Danish assistance saved the Dutch merchant fleet at the Battle of Vågen in August, although this turned out to have been the result of miscommunication. Frederick III of Denmark had secretly agreed to help
7426-591: The Anglican government as in old England". The Dutch West India Company directors concluded that the religious freedom they offered in New Netherland would dissuade English colonists from working toward their removal. They wrote to Director-General Peter Stuyvesant : [W]e are in hopes that as the English at the north (in New Netherland) have removed mostly from old England for the causes aforesaid, they will not give us henceforth so much trouble, but prefer to live free under us at peace with their consciences than to risk getting rid of our authority and then falling again under
7584-411: The Anglo-Dutch version in waiving claims for restitution of losses. In addition, England returned the French possessions of Cayenne and Acadia , captured in 1667 and 1654 respectively, but the exact boundaries were not specified, and the handover was delayed until 1670. England regained Montserrat and Antigua , and the Anglo-French division of the Caribbean island of Saint Kitts was restored. After
7742-411: The Baltic grain trade . In October 1666, Charles opened discussions with the States-General of the Netherlands , under the pretext of arrangements to return the body of Vice-Admiral William Berkeley , killed in the Four Days' Battle . He invited the Dutch to negotiations in London and withdrew previous demands for the appointment of his nephew William of Orange as stadtholder , payment of damages,
7900-544: The British East India Company in 1616, before being evicted by the VOC in 1620; when the English re-occupied Run in late 1664, the Dutch expelled them again, this time destroying the plantations. There was a similar struggle over the Atlantic trade between the Dutch West-Indische Compagnie , or WIC, and competitors from Spain, Denmark, Sweden, Portugal and England. Sugar plantations in the Americas were cultivated by slaves from Africa, fed by colonies in North America, leading to conflict in all three regions. In August 1664,
8058-423: The Caribbean and allowed the early recapture of Antigua and Montserrat and an unsuccessful attack on St Kitts soon after. In April, a new English squadron of nine warships and two fireships under the command of Rear-Admiral Sir John Harman sailed for the West Indies, reaching them in early June. Harman encountered the French with seven larger and 14 smaller warships and three fireships under la Barre anchored under
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#17327723469848216-452: The Caribbean. In late 1665 an English force, mainly consisting of buccaneers under the command of Lieutenant-colonel Edward Morgan , the Deputy Governor of Jamaica , assisted by his nephew Thomas Morgan, quickly captured the Dutch islands of Sint Eustatius and Saba . After his uncle's death in December 1665, Thomas Morgan was appointed as governor of these two islands. Also in late 1665, an English force from Jamaica and Barbados captured
8374-410: The Chatham dockyard. The raid did, together with the English financial crisis, speed up negotiations. All this, together with the cost of the war, of the Great Plague and the extravagant spending of Charles's court, produced a rebellious atmosphere in London. Clarendon ordered the English envoys at Breda to sign a peace quickly, as Charles feared an open revolt. In early 1665 Michiel de Ruyter raided
8532-419: The Dutch 'Free Ship, Free Goods' principle. On the same date and also at Breda, a public treaty was concluded between England and France that stipulated the return to England of the former English part of St Christopher and the islands of Antigua and Montserrat , all of which the French had occupied in the war, and that England should surrender its claim to Acadia to France, although the extent of Acadia
8690-456: The Dutch Government came down against the GWC, granting the colony a measure of self-government and recalling Stuyvesant in April 1652. However, the orders were rescinded with the outbreak of the First Anglo-Dutch War a month later. Military battles were occurring in the Caribbean and along the South Atlantic coast. In 1654, the Netherlands lost New Holland in Brazil to Portugal, encouraging some of its residents to emigrate north and making
8848-407: The Dutch complied with English demands, in exchange for a free hand in the Spanish Netherlands; by April 1667, diplomats in The Hague were predicting a deal was imminent. When talks eventually began, the English delegation felt their position was extremely strong. Grand Pensionary Johan de Witt and the States of Holland rejected English proposals to negotiate in The Hague , a town dominated by
9006-420: The Dutch continually broke down over his desire to re-open Antwerp as an export route for French goods. By 1663, he concluded they would never make concessions voluntarily and began planning a military intervention. In early 1665, England signed an alliance with Sweden against the Dutch, who suffered a serious defeat at Lowestoft in June, followed by an invasion from Münster . Louis responded by activating
9164-436: The Dutch dismantled Fort Nassau and constructed Fort Casimir on the west bank in an attempt to disrupt trade and reassert control. Three years later, Fort Casimir was seized by the Swedes, who renamed it Fort Trinity. In 1655, Stuyvesant led a military expedition and regained control of the region, naming its main settlement " New Amstel " ( Nieuw-Amstel ). While Stuyvesant was conquering New Sweden, some villages and farms at
9322-436: The Dutch into declaring war would give Louis XIV the chance to remain neutral. Following English attacks on convoys off Cadiz and in the English Channel , the Dutch declared war on 4 March 1665. Some historians argue that just as the tactics used by 17th century armies were transformed by the Military Revolution , the Anglo-Dutch Wars marked a similar change in naval practice. The ships on either side have been described as
9480-537: The Dutch kept control over Pulau Run, Fort Cormantin and the valuable sugar plantations of Suriname , while also regaining Tobago, St Eustatius, and its West African trading posts. This uti possidetis solution was later confirmed in the Treaty of Westminster . The Act of Navigation was modified in favour of the Dutch by England agreeing to treat Germany as part of the Netherlands' commercial hinterland, so that Dutch ships would now be allowed to carry German goods to English ports. The English were also forced to accept
9638-419: The Dutch possession of Tobago . The French declaration of war on the side of the Dutch altered the balance of power in the Caribbean and facilitated a Dutch counterattack. The first successes of the new allies were the French recapture of Tobago in August 1666, a joint Franco-Dutch recapture of Sint Eustatius in November 1666 and a French capture of the English island of Antigua in the same month. The arrival of
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#17327723469849796-637: The Dutch to complete these plus another twenty during the war, compared to only a dozen built by England. Although the Royal Navy was superior in ships and leadership at the beginning of the war, these advantages were gradually eroded by Parliament's reluctance to fund it. Downing, and other observers who argued the Dutch could not afford a war, overlooked recent reforms that improved their credit, and made it relatively easy to raise money. In contrast, English expectations that profits from Dutch ships captured by privateers would cover costs proved unfounded. In December 1664, Parliament approved £2.5 million in taxes for
9954-439: The Dutch undertook not to interfere with French actions in the Spanish Netherlands , but by 1664, many were concerned by the prospect of having an expansionist France as a neighbour, rather than a weakened Spain . Although it provided another reason to agree terms with England, negotiations made little progress. This was partially due to the complexity of the Dutch political system, which made it difficult to reach consensus between
10112-418: The Dutch, using the French advance as leverage. De Witt was aware of Charles's general intentions – though not of the secret treaty. He decided to attempt to end the war with a single stroke. Ever since its actions in Denmark in 1659, involving many landings to liberate the Danish Isles, the Dutch navy had made a special study of amphibious operations; the Dutch Marine Corps was established in 1665. After
10270-471: The Dutch. The massacre left 130 dead. Within days, the surrounding tribes united and rampaged the countryside, in a unique move, forcing settlers who escaped to find safety at Fort Amsterdam. For two years, a series of raids and reprisals raged across the province, until 1645 when Kieft's War ended with a treaty, in a large part brokered by the Hackensack sagamore Oratam . The colonists were disenchanted with Kieft, his ignorance of Indigenous peoples, and
10428-434: The English capture the fleet in return for a share of the profits, but his instructions arrived too late. By late 1666, Charles was short of money, largely due to his refusal to recall Parliament, while English trade had been badly affected by the war and domestic disasters. In contrast, the Dutch economy had largely recovered from its post-1665 contraction, while public debt was lower in 1667 than 1652; however, naval warfare
10586-521: The English first occupied New Netherland , renamed New York City , then took WIC slaving posts in modern Guinea . When these were recaptured by a Dutch fleet under Michiel de Ruyter in early 1665, the RAC was forced into bankruptcy , and its influential investors saw war as the best way to recoup their losses. In taking these actions, the Dutch were reassured by their 1662 defensive treaty with France, under which Louis XIV agreed to provide military support if they were attacked by England. In return,
10744-508: The English fleet put to sea again and confronted the Dutch in the St. James's Day Battle of 4 and 5 August. Generally considered an English victory, it ultimately had little strategic value. Although the Dutch suffered heavy casualties and many ships were badly damaged, their fleet remained intact, while lack of money meant the English could scarcely afford to pay their sailors or purchase supplies. A more significant economic loss occurred on 19 August, when up to 150 Dutch merchantmen sheltering in
10902-559: The English fleet to battle, although his ships were inferior in organisation, training, discipline and firepower. At the Battle of Lowestoft on 13 June 1665, the Dutch navy suffered the worst defeat in its history, losing some sixteen ships. Most of the fleet escaped, but over 30% of its personnel were killed or captured, with van Wassenaer himself among the dead. Defeat led to an extensive overhaul of Dutch tactics and command structures, with several captains either executed for alleged cowardice, or dismissed. In July, Michiel de Ruyter became
11060-434: The English following the capture of New Amsterdam . In 1673, the Dutch retook the colony but relinquished it under the Treaty of Westminster (1674) that ended the Third Anglo-Dutch War . The inhabitants of New Netherland ( New Netherlanders ) were European colonists, Native Americans , and Africans imported as slave laborers. Not including Native Americans, the colonial population, many of whom were not of Dutch descent,
11218-439: The English in the same month. Crijnssen delayed in Suriname until April, then sailed to Tobago, which had been vacated by the French after expelling the English garrison, where he rebuilt the fort and left a small garrison. Although Crijnssen was instructed not to delay, it was not until early May that he and de La Barre combined forces, agreeing to a Franco-Dutch invasion of Nevis , which sailed on 17 May 1667. However, their attack
11376-478: The English kept New Netherland , which was subsequently divided into the colonies of New York , New Jersey , Pennsylvania , Massachusetts , Connecticut and Delaware . Articles 4 to 8 applied the same principle to losses of goods or ships, including those that occurred before the war. No indemnities could be levied or punishments imposed, but all existing Letters of Marque were declared void. To allow time to communicate these instructions, Article 7 varied
11534-492: The English occupied New Netherland , later renamed New York; when another attack captured WIC slave trade posts in modern Ghana , the Dutch sent a fleet to recapture them. The result was to bankrupt the RAC, whose investors saw war as the best way to recoup their losses. Despite the Franco-Dutch treaty of April 1662, Louis XIV initially remained neutral, as French and Dutch economic interests increasingly diverged over
11692-537: The English to send a detachment to block the Strait of Dover , leaving 60 ships facing a Dutch fleet of around 84. In the initial stages of the Four Days' Battle , fought from 11 to 15 June, the Dutch inflicted heavy damage on their opponents, before the return of the detached squadron forced them to withdraw. The English lost ten ships compared to only four Dutch, but any hope the Royal Navy was too damaged to renew hostilities soon proved incorrect. After extensive repairs,
11850-639: The European continent. The Dutch Republic had become a home to many intellectuals, international businessmen, and religious refugees. In the Americas , the English had a settlement at Jamestown, Virginia , the French had small settlements at Port Royal and Quebec , and the Spanish were developing colonies in South America and the Caribbean. In 1609, English sea captain and explorer Henry Hudson
12008-490: The French king had also concluded the Dutch would never voluntarily make the concessions he required in the Spanish Netherlands, and began planning the 1667 War of Devolution . On the other hand, Dutch morale rose with the completion of thirty new warships, most carrying up to 72 guns, heavier than any available in early 1665. They were supposed to link up with a French naval force in the English Channel , giving them
12166-606: The Fresh River, and Fort Wilhelmus on the South River. Many of the settlers were not Dutch but Walloons , French Huguenots , or Africans (most as enslaved labor, some later gaining "half-free" status). Peter Minuit became Director of the New Netherland in 1626 and made a decision that greatly affected the new colony. Originally, the capital of the province was to be located on the South River, but it
12324-658: The GWC, the States General, and the New Netherlanders. The English were nibbling at Dutch territory to the north and the Swedes to the south, while in the heart of the province, the Esopus were trying to contain further Dutch expansion. Discontent in New Amsterdam led locals to dispatch Adriaen van der Donck back to the United Provinces to seek redress. After nearly three years of legal and political wrangling,
12482-565: The Indians did not intend to leave or give up access. This misunderstanding and other differences led to violent conflict later. At the same time, such differences marked the beginnings of a multicultural society. Like the French in the north, the Dutch focused their interest on the fur trade . To that end, they cultivated contingent relations with the Five Nations of the Iroquois to procure greater access to key central regions from which
12640-428: The Indians. The Dutch West India Company would offer a land patent, and the recipient would be responsible for negotiating a deal with representatives of the local tribes, usually the sachem or high chief. The Indians referred to the Dutch colonists as Swannekins , or salt water people ; they had vastly different conceptions of ownership and use of land than the colonists did, and difficulties sometimes arose concerning
12798-492: The Institute for Social History of Amsterdam. Based on the price of silver , " The Straight Dope " newspaper column calculated an equivalent of $ 72 in 1992. Historians James and Michelle Nevius revisited the issue in 2014, suggesting that using the prices of beer and brandy as monetary equivalencies, the price Minuit paid would have the purchasing power of somewhere between $ 2,600 and $ 15,600 in current dollars. According to
12956-609: The June 1667 Medway Raid ; although the action itself had limited strategic impact, it was a humiliation Charles never forgot. Holles and Coventry initially assumed this would extend negotiations, but the need to create an alliance against France meant Spain threatened to withhold implementation of the Madrid treaty, supported by Leopold. Combined with economic losses caused by the war and the Great Fire of London , Clarendon instructed Holles to agree terms "to calm people's minds" and "free
13114-531: The Medway and, on the 13th, attacked the laid up English fleet. The daring raid remains one of the largest disasters in the history of the Royal Navy and its predecessors. Fifteen of the Royal Navy's remaining ships were destroyed, either by the Dutch or by being scuttled by the English to block the river. Three of the eight remaining "big ships" were burnt: Royal Oak , the new Loyal London and Royal James . The largest English flagship, HMS Royal Charles ,
13272-669: The Narrows into the Upper New York Bay . Hudson believed that he had found the continental water route, so he sailed up the major river that now bears his name. He found the water too shallow to proceed several days later at the site of Troy, New York . Upon returning to the Netherlands, Hudson reported that he had found fertile land and amicable people willing to engage his crew in small-scale bartering of furs, trinkets, clothes, and small manufactured goods. His report
13430-792: The Navigation Acts in August 1660, then strengthened them further in 1663. Parliament claimed they were simply responding to measures taken by the Dutch East India Company , or VOC, to enforce its monopolies in Asia, and by the West-Indische Compagnie , or WIC, in West Africa . For Charles, expanding the economy was another way to reduce his financial dependence on Parliament, preferably using royal monopolies or charters to do so. In 1660, he and his brother James founded
13588-475: The North American colonies more appealing to some investors. The Esopus Wars are so named for the branch of Lenape that lived around Wiltwijck, today's Kingston , which was the Dutch settlement on the west bank of Hudson River between Beverwyk and New Amsterdam . These conflicts were generally over settlement of land by New Netherlanders for which contracts had not been clarified, and were seen by
13746-563: The Orangists, who seemed reluctant to support the war and eager to accept a disadvantageous early peace. The Republic was jubilant about the Dutch victory. De Witt used the occasion to induce four provinces to adopt the Perpetual Edict of 1667 abolishing the stadtholderate forever. He used the weak position of Charles II to force him into the Triple Alliance of 1668 which again forced Louis to temporarily abandon his plans for
13904-503: The Republic at Cleves in April. Anglo-Dutch negotiations had progressed far enough that de Witt invited Charles II to start formal negotiations. Talks made little progress, as both sides felt they were negotiating from a position of strength. Despite the French declaration of war, Charles knew Louis wanted to avoid being dragged into the conflict, and through informal correspondence was aware he considered Dutch demands excessive. By now,
14062-806: The River Indians, known the exonyms associated with place names as the Wecquaesgeek , Hackensacks , Raritans , Canarsee , and Tappans . These groups had the most frequent contact with the New Netherlanders. The Munsee inhabited the Highlands , Hudson Valley, and northern New Jersey , while the Susquehannocks lived west of the Delaware River along the Susquehanna River, which the Dutch regarded as their boundary with Virginia. Company policy required land to be purchased from
14220-540: The Royal Navy was taken out of service and anchored at the naval base of Chatham . This left only a small Flying Fleet operational, leaving English merchant shipping vulnerable to Dutch attack. Clarendon informed Charles he could either grant Parliament the concessions demanded, or initiate peace talks with the Dutch, which began in March at Breda . As England was by now also at war with France, Charles sent envoys to Paris for unofficial preliminary talks. The deterioration of Franco-Dutch relations meant these talks produced
14378-537: The Spanish Netherlands and Franche-Comté . To focus on this, Spain needed to end the long-running Portuguese Restoration War . On 27 May, the Anglo-Spanish Treaty of Madrid formally concluded the 1654 to 1660 war and in return for commercial concessions, England agreed to mediate with Portugal. The threat to the Dutch economy presented by French expansion made ending the Anglo-Dutch War
14536-468: The States of Holland responded on 5 August with the Perpetual Edict . This abolished the position of Stadholder of Holland, while a second resolution agreed to oppose that any confederate Captain-General or Admiral-General would become stadtholder of another province. Since the army was viewed as an Orangist power base, spending on it was deliberately minimised; this had catastrophic effects in 1672. Breda
14694-609: The Swedes hoped to remove commercial concessions imposed by the Republic in the 1656 Treaty of Elbing and end its alliance with Denmark. Göran Fleming was based at Breda, with Peter Coyet in The Hague; after Coyet died on 8 June, he was replaced by Count Dohna , who was instructed to negotiate a Swedish-English-French alliance if talks at Breda failed. The States General appointed eight delegates but only those from Holland , Zeeland and Friesland were actually present. Two of
14852-473: The Treaty of Breda had been signed, and possessions captured after 31 July had to be returned. Crijnssen sailed back to the Caribbean only to find the French fleet destroyed and the English back in possession of Suriname. On 31 July 1667, what is generally known as the Treaty of Breda concluded peace between England and the Netherlands. The treaty allowed the English to keep possession of New Netherland , while
15010-471: The US dollar was erroneously equated with the Dutch rijksdaalder having a standard value of 2.5 guilders). "[A] variable-rate myth being a contradiction in terms, the purchase price remains forever frozen at twenty-four dollars," as authors Edwin G. Burrows and Mike Wallace remarked in their history of New York. In 1626, sixty guilders were valued at approximately $ 1,000 in 2006 and $ 963 in 2020, according to
15168-477: The United Provinces. Still, the Dutch could not populate or militarily defend their territorial claim and, therefore, could do nothing but protest the growing flood of English settlers. With the 1650 Treaty of Hartford , Stuyvesant provisionally ceded the Connecticut River region to New England, drawing New Netherland's eastern border 50 Dutch miles (approximately 250 km ) west of Connecticut's mouth on
15326-575: The area of Albany up Hudson's river. The fort was to defend river traffic against interlopers and to conduct fur trading operations with the Indians. The location of the fort proved to be impractical, however, due to repeated flooding of the island in the summers, and it was abandoned in 1618 when the patent expired. The Republic of the Seven United Netherlands granted a charter to the Dutch West India Company (GWC) ( Geoctroyeerde Westindische Compagnie ) on 3 June 1621, which gave
15484-542: The award. The New Netherland Company was an alliance of trading companies, and they used Adrian Block 's map to win a patent that expired on 1 January 1618. The New Netherland Company also ordered a survey of the Delaware Valley , and Cornelis Hendricksz of Monnickendam explored the Zuyd Rivier (South River) in 1616 from its bay to its northernmost navigable reaches. His observations were preserved in
15642-583: The batteries of Fort St Pierre , Martinique. He attacked on 6 July and sunk, burnt or captured all but two the French ships. With the French fleet neutralised, Harman then attacked the French at Cayenne on 15 September forcing its garrison to surrender. The English fleet then went on to recapture Fort Zeelandia in Suriname in October. News of these English victories only reached England in September, after
15800-467: The colony fell, the company freed the slaves, establishing early on a nucleus of free blacks. The Union of Utrecht is the founding document of the Dutch Republic, signed in 1579, and it stated "that everyone shall remain free in religion and that no one may be persecuted or investigated because of religion". The Dutch West India Company , however, established the Reformed Church as the official religious institution of New Netherland. Its successor church
15958-457: The command of Cornelis Jacobsz May , the first Director of the New Netherland . He was replaced the following year by Willem Verhulst . In June 1625, 45 additional colonists disembarked on Noten Eylant from three ships named Horse , Cow , and Sheep , which also delivered 103 horses, steers, cows, pigs, and sheep. Most settlers were dispersed to the various garrisons built across the territory: upstream to Fort Orange , to Kievits Hoek on
16116-620: The company the exclusive right to operate in West Africa (between the Tropic of Cancer and the Cape of Good Hope ) and the Americas. Willem Usselincx was one of the founders of the GWC, and he promoted the concept that the company's main goal should be to establish colonies in the New World. In 1620, Usselincx made a last appeal to the States General, which rejected his principal vision as
16274-551: The conclusion of the Third Anglo-Dutch War in 1672–1674, the historic "disaster years" in which the French simultaneously attacked the republic under Louis XIV , the English, the Prince-Bishop of Münster , and Archbishop-Elector of Cologne . The States of Zeeland had tried to convince the States of Holland to take on the responsibility for the New Netherland province, but to no avail. In February 1674,
16432-475: The confiscated property. In addition, a Mennonite settlement led by Pieter Corneliszoon Plockhoy near Lewes, Delaware was destroyed. The 1667 Treaty of Breda ended the Second Anglo-Dutch War ; the Dutch did not press their claims on New Netherland, and the status quo was maintained, with the Dutch occupying Suriname and the nutmeg island of Run . Within six years, the nations were again at war. The Dutch recaptured New Netherland in August 1673 with
16590-470: The conquest of the southern Netherlands. But de Witt's success would eventually produce his downfall and nearly that of the Republic with it. Both humiliated monarchs intensified their secret cooperation through the Secret Treaty of Dover and would, joined by the bishop of Münster, attack the Dutch in 1672 in the Third Anglo-Dutch War . De Witt was unable to counter this attack, as he could not create
16748-498: The construction of Fort Amsterdam at its southern tip, around which grew the heart of the province called The Manhattoes in the vocabulary of the day, rather than New Netherland. According to a letter by Pieter Janszoon Schagen, Peter Minuit and Walloon colonists of the West India Company acquired the island of Manhattan on May 24, 1626, from unnamed native people, who are believed to have been Canarsee Indians of
16906-574: The date on which they would be enforced: 5 September for the English Channel and the North Sea , 5 October for the other European seas, 2 November for the African coast north of the Equator and 24 April 1668 for the rest of the world. Article 10 required all prisoners to be exchanged without ransom although the Dutch later demanded reimbursement of their living expenses, which the English viewed as
17064-628: The different provinces and powerful trade groups like the VOC. It also reflected de Witt's belief Parliament would not approve funds for an expensive naval war, a view shared by many English politicians, including Charles' chief minister Lord Clarendon . For his part, Louis XIV feared an Anglo-Dutch conflict might draw in Spain or the Holy Roman Empire , and impede his efforts to acquire the Spanish Netherlands. He therefore tried to mediate between
17222-507: The enemy, making battles chaotic and often indecisive. In addition, both navies consisted of significant numbers of purpose-built warships, bulked out by private merchantmen. Although many of the latter were well-armed, they were often less capable of standing up to sustained fire. Dutch merchant ships were particularly vulnerable to the larger English warships. Based on lessons learned from the First Anglo-Dutch War, post-1653
17380-412: The expectations on both sides. The colonists thought that their proffer of gifts in the form of sewant or manufactured goods was a trade agreement and defense alliance, which gave them exclusive rights to farming, hunting, and fishing. Often, the Indians did not vacate the property or reappeared seasonally according to their migration patterns. They were willing to share the land with the colonists, but
17538-552: The fighting, and thus provide an excuse for Emperor Leopold to intervene. Concerned by this, Louis sent French soldiers to prevent supplies reaching von Galen's troops. Reports Charles was negotiating an alliance with Spain meant he also stepped up attempts to mediate a settlement, but the English in general remained deeply suspicious of French intentions. Although the Dutch offered to renounce their territorial claims in North America , and cede three West African posts, success at Lowestoft prompted Charles to demand further concessions and
17696-638: The first time; it was also called Nova Belgica on maps. During this period, there was some trading with the Native American population. Fur trader Juan Rodriguez was born in Santo Domingo of Portuguese and African descent. He arrived in Manhattan during the winter of 1613–1614, trapping for pelts and trading with the Indians as a representative of the Dutch. He was the first recorded non-native inhabitant of New York City. The immediate and intense competition among Dutch trading companies in
17854-530: The importation of 11 black slaves who worked as farmers, fur traders, and builders. They had a few basic rights and families were usually kept intact. They were admitted to the Dutch Reformed Church and married by its ministers, and their children could be baptized. Slaves could testify in court, sign legal documents, and bring civil actions against whites. Some were permitted to work after hours earning wages equal to those paid to white workers. When
18012-437: The king from a burden...he is finding hard to bear". Article 1 of the treaty stipulated a limited military alliance, obliging fleets or single ships sailing on the same course to defend each other against a third party. Article 3 established the principle of uti possidetis , or "what you have, you hold", with an effective date of 20 May. The Dutch kept Surinam , now part of modern Suriname , Fort Cormantin and Run while
18170-544: The liberty of their consciences in religion" under English rule. The Articles were largely observed in New Amsterdam and the Hudson River Valley, but were violated in another part of the conquest of New Netherland along the Delaware River, where Colonel Sir Robert Carr expropriated property for his own use and sold Dutch prisoners of war into slavery. Nicolls eventually forced Carr to return some of
18328-482: The loans needed to fund it, and the Navy Board was forced to discharge many sailors unpaid. Parliament was recalled for the first time in a year, and approved new taxes of £1.8 million. However, their payment was subject to various conditions, and disputes over these meant delays in its collection. Lack of money made it almost impossible to plan naval operations for 1667. By early 1667, lack of funds meant much of
18486-542: The mainland and just west of Oyster Bay on Long Island. The Dutch West India Company refused to recognize the treaty but failed to reach any other agreement with the English, so the Hartford Treaty set the de facto border. Connecticut was mostly assimilated into New England. In March 1664, Charles II of England , Scotland, and Ireland resolved to annex New Netherland and "bring all his Kingdoms under one form of government, both in church and state, and to install
18644-698: The natives as an unwanted incursion into their territory. Previously, the Esopus, a clan of the Munsee Lenape, had much less contact with the River Indians and the Mohawks . According to historian Eleanor Bruchey: New Netherlanders were not necessarily Dutch, and New Netherland was never a homogeneous society. Governor Peter Minuit was a Walloon born in Germany who spoke English and worked for
18802-576: The navy, but much of this was spent on essential repairs, or allegedly stolen by officials. To fund operations, Charles had to rely on short-term loans from the City of London, at ever increasing interest rates. By the end of 1666, lack of money led him to discharge most of the fleet, with disastrous results. Both sides planned a short war, since the English could not afford a long one, while the Dutch wanted to minimise any potential economic damage. De Witt ordered his naval commander Jacob van Wassenaer to bring
18960-486: The new commander in chief, and followed the English in formalising the line battle formation. Dutch finances also received a boost when the VOC Spice Fleet returned home safely after the battle of Vågen . This was offset when the eastern province of Overijssel was over-run by troops from Münster under Bernhard von Galen , who was backed by English subsidies. Münster's invasion threatened to involve Germany in
19118-462: The newly charted areas led to disputes in Amsterdam and calls for regulation. The States General was the governing body of the Republic of the Seven United Netherlands, and it proclaimed on 17 March 1614, that it would grant an exclusive patent for trade between the 40th and 45th parallels. This monopoly would be valid for four voyages, and all four voyages had to be undertaken within three years of
19276-464: The only governor of the colony to be called Director-General . Some years earlier, land ownership policy was liberalized, and trading was somewhat deregulated, and many New Netherlanders considered themselves entrepreneurs in a free market . The population had reached about 15,000, including 500 on Manhattan Island. During the period of his governorship, the province experienced exponential growth. Demands were made upon Stuyvesant from all sides:
19434-589: The only acceptable peace terms were a return to the status quo ante bellum , or a quick end to hostilities under a uti possidetis clause. On 16 January 1666, Louis declared war on England. In return for a large French subsidy, Denmark-Norway did the same in February, effectively closing the Baltic trade to English ships, and with it access to vital naval supplies. The payments promised to von Galen by Charles largely failed to materialise, and when Brandenburg-Prussia threatened to attack Münster, he made peace with
19592-400: The opportunity to mention grievances that they had with the company's mismanagement and its unresponsiveness to their suggestions. Kieft thanked and disbanded them and, against their advice, ordered that groups of Tappan and Wecquaesgeek be attacked at Pavonia and Corlear's Hook , even though they had sought refuge from their more powerful Mohican enemies per their treaty understandings with
19750-468: The plan for a landing of marines, to be overseen by his brother Cornelius, at Chatham where the fleet lay effectively defenceless, to destroy it. In June, De Ruyter, with Cornelis de Witt supervising, launched the Dutch raid on the Medway at the mouth of the River Thames . After capturing the fort at Sheerness , the Dutch fleet went on to break through the massive chain protecting the entrance to
19908-589: The return of Run and a trade deal on India. The States-General refused to attend peace talks without France; on territorial claims, they offered to continue the present situation, or revert to the position before the war , an option clearly unacceptable to the English. It is questionable how sincere this offer from Charles actually was, since his envoy in Paris, the Earl of St Albans , was simultaneously holding secret talks on an Anglo-French alliance. Louis agreed to ensure
20066-481: The rule prevailed: the official granting of full residency for both Ashkenazi and Sephardi Jews in New Amsterdam in 1655, and the Flushing Remonstrance involving Quakers in 1657. It was located in areas of Canada all the way to Delaware Apart from the second Fort Nassau , and the small community that supported it, settlement along the Zuyd Rivier was limited. The settlement sponsored by
20224-475: The same thing. After their failed 1666 coup, many Orangists sought refuge in England, with English and Scots dissidents going the other way. In Articles 13 and 17, both sides undertook not to protect each other's rebels; in a secret annex, the Dutch undertook to extradite regicides who voted for the Execution of Charles I in 1649, although in practice these provisions were ignored. A separate treaty amended
20382-665: The second at Cape Cod . Hudson believed that the passage to the Pacific Ocean was between the St. Lawrence River and Chesapeake Bay , so he sailed south to the Bay, then turned northward, traveling close along the shore. From Delaware Bay , he began to sail upriver looking for the passage. This effort was foiled by sandy shoals, and the Halve Maen continued north along the coast. After passing Sandy Hook , Hudson and his crew entered
20540-515: The short-term however, Charles' desire to avenge this setback led to the Third Anglo-Dutch War in 1672. Despite similar ideologies, commercial disputes and political differences between the Dutch Republic and Commonwealth of England led to the 1652 to 1654 First Anglo-Dutch War . The treaty that ended the war failed to address these issues, which included Dutch opposition to the 1651 Navigation Acts , and English objections to Dutch trading monopolies. This meant tensions continued, and even when
20698-539: The skins came. The Dutch encouraged a kind of feudal aristocracy over time to attract settlers to the region of the Hudson River in what became known as the system of the Charter of Freedoms and Exemptions . Further south, a Swedish trading company that had ties with the Dutch tried to establish its first settlement along the Delaware River three years later. Without resources to consolidate its position, New Sweden
20856-531: The states of New York , New Jersey , Delaware , and Connecticut , with small outposts in Pennsylvania and Rhode Island . The colony was originally conceived by the Dutch West India Company (GWC) in 1621 to capitalize on the North American fur trade . Settlement initially stalled because of policy mismanagement by the GWC and conflicts with Native Americans . The settlement of New Sweden by
21014-404: The three were Orangists, Zeelandic Pensionary Pieter de Huybert and Friesland's van Jongestall ; the delegate from Holland, Van Beverningh , was a member of De Witt's States Party . The English lead negotiators were Denzil Holles , Ambassador to France , and Henry Coventry , Ambassador to Sweden . On 24 May, Louis launched the War of Devolution , French troops quickly occupying much of
21172-454: The title came with powerful manorial rights and privileges , such as the creation of civil and criminal courts and the appointing of local officials. In return, a patroon was required by the Company to establish a settlement of at least 50 families within four years who would live as tenant farmers. Of the original five patents given, the largest and only truly successful endeavor
21330-455: The treaties were signed on 31 July, they were sent to each country for ratification, a process which was completed by 24 August and followed by public celebrations in Breda. By exchanging New Netherland and Run, Breda removed two major areas of dispute, reducing Anglo-Dutch tensions overall and clearing the way for the 1668 Triple Alliance between the Republic, Sweden and England. The Alliance
21488-502: The treaty marked the beginning of an alliance between the English and the Dutch that would last for a century. The Second Anglo-Dutch War was caused by commercial tensions, heightened by Charles II , who saw trade as a way to reduce his financial dependence on Parliament . In 1660, he and his brother James founded the Royal African Company (RAC), challenging the Dutch in West Africa. Investors included senior politicians such as George Carteret , Shaftesbury and Arlington , creating
21646-599: The two countries were theoretically at peace, competition for markets in the East Indies and elsewhere often resulted in conflict outside Europe . For various reasons, factions in both countries hampered efforts to reach resolution through diplomatic means. From 1650 to 1672, Dutch politics was dominated by the States Party and their leader, Grand pensionary Johan de Witt . Despite suspicions about Charles II 's links to their Orangist opponents, de Witt viewed
21804-527: The two, or at least limit conflict to Africa and the Americas , which would not require France to become involved. Aware of his reluctance, Charles II saw no reason to make concessions, while Sir George Downing , his Ambassador in The Hague , claimed recent financial losses meant the Dutch could not afford a war. Other advisors argued the Franco-Dutch treaty only applied to defensive actions, so provoking
21962-402: The unresponsiveness of the GWC to their rights and requests, and they submitted the Remonstrance of New Netherland to the States General . This document was written by Leiden-educated New Netherland lawyer Adriaen van der Donck , condemning the GWC for mismanagement and demanding full rights as citizens of the province of the Netherlands. Peter Stuyvesant arrived in New Amsterdam in 1647,
22120-415: The world. The first trading partners of the New Netherlanders were the Algonquins who lived in the area. The Dutch depended on the native nations to capture, skin, and deliver pelts to them, especially beaver. It is likely that Hudson's peaceful contact with the Mahicans encouraged them to establish Fort Nassau in 1614, the first of many garrisoned trading stations. In 1628, the Mohawks (members of
22278-525: The writer Nathaniel Benchley , Minuit conducted the transaction with Seyseys, chief of the Canarsee , who were willing to accept valuable merchandise in exchange for the island that was mostly controlled by the Weckquaesgeeks , a band of the Wappinger . The port city of New Amsterdam outside the fort walls became a major hub for trade between North America, the Caribbean, and Europe, and where raw materials were loaded, such as pelts, lumber, and tobacco. Sanctioned privateering contributed to its growth. It
22436-488: Was Rensselaerswyck , at the highest navigable point on the North River, which became the main thoroughfare of the province. Beverwijck grew from a trading post to a bustling, independent town in the midst of Rensselaerwyck, as did Wiltwyck , south of the patroonship in Esopus country. Willem Kieft was Director of New Netherland from 1638 until 1647. The colony had grown somewhat before his arrival, reaching 8,000 population in 1635. Yet it did not flourish, and Kieft
22594-435: Was 4,301 in 1650 and 8,000 to 9,000 at the time of transfer to England in 1674. During the 17th century, Europe was undergoing expansive social, cultural, and economic growth, known as the Dutch Golden Age in the Netherlands. Nations vied for domination of lucrative trade routes around the globe, particularly those to Asia. Simultaneously, philosophical and theological conflicts were manifested in military battles throughout
22752-420: Was abandoned by its skeleton crew, captured without a shot being fired, and towed back to the United Provinces as a trophy. Its counter decoration depicting the royal arms is on display in the Rijksmuseum . Fortunately for the English, the Dutch marines spared the Chatham Dockyard , at the time England's largest industrial complex; a land attack on the docks themselves would have set back English naval power for
22910-461: Was able to score a decisive victory, and by the end of 1666 the war had reached a stalemate. Although peace talks began, neither side was willing to make significant concessions until the Dutch Raid on the Medway in June 1667 forced Charles II to make terms. The treaty eliminated a number of long-standing issues, and in the long-term made it possible for the two countries to unite against the expansionist policies pursued by Louis XIV of France . In
23068-416: Was against him. Support for re-asserting English naval power provided limited backing in the Third Anglo-Dutch War but ended once that had been achieved. The treaty disappointed Orangists by failing to restore the House of Orange or allow exiles home, as promised by Charles. When Zeeland and Friesland, in response to the French advance, proposed William be made Captain-General of the Dutch States Army ,
23226-400: Was also a success for Sweden, who used their position as mediators to improve the Elbing provisions, break the Dutch-Danish agreement and join the Triple Alliance. The Spanish regained Franche-Comté and most of the Spanish Netherlands; more significantly, the Dutch now viewed them as a better neighbour than an ambitious France. Overall, the Dutch considered Breda and the creation of the Alliance
23384-451: Was enormously expensive and financing it a challenge even for the Amsterdam markets. Both sides wanted peace, since the Dutch had little to gain from continuing the war and faced external challenges from competitors. Denmark resented concessions imposed at Christianopel in 1647, while the WIC's confiscation of Danish ships was an ongoing source of dispute; in early 1667, they joined Sweden and France in imposing tariffs on Dutch goods, impacting
23542-418: Was first published in 1611 by Emanuel van Meteren , the Dutch Consul at London. This stimulated interest in exploiting this new trade resource, and it was the catalyst for Dutch merchant-traders to fund more expeditions. Merchants such as Arnout Vogels sent the first follow-up voyages to exploit this discovery as early as July 1610. In 1611–1612, the Admiralty of Amsterdam sent two covert expeditions to find
23700-478: Was given its municipal charter in 1653, by which time the Commonality of New Amsterdam included the isle of Manhattan, Staaten Eylandt , Pavonia , and the Lange Eylandt towns. In the hope of encouraging immigration, the Dutch West India Company established the Charter of Freedoms and Exemptions in 1629, which gave it the power to offer vast land grants and the title of patroon to some of its invested members. The vast tracts were called patroonships , and
23858-508: Was gradually absorbed by New Holland and later in Pennsylvania and Delaware. In 1613, temporary camp comprising a number of small huts was built by the crew of the " Tijger " ( Tiger ), a Dutch ship under the command of Captain Adriaen Block , which had caught fire while sailing on the Hudson. Soon after, the first of two Fort Nassaus was built at the confluence of the Hudson (North River) and Mohawk rivers, and small factorijen or trading posts went up, where commerce could be conducted with
24016-419: Was hired by the Dutch East India Company (VOC) to find a Northeast Passage to Asia, sailing around Scandinavia and Russia. The ice of the Arctic turned him back in his second attempt, so he sailed west to seek a Northwest Passage rather than return home. He ended up exploring the waters off the northeast coast of North America aboard the flyboat Halve Maen . His first landfall was at Newfoundland and
24174-428: Was increased by the June Raid on the Medway . Both factors led to a rapid agreement of terms. Prior to 1667, the Anglo-Dutch relationship had been dominated by commercial conflict, which the treaty did not end entirely. However, tensions decreased markedly and cleared the way for the 1668 Triple Alliance between the Dutch Republic, England and Sweden. With the brief anomaly of the 1672 to 1674 Third Anglo-Dutch War ,
24332-407: Was not defined. This public treaty had been preceded by a secret treaty signed on 17 April in which, in addition to these exchanges of territory, Louis and Charles agreed not to enter into alliances opposed to the interests of the other, by which Louis secured the neutrality of England in the war he planned against Spain. The order of priorities whereby the Dutch preferred to give up what would become
24490-497: Was originally built due to fear of an invasion by the English. There initially was limited contact between New Englanders and New Netherlanders, but the two provinces engaged in direct diplomatic relations with a swelling English population and territorial disputes. The New England Confederation was formed in 1643 as a political and military alliance of the English colonies of Massachusetts, Plymouth , Connecticut , and New Haven . Connecticut and New Haven were on land claimed by
24648-438: Was repelled in the Battle of Nevis on 17 May by a smaller English force. This confused naval action was the only one in this war where all three navies fought: it failed largely through de la Barre's incompetence. After this failed attack, Crijnssen left in disgust and sailed to the north to attack the Virginia colony, while the French, under de la Barre, moved to Martinique. The Battle of Nevis restored English naval control in
24806-411: Was soon realized that the location was susceptible to mosquito infestation in the summer and the freezing of its waterways in the winter. He chose instead the island of Manhattan at the mouth of the river explored by Hudson , at that time called the North River . Minuit traded some goods with the local population and reported that he had purchased it from the natives, as was company policy. He ordered
24964-415: Was under pressure to cut costs. At this time, Indian tribes that had signed mutual defense treaties with the Dutch were gathering near the colony due to widespread warfare and dislocation among the tribes to the north. At first, he suggested collecting tribute from the Indians, as was common among the various dominant tribes, but his demands were simply ignored by the Tappan and Wecquaesgeek . Subsequently,
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