Divisions
157-588: Sama vedic Yajur vedic Atharva vedic Vaishnava puranas Shaiva puranas Shakta puranas The Taittirīya Brāhmaṇa ( Sanskrit तैत्तिरीयब्राह्मण , meaning ' Brāhmaṇa of the school of Tittri ', abbreviated to 'TB') is a commentary on the Krishna Yajurveda . Considered by academics to be an appendix or extension of the Taittirīya Samhita , the first two books ( ashṭakas ) largely consist of hymns and Mantras to
314-410: A yaksha (nature spirit) in the form of a crane to question Yudhishthira and test his righteousness. Impressed by Yudhishthira's strict adherence to dharma and his answers to the riddles posed, Yama reveals himself as his father, blesses him, and brings his younger Pandava brothers back to life. The Yaksha [Yama] asked, "What enemy is invincible? What constitutes an incurable disease? What sort of man
471-592: A boar ( Varaha ) and lifted her back up. In the Udyoga Parva , it is stated that the wife of Yama is called Urmila. In the Bhagavad Gita , part of the Mahabharata, Krishna states: Of the celestial Naga snakes I am Ananta; of the aquatic deities I am Varuna. Of departed ancestors I am Aryamaa and among the dispensers of law I am Yama, lord of death. Yama and his abode are frequently mentioned in
628-638: A comparatively early period the formulae [i.e. mantras from the Samhitas of the YajurVeda] were accompanied by explanations, called Brahmanas , texts pertaining to the Brahman or sacred lore, in which the different acts of the ritual were given Symbolical interpretations, the words of the texts commented on, and stories told to illustrate the sacrificial performance... a mass of old material, partly formulae, partly Brahmana, which had not been incorporated in
785-488: A dead language in the most common usage of the term. Pollock's notion of the "death of Sanskrit" remains in this unclear realm between academia and public opinion when he says that "most observers would agree that, in some crucial way, Sanskrit is dead." Yama (Hinduism) Yama ( Sanskrit : यम , lit. 'twin'), also known as Kāla and Dharmarāja , is the Hindu god of death and justice, responsible for
942-433: A focus on Indian philosophies and Sanskrit. Though written in a number of different scripts, the dominant language of Hindu texts has been Sanskrit. It or a hybrid form of Sanskrit became the preferred language of Mahayana Buddhism scholarship; for example, one of the early and influential Buddhist philosophers, Nagarjuna (~200 CE), used Classical Sanskrit as the language for his texts. According to Renou, Sanskrit had
1099-591: A language competed with numerous, less exact vernacular Indian languages called Prakritic languages ( prākṛta - ). The term prakrta literally means "original, natural, normal, artless", states Franklin Southworth . The relationship between Prakrit and Sanskrit is found in Indian texts dated to the 1st millennium CE. Patañjali acknowledged that Prakrit is the first language, one instinctively adopted by every child with all its imperfections and later leads to
1256-658: A limited role in the Theravada tradition (formerly known as the Hinayana) but the Prakrit works that have survived are of doubtful authenticity. Some of the canonical fragments of the early Buddhist traditions, discovered in the 20th century, suggest the early Buddhist traditions used an imperfect and reasonably good Sanskrit, sometimes with a Pali syntax, states Renou. The Mahāsāṃghika and Mahavastu, in their late Hinayana forms, used hybrid Sanskrit for their literature. Sanskrit
1413-454: A natural part of the earliest Vedic language, and that these developed in the centuries after the composition had been completed, and as a gradual unconscious process during the oral transmission by generations of reciters. The primary source for this argument is internal evidence of the text which betrays an instability of the phenomenon of retroflexion, with the same phrases having sandhi-induced retroflexion in some parts but not other. This
1570-479: A negative evidence to Pollock's hypothesis, but it is not positive evidence. A closer look at Sanskrit in the Indian history after the 12th century suggests that Sanskrit survived despite the odds. According to Hanneder, On a more public level the statement that Sanskrit is a dead language is misleading, for Sanskrit is quite obviously not as dead as other dead languages and the fact that it is spoken, written and read will probably convince most people that it cannot be
1727-546: A pan-Indo-Aryan accessibility to information and knowledge in the ancient and medieval times, in contrast to the Prakrit languages which were understood just regionally. It created a cultural bond across the subcontinent. As local languages and dialects evolved and diversified, Sanskrit served as the common language. It connected scholars from distant parts of South Asia such as Tamil Nadu and Kashmir, states Deshpande, as well as those from different fields of studies, though there must have been differences in its pronunciation given
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#17327805669171884-684: A pupil of Vaiśampáyana (estimated 500 BCE). Tittiri is also stated in the Mahabharata to have attended 'the Yaga [ Vedic ritual sacrifice ] conducted by Uparicaravasu ' ( Dvapara Yuga , before 3000 BCE). H.H. Wilson states that 'the term Taittiríya is more rationally accounted for in the Anukramańí or index of the Krishna Yajurveda . It is there said that Vaiśampáyana taught it to Yaska , who taught it to Tittiri, who also became
2041-578: A refined and standardized grammatical form that emerged in the mid-1st millennium BCE and was codified in the most comprehensive of ancient grammars, the Aṣṭādhyāyī ('Eight chapters') of Pāṇini . The greatest dramatist in Sanskrit, Kālidāsa , wrote in classical Sanskrit, and the foundations of modern arithmetic were first described in classical Sanskrit. The two major Sanskrit epics, the Mahābhārata and
2198-538: A restrained language from which archaisms and unnecessary formal alternatives were excluded". The Classical form of the language simplified the sandhi rules but retained various aspects of the Vedic language, while adding rigor and flexibilities, so that it had sufficient means to express thoughts as well as being "capable of responding to the future increasing demands of an infinitely diversified literature", according to Renou. Pāṇini included numerous "optional rules" beyond
2355-523: A sacrifice'). In addition, 3.4.16 ( Anuvāka 16, enumerated in the section on the third ashṭaka ) is listed as (emphasis added) 'To the presiding divinities of dice and of the Satya Yuga , etc., dice-players, those who frequent gambling halls, and the like...'. Thus, the concept of the yugas are connected with dice but do not seem to the same thing. [The] (Sun-god) Sūrya is worshipped for accepting and helping animals. By worshipping [the] sun, there
2512-439: A similar phonetic structure to Tamil. Hock et al. quoting George Hart state that there was influence of Old Tamil on Sanskrit. Hart compared Old Tamil and Classical Sanskrit to arrive at a conclusion that there was a common language from which these features both derived – "that both Tamil and Sanskrit derived their shared conventions, metres, and techniques from a common source, for it is clear that neither borrowed directly from
2669-626: A teacher; whence the term Taittiríya, for a grammatical rule, explains it to mean, 'The Taittiríyas are those who read what was said or repeated by Tittiri'.' The Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts (IGNCA) states that the Taittirīya Brāhmaṇa 'belongs to Krishna Yajurveda and [is] divided into three khandas [or ashṭakas , i.e. books]... It has both [a mixture] of Mantras and Brahmans [instructions or explanations] and [is] composed in poetic and prose manner'. A.B Keith states that 'at
2826-441: A twin sister, Yami ), and later came to mean 'binder' (derived from " yam "); the word also means 'moral rule or duty' (i.e. dharma ), 'self-control', 'forbearance', and 'cessation'. Yama is also known by many other names, including Kala ('time'), Pashi (one who carries a noose') and Dharmaraja ('lord of Dharma '). Yama and Dharmadeva, the god personifying the concept of Dharma , are generally considered to be one and
2983-415: A year ( samvatsara ) then everything is not stable. Then one has to seek the grace of Vishnu ( Vamana ) by performing a special rite on the ekadashi day. Yajna means Vishnu (worshipping Vishnu). They perform yajna only for stabilising. They depend on Indra and Agni . Indra and Agni gibe the abode for Gods (devas). Devas only seek shelter in them and only depend on them. Vamana is primarily associated with
3140-693: Is (emphasis added): ' námucim āsuráṃ na álabata ' (1.7.1.6.3). An indirect reference to the legend via a mention of Namuchi from 1.4.2.1 has been cited instead, as above. Notably, Prahlada, the Vaishnava son of Hiranyakashipu in Puranic literature such as the Bhagavata Purana , is also mentioned (e.g. 1.5.9.1 and 1.5.10.8 ) where he is explicitly stated to be the son of Kayadhu (wife of Hiranyakashipu). There are four well-known stomas [hymns or mantras] which have to be recited. However because of
3297-464: Is Sunita, who is the mother of the king Vena. Sobhavati, the wife of Chitragupta , is sometimes mentioned to be Yama's daughter. In the Mahabharata, Yudhishthira , the eldest Pandava, was blessed by Dharma to his mother Kunti . Yama Dharmaraja Temple is a Hindu temple located at Thiruchitrambalam in the Thanjavur district of Tamil Nadu , India . The temple is dedicated to Yama. Mentioned in
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#17327805669173454-711: Is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages . It arose in South Asia after its predecessor languages had diffused there from the northwest in the late Bronze Age . Sanskrit is the sacred language of Hinduism , the language of classical Hindu philosophy , and of historical texts of Buddhism and Jainism . It was a link language in ancient and medieval South Asia, and upon transmission of Hindu and Buddhist culture to Southeast Asia, East Asia and Central Asia in
3611-516: Is akin to that of Latin and Ancient Greek in Europe. Sanskrit has significantly influenced most modern languages of the Indian subcontinent , particularly the languages of the northern, western, central and eastern Indian subcontinent. Sanskrit declined starting about and after the 13th century. This coincides with the beginning of Islamic invasions of South Asia to create, and thereafter expand
3768-402: Is all-round development. The animal offering is possible (without any violence). Kashyap comments on a rite detailed in ( 1.1.6.8 ) that 'Offering an animal to Rudra does not mean that the animal is killed. Often the animal which is offered becomes free and it lives on the grass in the common pasture of the community without being controlled by a human. The idea is mentioned in several places in
3925-456: Is also depicted holding a danda which is a Sanskrit word for "staff". Yama is the son of Surya and Saranyu . He is the twin brother of Yami , brother of Shraddhadeva Manu and the step brother of Shani and his son was Katila. There are several temples across India dedicated to Yama. As per Vishnu Dharmottara , Yama is said to be represented on a buffalo, with garments like of heated gold, and all kinds of ornaments. He has four arms with
4082-693: Is available in the brahmana [see Katha Upanishad of the Katha Shakha, also related to the Krishna YajurVeda]’. Shrava states that the 'Taittirīya Brāhmaṇa has three ashṭakas [books]. The first two ashṭakas are named as pārakshudra and agnihotra . Portions of the third ashṭaka are individually named [i.e. after the sacrificial rites expounded, etc.]. These three ashṭakas have 28 prapāṭhakas [chapters]. Bhaṭṭa Bhāskara, in his commentary names these as praśnas . [His] edition published from Mysore enumerated 78 anuvākas [sections] in
4239-452: Is found in the writing of Bharata Muni , the author of the ancient Natya Shastra text. The early Jain scholar Namisādhu acknowledged the difference, but disagreed that the Prakrit language was a corruption of Sanskrit. Namisādhu stated that the Prakrit language was the pūrvam ('came before, origin') and that it came naturally to children, while Sanskrit was a refinement of Prakrit through "purification by grammar". Sanskrit belongs to
4396-421: Is given because each main part has 8 main parts or Prapāṭhaka[s] '. (Kashyap) (Sharva) (Rajendralala) (Kashyap) Based on information provided by Kashyap and R. Mitra, the chapters ( prapāṭhakas ) for each of the books ( ashṭakas or sometimes referred to as kandas ) are as follows: [If] there is a person who loves riches and feels that 'may all persons give me riches' [then] he should worship Agni in
4553-474: Is noble and what sort is ignoble"? And Yudhishthira responded, "Anger is the invincible enemy. Covetousness constitutes a disease that is incurable. He is noble who desires the well-being of all creatures, and he is ignoble who is without mercy". In the Vana Parva , when Yudhishthira asks the sage Markandeya whether there has ever been a woman whose devotion matched Draupadi's , the sage replied by relating
4710-603: Is primarily associated with the Puranic legend of lifting the Earth out of the cosmic ocean . A.A. Macdonell states that this ' boar appears in a cosmogonic character in the SB [ Shatapatha Brahmana ] (14, 1, 2) where under the name of Emũṣa he is stated to have raised up the earth from the waters. In the TS [Taittirīya Samhita] (7, 1, 5) this cosmogonic boar, which raised the earth from
4867-771: Is primarily associated with the Puranic legend of destroying the Asura-king Hiranyakashipu to protect the king's devotee son, Prahlada. Further references to Namuchi, considered by Soifer to be the 'prototype' of the Narasimha legend, are made in 2.6.3.3 (defeated by the Ashvins rather than Indra) and 2.6.13.1 (stole sacrificial offerings from Indra). Sanskrit Sanskrit ( / ˈ s æ n s k r ɪ t / ; attributively 𑀲𑀁𑀲𑁆𑀓𑀾𑀢𑀁 , संस्कृत- , saṃskṛta- ; nominally संस्कृतम् , saṃskṛtam , IPA: [ˈsɐ̃skr̩tɐm] )
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5024-532: Is rare in the later version of the language. The Homerian Greek, like Ṛg-vedic Sanskrit, deploys simile extensively, but they are structurally very different. The early Vedic form of the Sanskrit language was far less homogenous compared to the Classical Sanskrit as defined by grammarians by about the mid-1st millennium BCE. According to Richard Gombrich—an Indologist and a scholar of Sanskrit, Pāli and Buddhist Studies—the archaic Vedic Sanskrit found in
5181-448: Is stated to have chosen to leave offspring, but Yamī is not mentioned. Vedic literature states that Yama is the first mortal, and that he chose to die, and then proceeded to create a path to the "other world", where deceased ancestral fathers reside. Due to being the first man to die, he is considered the chief of the dead, lord of settlers, and a father. Throughout the course of Vedic literature, Yama becomes more and more associated with
5338-479: Is taken along with evidence of controversy, for example, in passages of the Aitareya-Āraṇyaka (700 BCE), which features a discussion on whether retroflexion is valid in particular cases. The Ṛg-veda is a collection of books, created by multiple authors. These authors represented different generations, and the mandalas 2 to 7 are the oldest while the mandalas 1 and 10 are relatively the youngest. Yet,
5495-441: Is the incarnation of Dharma. The real name of Kāla is Yama. Dharmadeva got the name Yama because he possesses 'Yama' (control of the self for moral conduct)." Mani believes that Yama and Dharmadeva are two different deities, citing that the Puranic scriptures attest different myths about the deities — In Hinduism , Yama is the lokapala ("Guardian of the realms") of the south and the son of Surya . Three hymns (10, 14, and 35) in
5652-589: Is the predominant language of one of the largest collection of historic manuscripts. The earliest known inscriptions in Sanskrit are from the 1st century BCE, such as the Ayodhya Inscription of Dhana and Ghosundi-Hathibada (Chittorgarh) . Though developed and nurtured by scholars of orthodox schools of Hinduism, Sanskrit has been the language for some of the key literary works and theology of heterodox schools of Indian philosophies such as Buddhism and Jainism. The structure and capabilities of
5809-509: Is the principal recipient, deities of the realm of fertility and fecundity [reproduction] figure prominently'. The Devas said they want immortality. They said that Vaya (the bird Garuda ) is the giver (or bringer) of Amrita . The bird doing the task of bringing the Amrita went back to Heaven. Kurma is most commonly associated in the Itihāsa (epics) and Puranas with the legend of the churning of
5966-509: Is the way to the endless world; the support of all worlds; and abides in subtle form within the intellects of the wise. In the epic Mahabharata , Dharmadeva (who is identified with Yama) is the father of Yudhishthira , the oldest brother of the five Pandavas . Yama most notably appears in person in the Yaksha Prashna and the Vana Parva, and is mentioned in the Bhagavad Gita . In the Yaksha Prashna , Dharmadeva (Yama) appears as
6123-435: Is where the gods resides, and Yama is surrounded by music. In the ritual sacrifice, Yama is offered soma and ghee , and is invoked to sit at the sacrifice, lead the sacrificers to the abode of the gods, and provide long life. In the dialogue hymn between Yama and Yamī (RV 10.10), as the first two humans, Yamī tries to convince her twin brother Yama to have sex with her. Yamī makes a variety of arguments, including continuing
6280-540: The Bhagavata Purana , the Panchatantra and many other texts are all in the Sanskrit language. The Classical Sanskrit with its exacting grammar was thus the language of the Indian scholars and the educated classes, while others communicated with approximate or ungrammatical variants of it as well as other natural Indian languages. Sanskrit, as the learned language of Ancient India, thus existed alongside
6437-751: The Upanishads , the Ramayana , the Mahabharata , and the Puranas . Yama is described as the twin of Yami , and the son of the sun god Surya (in earlier traditions Vivasvat ) and Sanjna . He judges the souls of the dead and, depending on their deeds, assigns them to the realm of the Pitris (forefathers), Naraka (hell), or to be reborn on the earth. Yama is one of the Lokapalas (guardians of
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6594-671: The Vishnu Purana and the Vishnudharmottara describe Dhumorna (also known as Urmila) as his consort. In the Garuda Purana , Syamala is the name of Yama's wife. According to some other texts, Yama has three consorts—Hema-mala, Sushila and Vijaya. When identified with Dharmadeva, he also married 10 or 13 daughters of the god Daksha . According to the Brahma Purana , the name of Yama's eldest daughter
6751-891: The Agnicayana [building of a Fire-Altar]... The differences between the two forms are of detail: thus the Kaukili is marked by the singing by the Brahman of certain Sāmans [hymns]. The use of the Surā is accompanied by offerings of animals, to Indra a bull, to Sarasvati a sheep, and to the Ashvins a goat'. R. Woodard adds that 'the Vedic Sautramani belongs chiefly to Indra, taking its name from his epithet Satraman , 'good protector'. The Vedic rite is, however, rather complex; while Indra
6908-577: The Agnihotra and hence cause the rains... P. Mitra states that the Agnihotra is an oblation to the fire-god, Agni. According to M. Rajendralala, as 'a manual of rituals the first kanda [or p rapāṭhaka ] of the Taittirīya Brahmana opens with Agnihotra or the establishment of the household fire. This was the first duty of every householder and of a Brahman immediately after being invested with
7065-583: The Bhagavata Purana (Canto 8, Chapter 6), Krishna carries the Mandara mountain on the back of Garuda to the Ocean of Milk. The tortoise ( kūrma or kurmo ) is also mentioned in 2.4.3.6 ( 2.4.3.23 of the TITUS transliteration; emphasis added): asyá kurmo harivo medínaṃ tvā . Notably, 2.8.2.23 states that a mountain represents ignorance , and 2.4.6.21 states: The wise ( amūra ) Devas who win all
7222-444: The Brahma Purana , Yama is the lord of justice and is associated with Dharma . Mentions include: Riding on his terrible buffalo, the god of Death Yama hastened to that place. He was holding his sceptre (rod of chastisement). His physical body was yellow in colour. In prowess he was comparable to none. He was unparalleled in brilliance, strength and power of demanding obedience. His limbs were well developed and he wore garlands. In
7379-580: The Dalai Lama , the Sanskrit language is a parent language that is at the foundation of many modern languages of India and the one that promoted Indian thought to other distant countries. In Tibetan Buddhism, states the Dalai Lama, Sanskrit language has been a revered one and called legjar lhai-ka or "elegant language of the gods". It has been the means of transmitting the "profound wisdom of Buddhist philosophy" to Tibet. The Sanskrit language created
7536-632: The Garuda Purana , Yama and his realm where sinners are punished are detailed extensively, including in the twelfth chapter called ' The Realm of Yama '. In this text, the name of Yama's wife is Syamala. In the Matsya Purana , In addition to his battles against the asuras , Yama is mentioned extensively: In the Vishnu Purana , Yama is the son of sun-god Surya (named Vivasvan in the Vedas, also means 'sun') and Sandhya (named Saranya in
7693-613: The Indo-European family of languages . It is one of the three earliest ancient documented languages that arose from a common root language now referred to as Proto-Indo-European : Other Indo-European languages distantly related to Sanskrit include archaic and Classical Latin ( c. 600 BCE–100 CE, Italic languages ), Gothic (archaic Germanic language , c. 350 CE ), Old Norse ( c. 200 CE and after), Old Avestan ( c. late 2nd millennium BCE ) and Younger Avestan ( c. 900 BCE). The closest ancient relatives of Vedic Sanskrit in
7850-642: The Katha Upanishad , Yama is portrayed as a teacher to the Brahmin boy Nachiketa . Having granted three boons to Nachiketa, their conversation evolves to a discussion of the nature of being, knowledge, the Atman (i.e. the soul, self) and moksha (liberation). From the translation by Brahmrishi Vishvatma Bawra: Yama says: I know the knowledge that leads to heaven. I will explain it to you so that you will understand it. O Nachiketas, remember this knowledge
8007-663: The Ocean of Milk , referred to as the Samudra manthan . The ocean is churned with a mountain on the back of the Tortoise avatar to acquire the nectar of immortality called Amrita for the gods, led by Indra. From the Mahabharata: The gods then went to the king of tortoises ['Kurma-raja'] and said to him, 'O Tortoise-king, thou wilt have to hold the mountain on thy back!' The Tortoise-king agreed, and Indra contrived to place
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#17327805669178164-472: The Pandavas , Vidura went on a pilgrimage where he met other devotees of Krishna such as Uddhava and the sage Maitreya , the latter of whom revealed Vidura's true origin to him: I know that you are now Vidura due to the cursing of Māṇḍavya Muni and that formerly you were King Yamarāja, the great controller of living entities after their death. You were begotten by the son of Satyavatī , Vyāsadeva , in
8321-530: The Puranas . Some Puranas like Agni Purana and Linga Purana mention him as son of Rajni and Surya. In the third and fourth cantos of the Srimad Bhagavatam , Yama was incarnated as a shudra called Vidura due to being cursed by a sage for being too harsh in his punishments. From the A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada / Bhaktivedanta Book Trust (BBT) translation: As long as Vidura played
8478-753: The Rigveda had already evolved in the Vedic period, as evidenced in the later Vedic literature. Gombrich posits that the language in the early Upanishads of Hinduism and the late Vedic literature approaches Classical Sanskrit, while the archaic Vedic Sanskrit had by the Buddha 's time become unintelligible to all except ancient Indian sages. The formalization of the Saṃskṛta language is credited to Pāṇini , along with Patañjali's Mahābhāṣya and Katyayana's commentary that preceded Patañjali's work. Panini composed Aṣṭādhyāyī ('Eight-Chapter Grammar'), which became
8635-532: The Rigveda , a collection of 1,028 hymns composed between 1500 BCE and 1200 BCE by Indo-Aryan tribes migrating east from the mountains of what is today northern Afghanistan across northern Pakistan and into northwestern India. Vedic Sanskrit interacted with the preexisting ancient languages of the subcontinent, absorbing names of newly encountered plants and animals; in addition, the ancient Dravidian languages influenced Sanskrit's phonology and syntax. Sanskrit can also more narrowly refer to Classical Sanskrit ,
8792-531: The Rāmāyaṇa , however, were composed in a range of oral storytelling registers called Epic Sanskrit which was used in northern India between 400 BCE and 300 CE, and roughly contemporary with classical Sanskrit. In the following centuries, Sanskrit became tradition-bound, stopped being learned as a first language, and ultimately stopped developing as a living language. The hymns of the Rigveda are notably similar to
8949-495: The Satya Yuga when the eternal and primeval Deity [ Krishna ] assumed the duties of Yama. And, O thou that never fallest off, when the God of gods began to perform the functions of Yama, there died not a creature while the births were as usual." This led to an increase in the population and the Earth sinking down "for a hundred yojanas. And suffering pain in all her limbs." The earth sought the protection of Narayana , who incarnated as
9106-468: The Sruti [literature]... the word yuga does not mean an age or the theory of four yugas (Kane 1946:886-8), and the words Krta , Treta , Dvapara and Kali mean throws of dice (1946:886-8). The word Kali Yuga does not occur at all. Words like Krta Yuga occur ( Ṣaḍviṃṡa Brāhmaṇa V.6) but are not a part of any scheme of cosmic cycles'. This assertion would however seems to be contradicted by
9263-567: The Taittirīya Brāhmaṇa . In the first instance ( 1.5.1 , above), the assertion of Ishwaran, Kane, etc., would mean a throw of dice would affect whether one should recite four or five stomas for the Jyotishtoma sacrifice, which is nonsensical (the Jyotishtoma sacrifice itself requires 'sixteen officiating priests ... It is a sacrifice considered as the typical form of a whole class of sacrificial ceremonies. E. jyotis light, and stoma
9420-650: The Vedic -era Devas , as well as Mythology, astronomy , and astrology (i.e. the Nakshatras ); the third book contains commentaries and instructions on Vedic sacrificial rites such as the Purushamedha , Kaukili-Sutramani, Ashvamedha , and Agnicayana . Recorded around 300–400 BCE, it is prevalent in southern India in areas such in Andhra Pradesh , south and east of Narmada (Gujarat), and areas on
9577-407: The cosmos . Nakshatras are the mansions of the Gods or cosmic powers and of the Rishis or sages. They can also project negative or anti-divine forces, just as certain planets like Saturn have well known malefic effects. The term Nakshatra refers to a means ( tra ) of worship ( naksha ) or approach... The Nakshatras dispense the fruits of karma ... For this reason Vedic rituals and Meditations to
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#17327805669179734-550: The prototype of that [Narasimha] myth, the Indra -Namuchi myth', adding that other academics such as Devasthali concur that although elements of the Namuchi legend are 'scattered throughout Brahmana literature (cf. VS [ Vajaseneyi Samhita ] 10.34; PB [ Pancavimsa Brahmana ] 12.6.8, MS [ Maitrayani Samhita ] IV.34; [and] TB [Taittirīya Brāhmaṇa] 1.7.1.6)', the fullest version is in the Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa . An English translation of TB 1.7.1.6 referred to by Soifer has not been found. The TITUS Sanskrit transliteration for this mention
9891-406: The sandhi rules, both internal and external. Quite many words found in the early Vedic Sanskrit language are never found in late Vedic Sanskrit or Classical Sanskrit literature, while some words have different and new meanings in Classical Sanskrit when contextually compared to the early Vedic Sanskrit literature. Arthur Macdonell was among the early colonial era scholars who summarized some of
10048-458: The three worlds from the Asura -king Bali in three steps. N. Aiyangar notes that 'In the Rig-Veda Vishnu is celebrated for his three strides by which he measures the whole universe'. These so-called 'Vishnu-strides' ( Symbolically ) factor into Vedic sacrificial rites enumerated by Brahamical literature such as the Shatapatha Brāhmaṇa (e.g. 6.7.4.7–8 ) and the Taittirīya Brāhmaṇa (e.g. 2.4.3.10 , as quoted, and 2.4.6.3 ). Narasimha
10205-500: The verbal adjective sáṃskṛta- is a compound word consisting of sáṃ ('together, good, well, perfected') and kṛta - ('made, formed, work'). It connotes a work that has been "well prepared, pure and perfect, polished, sacred". According to Biderman, the perfection contextually being referred to in the etymological origins of the word is its tonal—rather than semantic—qualities. Sound and oral transmission were highly valued qualities in ancient India, and its sages refined
10362-419: The (evil) effects of Kali Yuga , (some say that) there are 5 stomas. (It is not correct), there are only four stomas as part of the Jyotishtoma ( yajna ). There are four yugas in each cyclical era in Hinduism , with Kali Yuga , the present yuga , being the last and most destructive. K. Ishwaran seems to incorrectly state that 'there seems to be no unequivocal reference to the cyclical notion of time in
10519-441: The 10th book of the Rig Veda are addressed to him. In Puranas, Yama is described as having four arms, protruding fangs, and complexion of storm clouds, with a wrathful expression; surrounded by a garland of flames; dressed in red, yellow, or blue garments; holding a noose and a mace or sword; and riding a water-buffalo. He holds a noose ( pāśa ) of rope in one hand, with which he seizes the lives of people who are about to die. He
10676-414: The 13th century, a premier center of Sanskrit literary creativity, Sanskrit literature there disappeared, perhaps in the "fires that periodically engulfed the capital of Kashmir" or the "Mongol invasion of 1320" states Pollock. The Sanskrit literature which was once widely disseminated out of the northwest regions of the subcontinent, stopped after the 12th century. As Hindu kingdoms fell in the eastern and
10833-414: The 7th century where he established a major center of learning and language translation under the patronage of Emperor Taizong. By the early 1st millennium CE, Sanskrit had spread Buddhist and Hindu ideas to Southeast Asia, parts of the East Asia and the Central Asia. It was accepted as a language of high culture and the preferred language by some of the local ruling elites in these regions. According to
10990-487: The Brahmanical cord, and marriage. Every householder and his wife had to devote their careful attention to the maintenance of this fire and to offering to it oblations of butter and the booking thereon of frumenty [a dish of hulled wheat boiled in milk].' Mitra details all chapters ( prapāṭhakas ) and sections ( anuvākas ) of the second book ( ashṭaka ) with descriptive titles (8 prapāṭhakas , consisting of 96 anuvākas ; original spelling unchanged): A.B. Keith states that
11147-425: The Classical Sanskrit language launched ancient Indian speculations about "the nature and function of language", what is the relationship between words and their meanings in the context of a community of speakers, whether this relationship is objective or subjective, discovered or is created, how individuals learn and relate to the world around them through language, and about the limits of language? They speculated on
11304-532: The Dravidian languages borrowed from Sanskrit vocabulary, but they have also affected Sanskrit on deeper levels of structure, "for instance in the domain of phonology where Indo-Aryan retroflexes have been attributed to Dravidian influence". Similarly, Ferenc Ruzca states that all the major shifts in Indo-Aryan phonetics over two millennia can be attributed to the constant influence of a Dravidian language with
11461-521: The Dravidian words and forms, without modifying the word order; but the same thing is not possible in rendering a Persian or English sentence into a non-Indo-Aryan language. Shulman mentions that "Dravidian nonfinite verbal forms (called vinaiyeccam in Tamil) shaped the usage of the Sanskrit nonfinite verbs (originally derived from inflected forms of action nouns in Vedic). This particularly salient case of
11618-476: The Indo-Aryan language underwent rapid linguistic change and morphed into the Vedic Sanskrit language. The pre-Classical form of Sanskrit is known as Vedic Sanskrit . The earliest attested Sanskrit text is the Rigveda , a Hindu scripture from the mid- to late-second millennium BCE. No written records from such an early period survive, if any ever existed, but scholars are generally confident that
11775-519: The Indo-European languages are the Nuristani languages found in the remote Hindu Kush region of northeastern Afghanistan and northwestern Himalayas, as well as the extinct Avestan and Old Persian – both are Iranian languages . Sanskrit belongs to the satem group of the Indo-European languages. Colonial era scholars familiar with Latin and Greek were struck by the resemblance of
11932-582: The Kaukili (, Kaukila or Kaukila) 'Sautramani is not a Soma sacrifice, but is classified by the Sutras as a Haviryajna, though its chief characteristic in its form as recorded is the offering of Surā [ liquor ]. It has two distinct forms, the Kaukili, which is an independent offering, the other the Carakā, an offering which forms part of another offering, as the Rājasūya [performed by ancient kings of India ] and
12089-532: The Muslim rule in the form of Sultanates, and later the Mughal Empire . Sheldon Pollock characterises the decline of Sanskrit as a long-term "cultural, social, and political change". He dismisses the idea that Sanskrit declined due to "struggle with barbarous invaders", and emphasises factors such as the increasing attractiveness of vernacular language for literary expression. With the fall of Kashmir around
12246-496: The Muslim rulers. Hindu rulers such as Shivaji of the Maratha Empire , reversed the process, by re-adopting Sanskrit and re-asserting their socio-linguistic identity. After Islamic rule disintegrated in South Asia and the colonial rule era began, Sanskrit re-emerged but in the form of a "ghostly existence" in regions such as Bengal. This decline was the result of "political institutions and civic ethos" that did not support
12403-638: The Phalguni Star. For the Phalguni star the deity is Aryaman . He gives in charity [and] is said to be sacred ( aryama ). Persons desire to give him riches. D.M. Harness states that the ''stars of the Zodiacal belt had a particular importance as reflecting and projecting heavenly influences that the Planets travelling through them energised... The Vedic Nakshatras arose from a spiritual perception of
12560-472: The Puranic legend of taking back the three worlds from the Asura -king Bali in three steps. Here Vamana is explicitly mentioned in the Taittirīya Brāhmaṇa; the Sanskrit transliteration for this mention is (emphasis added): ' vaiṣṇaváṃ vāmanám ā́labante ' (1.2.5.40.4). As illustrated in the section below for ashṭaka 2, there are also several references to 'Vishnu steps' or 'Vishnu strides', associated with
12717-437: The Rigveda. Agni is both Yama's friend and priest, and Yama is stated to have found the hiding Agni. In the Rigveda, Yama is the king of the dead, and one of the two kings that humans see when they reach heaven (the other being Varuna ). Yama is stated to be a gatherer of the people, who gave dead people a place to rest. Out of the three Rigvedic heavens, the third and highest belong to Yama (the lower two belong to Savitr ). Here
12874-630: The Samhitas of the Krishna YajurVeda. The Taittiriya-Brahmana, therefore, contains only later additions to the Samhita'. S. Shrava concurs, elaborating that 'This brahmana is an appendix to the Taittirīya saṁhitā. The main purpose of expounding the brahmana was to complete the incomplete portions of the main saṁhitā. It abounds with hymns... a subtle form of the story of Yama and Nachiketā
13031-499: The Saṃskṛta language, both in its vocabulary and grammar, to the classical languages of Europe. In The Oxford Introduction to Proto-Indo-European and the Proto-Indo-European World , Mallory and Adams illustrate the resemblance with the following examples of cognate forms (with the addition of Old English for further comparison): The correspondences suggest some common root, and historical links between some of
13188-638: The South India, such as the great Vijayanagara Empire , so did Sanskrit. There were exceptions and short periods of imperial support for Sanskrit, mostly concentrated during the reign of the tolerant Mughal emperor Akbar . Muslim rulers patronized the Middle Eastern language and scripts found in Persia and Arabia, and the Indians linguistically adapted to this Persianization to gain employment with
13345-747: The Taittiriya Samhita was collected together in the Taittiriya Brahmana, which in part contains matter more recent than the Samhita, but in part has matter as old as, at any rate, the later portions of that text'. M. Winternitz adds that the 'Taittiriya-Brahmana of the Krishna Yajurveda is nothing but a continuation of the Taittiriya-Samhita [hymns and mantras], for the Brahmanas were already included in
13502-736: The Vamana avatar. You both ( Ashvins ) drink sura [alcohol] along with the Asura Namucha . You are protectors of happiness and are Soma-drinkers. You both protect the Indra -power in the Yajamana. Narasimha is primarily associated with the Puranic legend of destroying the Asura-king Hiranyakashipu to protect the king's devotee son, Prahlada . D.A. Soifer states that 'Brahmana literature yields what must be considered as
13659-573: The Vedas, is another name), the daughter of Vishvakarma (named Tvastar in the Vedas) emerged from the navel of Vishvakarman . During a conversation with his servant, Yama states that he is subordinate to Vishnu. While establishing the relationship between Vishnu and Lakshmi, the Chapter ;8 of Book 1 describes Dhumorna as Yama's consort. Varying information about Yama's consorts and children are found in Hindu texts. The Mahābhārata ,
13816-447: The Vedic Sanskrit in these books of the Ṛg-veda "hardly presents any dialectical diversity", states Louis Renou – an Indologist known for his scholarship of the Sanskrit literature and the Ṛg-veda in particular. According to Renou, this implies that the Vedic Sanskrit language had a "set linguistic pattern" by the second half of the 2nd millennium BCE. Beyond the Ṛg-veda, the ancient literature in Vedic Sanskrit that has survived into
13973-451: The Vedic Sanskrit's bahulam framework, to respect liberty and creativity so that individual writers separated by geography or time would have the choice to express facts and their views in their own way, where tradition followed competitive forms of the Sanskrit language. The phonetic differences between Vedic Sanskrit and Classical Sanskrit, as discerned from the current state of the surviving literature, are negligible when compared to
14130-475: The Yajur Veda'. Other relevant extracts include The Rishi questioned the priest "What is the aim or goal in performing the sattra Yajna ? The answer: Now we are unable to grow the grass and plants needed by the cow. By doing this Yajna, the rains will be released from Heaven ( diva ). These drops of water will make the plants grow (feeding the cow). The fathers ( pitara ) have the understanding ( visha ) of
14287-780: The Zodiac... Indeed, it could be argued that the signs arose from the Nakshatras'. Kashyap adds that the 28 Nakshatras - usually clusters rather than single stars - also determine favourable (and unfavourable) times for birth, elaborating that the 'star which is nearest to the moon at their birth-time is the birth-star... [and] Each star has its own deity'. The Nakshatras are detailed in 1.1.2 , 1.5.1 ( ashṭaka 1) ; and 3.1.1 and 3.1.2 ( ashṭaka 3, see below). Kashyap lists them with corresponding deities, common names, and names in Astronomy (Volume 1, Appendix 3): In primordial times,
14444-459: The alphabet, the structure of words, and its exacting grammar into a "collection of sounds, a kind of sublime musical mold" as an integral language they called Saṃskṛta . From the late Vedic period onwards, state Annette Wilke and Oliver Moebus, resonating sound and its musical foundations attracted an "exceptionally large amount of linguistic, philosophical and religious literature" in India. Sound
14601-548: The banks of the Godavari river down to the sea. The Taittirīya Brāhmaṇa ( Sanskrit तैत्तिरीयब्राह्मण ) can be loosely translated as 'explanations of the sacred knowledge of the school of Tittiri'. According to the Monier-Williams Sanskrit Dictionary, the sage Tittiri (or Taittiri) was a pupil of Yaska (estimated 300-400 BCE). According to the Vishnu Purana , Yaska was, in turn,
14758-433: The basic nature of earth was retrained in the land (wet mud). In that land Bhumitva (earth-nature) was retained. To dry the wet land the creator commanded Vayu to blow on the wet lands. Then that land was full of gravel (or sand mixed with gravel). He realised that the land was full of peace (and fertile)... The land discovered (or prepared) by the boar (varaha) had the materials needed for performing [a] yajna ... Varaha
14915-482: The bills of the vulturelike messengers of Yamaraja, the superintendent of sinful persons. A detailed account of the punishment of a sinner upon their death is also provided, beginning with their seizure and journey to Yamaloka ( i.e. Hell ): As a criminal is arrested for punishment by the constables of the state, a personal engaged in criminal sense gratification is similarly arrested by the Yamadutas, who bind him by
15072-440: The capacity to understand the old Prakrit languages such as Ardhamagadhi . A section of European scholars state that Sanskrit was never a spoken language. However, evidences shows that Sanskrit was a spoken language, essential for oral tradition that preserved the vast number of Sanskrit manuscripts from ancient India. The textual evidence in the works of Yaksa, Panini, and Patanajali affirms that Classical Sanskrit in their era
15229-527: The close relationship between the Indo-Iranian tongues and the Baltic and Slavic languages , vocabulary exchange with the non-Indo-European Uralic languages , and the nature of the attested Indo-European words for flora and fauna. The pre-history of Indo-Aryan languages which preceded Vedic Sanskrit is unclear and various hypotheses place it over a fairly wide limit. According to Thomas Burrow, based on
15386-486: The complexion of rain clouds. Dhumorna, his wife, is represented sitting on the left haunch of Yama and she has the colour of a dark blue lotus. In the Rigveda , Yama is the son of a solar deity Vivasvat and Saraṇyū and has a twin sister named Yamī. He is cognate to the Avestan Yima, son of Vīvanhvant. The majority of Yama's appearances are in the first and tenth book. Yama is closely associated with Agni in
15543-614: The context of a speech or language, is found in verses 5.28.17–19 of the Ramayana . Outside the learned sphere of written Classical Sanskrit, vernacular colloquial dialects ( Prakrits ) continued to evolve. Sanskrit co-existed with numerous other Prakrit languages of ancient India. The Prakrit languages of India also have ancient roots and some Sanskrit scholars have called these Apabhramsa , literally 'spoiled'. The Vedic literature includes words whose phonetic equivalent are not found in other Indo-European languages but which are found in
15700-416: The creation, maintenance and annihilation of this universe. He is like the two threads that form the length and breadth of a woven cloth. The entire world is controlled by Him just as a bull is controlled by a rope in its nose. In the tenth canto, Krishna and Balarama travel to Yama's abode to bring back the dead son of their Guru, Sandipani Muni : Lord Janārdana took the conchshell that had grown around
15857-653: The crystallization of Classical Sanskrit. As in this period the Indo-Aryan tribes had not yet made contact with the inhabitants of the South of the subcontinent, this suggests a significant presence of Dravidian speakers in North India (the central Gangetic plain and the classical Madhyadeśa) who were instrumental in this substratal influence on Sanskrit. Extant manuscripts in Sanskrit number over 30 million, one hundred times those in Greek and Latin combined, constituting
16014-521: The demon’s body and went back to the chariot. Then He proceeded to Saṁyamanī, the beloved capital of Yamarāja, the lord of death. Upon arriving there with Lord Balarāma, He loudly blew His conchshell, and Yamarāja, who keeps the conditioned souls in check, came as soon as he heard the resounding vibration. Yamarāja elaborately worshiped the two Lords with great devotion, and then he addressed Lord Kṛṣṇa, who lives in everyone’s heart: "O Supreme Lord Viṣṇu, what shall I do for You and Lord Balarāma, who are playing
16171-467: The detailed and sophisticated treatise then transmitted it through his students. Modern scholarship generally accepts that he knew of a form of writing, based on references to words such as Lipi ('script') and lipikara ('scribe') in section 3.2 of the Aṣṭādhyāyī . The Classical Sanskrit language formalized by Pāṇini, states Renou, is "not an impoverished language", rather it is "a controlled and
16328-471: The differences between the Vedic and Classical Sanskrit. Louis Renou published in 1956, in French, a more extensive discussion of the similarities, the differences and the evolution of the Vedic Sanskrit within the Vedic period and then to the Classical Sanskrit along with his views on the history. This work has been translated by Jagbans Balbir. The earliest known use of the word Saṃskṛta (Sanskrit), in
16485-452: The dispensation of law and punishment of sinners in his abode, Naraka . He is often identified with Dharmadeva , the personification of Dharma , though the two deities have different origins and myths. In Vedic tradition, Yama was considered the first mortal who died and espied the way to the celestial abodes; as a result, he became the ruler of the departed. His role, characteristics, and abode have been expounded in texts such as
16642-460: The distant major ancient languages of the world. The Indo-Aryan migrations theory explains the common features shared by Sanskrit and other Indo-European languages by proposing that the original speakers of what became Sanskrit arrived in South Asia from a region of common origin, somewhere north-west of the Indus region , during the early 2nd millennium BCE. Evidence for such a theory includes
16799-490: The early medieval era, it became a language of religion and high culture , and of the political elites in some of these regions. As a result, Sanskrit had a lasting impact on the languages of South Asia, Southeast Asia and East Asia, especially in their formal and learned vocabularies. Sanskrit generally connotes several Old Indo-Aryan language varieties. The most archaic of these is the Vedic Sanskrit found in
16956-463: The entire universe was covered with moving waters. Prajapati was amazed and engaged in tapas to understand [what was] happening. How did it happen? He saw a lotus petal ( pushkaraparna ). He thought, Yes, there is something that wants to come out. Transforming himself into a boar, he went inside the water. He went into the earth deep below. There, he saw soft mud. Then, he spread that mud on [the] pushkaraparna (lotus leaf). Whatever may have happened,
17113-555: The first [ashṭaka], 96 in the second and 179 in the third ashṭaka , i.e. 353 anuvākas in all’. R.L. Kashyap further elaborates while differing from Sharva slightly, stating that each ashṭaka of the Taittirīya Brāhmaṇa 'is divided into Prapāṭhakas which are divided into anuvāka-s. Each anuvāka is a long rhythmic prose passage without any punctuation. Ashṭaka 1 has 8 Prapāṭhakas, Ashṭaka 2 has 8 Prapāṭhakas, [and] Ashṭaka 3 has 12 Prapāṭhakas. All these 28 Prapāṭhakas (8+8+12) have 338 anuvākas [15 less than stated by Shrava]. The name Ashṭaka
17270-548: The first language of the respective speakers. The Sanskrit language brought Indo-Aryan speaking people together, particularly its elite scholars. Some of these scholars of Indian history regionally produced vernacularized Sanskrit to reach wider audiences, as evidenced by texts discovered in Rajasthan, Gujarat, and Maharashtra. Once the audience became familiar with the easier to understand vernacularized version of Sanskrit, those interested could graduate from colloquial Sanskrit to
17427-412: The foundation of Vyākaraṇa, a Vedānga . The Aṣṭādhyāyī was not the first description of Sanskrit grammar, but it is the earliest that has survived in full, and the culmination of a long grammatical tradition that Fortson says, is "one of the intellectual wonders of the ancient world". Pāṇini cites ten scholars on the phonological and grammatical aspects of the Sanskrit language before him, as well as
17584-537: The gods Varuna, Mitra, Indra, and Nasatya found in the earliest layers of the Vedic literature. O Bṛhaspati, when in giving names they first set forth the beginning of Language, Their most excellent and spotless secret was laid bare through love, When the wise ones formed Language with their mind, purifying it like grain with a winnowing fan, Then friends knew friendships – an auspicious mark placed on their language. — Rigveda 10.71.1–4 Translated by Roger Woodard The Vedic Sanskrit found in
17741-431: The historic Sanskrit literary culture and the failure of new Sanskrit literature to assimilate into the changing cultural and political environment. Sheldon Pollock states that in some crucial way, "Sanskrit is dead ". After the 12th century, the Sanskrit literary works were reduced to "reinscription and restatements" of ideas already explored, and any creativity was restricted to hymns and verses. This contrasted with
17898-486: The intense change that must have occurred in the pre-Vedic period between the Proto-Indo-Aryan language and Vedic Sanskrit. The noticeable differences between the Vedic and the Classical Sanskrit include the much-expanded grammar and grammatical categories as well as the differences in the accent, the semantics and the syntax. There are also some differences between how some of the nouns and verbs end, as well as
18055-479: The kept wife of his brother. Krishna also states Yama punishes sinners, as relayed to Vidura (again, an incarnation of Yama) by Maitreya during their conversation about the origin and creation of the multiverse : The brahmanas , the cows and the defenceless creatures are My [Krishna's] own body. Those whose faculty of judgement has been impaired by their own sin look upon those as distinct from Me. They are just like furious serpents, and they are angrily torn apart by
18212-432: The largest cultural heritage that any civilization has produced prior to the invention of the printing press. — Foreword of Sanskrit Computational Linguistics (2009), Gérard Huet, Amba Kulkarni and Peter Scharf Sanskrit has been the predominant language of Hindu texts encompassing a rich tradition of philosophical and religious texts, as well as poetry, music, drama , scientific , technical and others. It
18369-412: The linguistic expression and sets the standard for the Sanskrit language. Pāṇini made use of a technical metalanguage consisting of a syntax, morphology and lexicon. This metalanguage is organised according to a series of meta-rules, some of which are explicitly stated while others can be deduced. Despite differences in the analysis from that of modern linguistics, Pāṇini's work has been found valuable and
18526-402: The literary works. The Indian tradition, states Winternitz , has favored the learning and the usage of multiple languages from the ancient times. Sanskrit was a spoken language in the educated and the elite classes, but it was also a language that must have been understood in a wider circle of society because the widely popular folk epics and stories such as the Ramayana , the Mahabharata ,
18683-511: The modern age include the Samaveda , Yajurveda , Atharvaveda , along with the embedded and layered Vedic texts such as the Brahmanas , Aranyakas , and the early Upanishads . These Vedic documents reflect the dialects of Sanskrit found in the various parts of the northwestern, northern, and eastern Indian subcontinent. According to Michael Witzel, Vedic Sanskrit was a spoken language of
18840-429: The more advanced Classical Sanskrit. Rituals and the rites-of-passage ceremonies have been and continue to be the other occasions where a wide spectrum of people hear Sanskrit, and occasionally join in to speak some Sanskrit words such as namah . Classical Sanskrit is the standard register as laid out in the grammar of Pāṇini , around the fourth century BCE. Its position in the cultures of Greater India
18997-514: The mortal line, that Tvashtar created them as a couple in the womb, and that Dyaush and Prithvi are famous for their incest. Yama argues that their ancestors, "the Gandharva in the waters and the watery maiden," as a reason not to commit incest, that Mitra - Varuna are strict in their ordinances, and that they have spies everywhere. By the end of the hymn, Yamī becomes frustrated but Yama remains firm in his stance. However, by RV 10.13.4, Yama
19154-401: The most advanced analysis of linguistics until the twentieth century. Pāṇini's comprehensive and scientific theory of grammar is conventionally taken to mark the start of Classical Sanskrit. His systematic treatise inspired and made Sanskrit the preeminent Indian language of learning and literature for two millennia. It is unclear whether Pāṇini himself wrote his treatise or he orally created
19311-602: The most archaic poems of the Iranian and Greek language families, the Gathas of old Avestan and Iliad of Homer . As the Rigveda was orally transmitted by methods of memorisation of exceptional complexity, rigour and fidelity, as a single text without variant readings, its preserved archaic syntax and morphology are of vital importance in the reconstruction of the common ancestor language Proto-Indo-European . Sanskrit does not have an attested native script: from around
19468-526: The mountain on the former's back. And the gods and the Asuras made of Mandara [Mountain] a churning staff and Vasuki the cord, and set about churning the deep for amrita... Garuda is also frequently mentioned in respect to Kurma and the Samudra manthan legend. For example, in the Mahabharata (1.29–31) Garuda seeks the Amrita produced by the churning of the ocean to free himself and his mother from slavery. In
19625-400: The neck with a strong rope and cover his subtle body so that he may undergo severe punishment. While carried by the constables of Yamaraja, he is overwhelmed and trembles in their hands. While passing on the road [to Yamaloka] he is bitten by dogs, and he can remember the sinful activities of his life. He is thus terribly distressed. In the sixth canto, Yama (not as Vidura nor with Aryama in
19782-550: The negative aspects of death and eventually becomes the god of death. He also becomes associated with Antaka (the Ender), Mṛtyu (Death), Nirṛti (Decease), and Sleep. Yama has two four-eyed, broad nosed, brindled, reddish-brown dogs, Sharvara and Shyama , who are the sons of Saramā . However, in the Atharvaveda, one of dogs is brindled and the other is dark. The dogs are meant to track down those who are about to die, and guard
19939-545: The numbers are thought to signify a wish to be aligned with the prestige of the language. Sanskrit has been taught in traditional gurukulas since ancient times; it is widely taught today at the secondary school level. The oldest Sanskrit college is the Benares Sanskrit College founded in 1791 during East India Company rule . Sanskrit continues to be widely used as a ceremonial and ritual language in Hindu and Buddhist hymns and chants . In Sanskrit,
20096-403: The oral transmission of the texts is reliable: they are ceremonial literature, where the exact phonetic expression and its preservation were a part of the historic tradition. However some scholars have suggested that the original Ṛg-veda differed in some fundamental ways in phonology compared to the sole surviving version available to us. In particular that retroflex consonants did not exist as
20253-431: The other." Reinöhl further states that there is a symmetric relationship between Dravidian languages like Kannada or Tamil, with Indo-Aryan languages like Bengali or Hindi, whereas the same relationship is not found for non-Indo-Aryan languages, for example, Persian or English: A sentence in a Dravidian language like Tamil or Kannada becomes ordinarily good Bengali or Hindi by substituting Bengali or Hindi equivalents for
20410-460: The part of a śūdra, being cursed by Maṇḍūka Muni [also known as Māṇḍavya Muni], Aryamā officiated at the post of Yamarāja to punish those who committed sinful acts. Vidura, a devotee of Krishna , is the main protagonist in the third canto. In this canto , after being thrown out of his home by King Dhritarashtra (his older half-brother) for admonishing the Kauravas' ignoble behaviour towards
20567-434: The part of ordinary humans?" The Supreme Personality of Godhead said: Suffering the bondage of his past activity, My spiritual master’s son was brought here to you. O great King, obey My command and bring this boy to Me without delay. Yamarāja said, "So be it," and brought forth the guru’s son. Then those two most exalted Yadus presented the boy to Their spiritual master and said to him, "Please select another boon." In
20724-544: The path to Yama's realm. Scholars who adhere to Theodor Aufrecht's interpretation of RV 7.55 state that the dogs were also meant to keep wicked men out of heaven. The Vājasaneyi Saṃhitā (the White Yajurveda) states Yama and his twin sister Yamī both reside in the highest heaven. The Atharvaveda states Yama is unsurpassable and is greater than Vivasvat. The Taittirīya Aranyaka and the Āpastamba Śrauta state that Yama has golden-eyed and iron-hoofed horses. In
20881-414: The possible influence of Dravidian on Sanskrit is only one of many items of syntactic assimilation, not least among them the large repertoire of morphological modality and aspect that, once one knows to look for it, can be found everywhere in classical and postclassical Sanskrit". The main influence of Dravidian on Sanskrit is found to have been concentrated in the timespan between the late Vedic period and
21038-603: The post; see third and fourth canto) instructs his messengers, the Yamadutas , when questioned about who has supreme authority in the universe since there are so many gods and demigods: Yamarāja said: My dear servants, you have accepted me as the Supreme, but factually I am not. Above me, and above all the other demigods, including Indra and Candra, is the one supreme master and controller. The partial manifestations of His personality are Brahmā, Viṣṇu and Śiva, who are in charge of
21195-579: The present day follow the timing of the Nakshatras... [which] are of prime [importance] in muhurta or electional astrology for determining favorable times for actions, particularly sacramental or sacred actions like marriage... A system of 28 lunar mansions [i.e. Nakshatras] was used in the Middle East and in China as well. But in the West it was all but forgotten by a greater emphasis on the twelve signs of
21352-439: The previous 1,500 years when "great experiments in moral and aesthetic imagination" marked the Indian scholarship using Classical Sanskrit, states Pollock. Scholars maintain that the Sanskrit language did not die, but rather only declined. Jurgen Hanneder disagrees with Pollock, finding his arguments elegant but "often arbitrary". According to Hanneder, a decline or regional absence of creative and innovative literature constitutes
21509-642: The primeval waters, is described as a form of Prajāpati. This modification of the myth is further expanded in the TB [Taittirīya Brāhmaṇa] (1, 1, 3). In the post-Vedic mythology of the Rāmāyana and the Purãṇas, the boar which raises the earth, has become of the Avatar of Vishnu'. Varaha is also mentioned in 1.7.9.56 (' yád varāháḥ '), but an English translation has not been found. When the completion of yajna does not happen in
21666-480: The problems of interpretation and misunderstanding. The purifying structure of the Sanskrit language removes these imperfections. The early Sanskrit grammarian Daṇḍin states, for example, that much in the Prakrit languages is etymologically rooted in Sanskrit, but involves "loss of sounds" and corruptions that result from a "disregard of the grammar". Daṇḍin acknowledged that there are words and confusing structures in Prakrit that thrive independent of Sanskrit. This view
21823-427: The realms), appointed as the protector of the south direction. He is often depicted as a dark-complexioned man riding a buffalo and carrying a noose or mace to capture souls. Yama was subsequently adopted by Buddhist , Chinese , Tibetan , Korean , and Japanese mythology as the king of hell. In modern culture, Yama has been depicted in various safety campaigns in India. The word " Yama " means 'twin' (Yama has
21980-609: The regional Prakrit languages, which makes it likely that the interaction, the sharing of words and ideas began early in the Indian history. As the Indian thought diversified and challenged earlier beliefs of Hinduism, particularly in the form of Buddhism and Jainism , the Prakrit languages such as Pali in Theravada Buddhism and Ardhamagadhi in Jainism competed with Sanskrit in the ancient times. However, states Paul Dundas , these ancient Prakrit languages had "roughly
22137-497: The relationship between various Indo-European languages, the origin of all these languages may possibly be in what is now Central or Eastern Europe, while the Indo-Iranian group possibly arose in Central Russia. The Iranian and Indo-Aryan branches separated quite early. It is the Indo-Aryan branch that moved into eastern Iran and then south into South Asia in the first half of the 2nd millennium BCE. Once in ancient India,
22294-562: The role of language, the ontological status of painting word-images through sound, and the need for rules so that it can serve as a means for a community of speakers, separated by geography or time, to share and understand profound ideas from each other. These speculations became particularly important to the Mīmāṃsā and the Nyaya schools of Hindu philosophy, and later to Vedanta and Mahayana Buddhism, states Frits Staal —a scholar of Linguistics with
22451-423: The same person. Author Vettam Mani speculates a reason for this identification: " Vyasa has used as synonyms for Dharmadeva in the Mahabharata the words Dharmaraja, Vṛsa and Yama. Now among the synonyms for the two there are two words in common- Dharmaraja and Yama. This has led to this misunderstanding. Because Kala weighs the evil and good in man he got the name Dharmaraja. Dharmadeva got that name because he
22608-496: The same relationship to Sanskrit as medieval Italian does to Latin". The Indian tradition states that the Buddha and the Mahavira preferred the Prakrit language so that everyone could understand it. However, scholars such as Dundas have questioned this hypothesis. They state that there is no evidence for this and whatever evidence is available suggests that by the start of the common era, hardly anybody other than learned monks had
22765-556: The semi-nomadic Aryans . The Vedic Sanskrit language or a closely related Indo-European variant was recognized beyond ancient India as evidenced by the " Mitanni Treaty" between the ancient Hittite and Mitanni people, carved into a rock, in a region that now includes parts of Syria and Turkey. Parts of this treaty, such as the names of the Mitanni princes and technical terms related to horse training, for reasons not understood, are in early forms of Vedic Sanskrit. The treaty also invokes
22922-615: The social structures such as the role of the poet and the priests, the patronage economy, the phrasal equations, and some of the poetic metres. While there are similarities, state Jamison and Brereton, there are also differences between Vedic Sanskrit, the Old Avestan, and the Mycenaean Greek literature. For example, unlike the Sanskrit similes in the Ṛg-veda, the Old Avestan Gathas lack simile entirely, and it
23079-477: The story of Savitri and Satyavan . After Savitri's husband Satyavan died, Yama arrived to carry away his soul. However, Yama was so impressed with Savitri's purity and dedication to dharma and to her husband, he was convinced to instead bring Satyavan back to life. In the Tirtha-yatra Parva (Book 3, Varna Parva, CXLII), Lomasa tells Yudhishthira "in days of yore, there was (once) a terrible time in
23236-653: The turn of the 1st-millennium CE, it has been written in various Brahmic scripts , and in the modern era most commonly in Devanagari . Sanskrit's status, function, and place in India's cultural heritage are recognized by its inclusion in the Constitution of India 's Eighth Schedule languages . However, despite attempts at revival, there are no first-language speakers of Sanskrit in India. In each of India's recent decennial censuses, several thousand citizens have reported Sanskrit to be their mother tongue, but
23393-408: The variants in the usage of Sanskrit in different regions of India. The ten Vedic scholars he quotes are Āpiśali, Kaśyapa , Gārgya, Gālava, Cakravarmaṇa, Bhāradvāja , Śākaṭāyana, Śākalya, Senaka and Sphoṭāyana. In the Aṣṭādhyāyī , language is observed in a manner that has no parallel among Greek or Latin grammarians. Pāṇini's grammar, according to Renou and Filliozat, is a classic that defines
23550-564: The vernacular Prakrits. Many Sanskrit dramas indicate that the language coexisted with the vernacular Prakrits. The cities of Varanasi , Paithan , Pune and Kanchipuram were centers of classical Sanskrit learning and public debates until the arrival of the colonial era. According to Lamotte , Sanskrit became the dominant literary and inscriptional language because of its precision in communication. It was, states Lamotte, an ideal instrument for presenting ideas, and as knowledge in Sanskrit multiplied, so did its spread and influence. Sanskrit
23707-474: The worlds ( kshetra ) do the act of churning ( manthan ) the Vaishvānara to release the power of immortality ( amṛta ). That Vishnu affirms on high by his mightiness, he is like a terrible lion that ranges in difficult places, yes, his abode is on the mountain-tops. In this three wide movements, all the worlds find their dwelling places. Vamana is most commonly associated with the Puranic legend of taking back
23864-502: The Ṛg-veda is distinctly more archaic than other Vedic texts, and in many respects, the Rigvedic language is notably more similar to those found in the archaic texts of Old Avestan Zoroastrian Gathas and Homer's Iliad and Odyssey . According to Stephanie W. Jamison and Joel P. Brereton – Indologists known for their translation of the Ṛg-veda – the Vedic Sanskrit literature "clearly inherited" from Indo-Iranian and Indo-European times
24021-408: Was a spoken language ( bhasha ) used by the cultured and educated. Some sutras expound upon the variant forms of spoken Sanskrit versus written Sanskrit. Chinese Buddhist pilgrim Xuanzang mentioned in his memoir that official philosophical debates in India were held in Sanskrit, not in the vernacular language of that region. According to Sanskrit linguist professor Madhav Deshpande, Sanskrit
24178-427: Was a spoken language in a colloquial form by the mid-1st millennium BCE which coexisted with a more formal, grammatically correct form of literary Sanskrit. This, states Deshpande, is true for modern languages where colloquial incorrect approximations and dialects of a language are spoken and understood, along with more "refined, sophisticated and grammatically accurate" forms of the same language being found in
24335-472: Was adopted voluntarily as a vehicle of high culture, arts, and profound ideas. Pollock disagrees with Lamotte, but concurs that Sanskrit's influence grew into what he terms a "Sanskrit Cosmopolis" over a region that included all of South Asia and much of southeast Asia. The Sanskrit language cosmopolis thrived beyond India between 300 and 1300 CE. Today, it is believed that Kashmiri is the closest language to Sanskrit. Reinöhl mentions that not only have
24492-686: Was also the language of some of the oldest surviving, authoritative and much followed philosophical works of Jainism such as the Tattvartha Sutra by Umaswati . The Sanskrit language has been one of the major means for the transmission of knowledge and ideas in Asian history. Indian texts in Sanskrit were already in China by 402 CE, carried by the influential Buddhist pilgrim Faxian who translated them into Chinese by 418 CE. Xuanzang , another Chinese Buddhist pilgrim, learnt Sanskrit in India and carried 657 Sanskrit texts to China in
24649-442: Was visualized as "pervading all creation", another representation of the world itself; the "mysterious magnum" of Hindu thought. The search for perfection in thought and the goal of liberation were among the dimensions of sacred sound, and the common thread that wove all ideas and inspirations together became the quest for what the ancient Indians believed to be a perfect language, the "phonocentric episteme" of Sanskrit. Sanskrit as
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