Axial Age (also Axis Age , from the German Achsenzeit ) is a term coined by the German philosopher Karl Jaspers . It refers to broad changes in religious and philosophical thought that occurred in a variety of locations from about the 8th to the 3rd century BCE.
129-644: According to Jaspers, during this period, universalizing modes of thought appeared in Persia , India, China, the Levant , and the Greco-Roman world , in a striking parallel development, without any obvious admixture between these disparate cultures. Jaspers identified key thinkers from this age who had a profound influence on future philosophies and religions, and identified characteristics common to each area from which those thinkers emerged. The historical validity of
258-422: A 25-year cooperation agreement that will strengthen the relations between the two countries and would include "political, strategic and economic" components. Iran-China relations dates back to at least 200 BC and possibly earlier. Iran is one of the few countries in the world that has a good relationship with both North and South Korea . Iran is a member of dozens of international organizations, including
387-637: A negative sense, liberty is "the revolt of the individual against all divine, collective, and individual authority." "This also is remarkable in India , that all Indians are free, and no Indian at all is a slave. In this the Indians agree with the Lacedaemonians . Yet the Lacedaemonians have Helots for slaves, who perform the duties of slaves; but the Indians have no slaves at all, much less
516-711: A background for the importance of the period, and notes parallels with Eric Voegelin 's Order and History . In the same book, Shmuel Eisenstadt analyses economic circumstances relating to the coming of the Axial Age in Greece. Wider acknowledgement of Jaspers' work came after it was presented at a conference and published in Daedalus in 1975, and Jaspers' suggestion that the period was uniquely transformative generated important discussion among other scholars, such as Johann Arnason. Religious historian Karen Armstrong explored
645-425: A balanced society where individuals have the freedom to act without unnecessary interference ( negative liberty ) and access to opportunities and resources to pursue their goals ( positive liberty ), all within a fair legal system. Sometimes liberty is differentiated from freedom by using the word "freedom" primarily, if not exclusively, to mean the ability to do as one wills and what one has the power to do; and using
774-480: A ceremonial body without any real power. The political system is based on the country's constitution . Iran ranked 154th in the 2022 The Economist Democracy Index . Juan José Linz wrote in 2000 that "the Iranian regime combines the ideological bent of totalitarianism with the limited pluralism of authoritarianism ". The President is head of government and the second highest-ranking authority, after
903-575: A challenging view of the world as a struggle between good and evil; in Ancient Israel the prophets made their appearance from Elijah by way of Isaiah and Jeremiah to Deutero-Isaiah ; Greece witnessed the appearance of Homer , of the philosophers— Parmenides , Heraclitus and Plato —of the tragedians, of Thucydides and Archimedes . Everything implied by these names developed during these few centuries almost simultaneously in China, India and
1032-590: A close economic and military alliance, and are subject to heavy sanctions by Western nations. Iran is the only country in Western Asia that has been invited to join the CSTO , the Russia-based international treaty organization that parallels NATO . Relations between Iran and China are strong economically; they have developed a friendly, economic and strategic relationship. In 2021, Iran and China signed
1161-542: A distinct political and cultural entity. The Muslim conquest of Persia (632–654) ended the Sasanian Empire and marked a turning point in Iranian history, leading to the Islamization of Iran from the eighth to tenth centuries and the decline of Zoroastrianism . However, the achievements of prior Persian civilizations were absorbed into the new Islamic polity. Iran suffered invasions by nomadic tribes during
1290-444: A given social system. Freedom thus requires both the material economic conditions that make freedom possible alongside social relationships and institutions conducive to freedom. The socialist conception of freedom is closely related to the socialist view of creativity and individuality. Influenced by Karl Marx 's concept of alienated labor, socialists understand freedom to be the ability for an individual to engage in creative work in
1419-698: A leading world power, though by the 19th century, it had lost significant territory through conflicts with the Russian Empire . The early 20th century saw the Persian Constitutional Revolution and the establishment of the Pahlavi dynasty . Attempts by Mohammad Mosaddegh to nationalize the oil industry led to an Anglo-American coup in 1953 . After the Iranian Revolution , the monarchy was overthrown in 1979 and
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#17327654634521548-503: A moderate position internationally. In 1997, Rafsanjani was succeeded by moderate reformist Mohammad Khatami , whose government advocated freedom of expression , constructive diplomatic relations with Asia and the European Union , and an economic policy that supported a free market and foreign investment. The 2005 presidential election brought conservative populist and nationalist candidate Mahmoud Ahmadinejad to power. He
1677-401: A polity in which there is the same law for all, a polity administered with regard to equal rights and equal freedom of speech, and the idea of a kingly government which respects most of all the freedom of the governed. According to compatibilist Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679): a free man is he that in those things which by his strength and wit he is able to do is not hindered to do what he hath
1806-525: A profound influence on social and religious life. Zoroastrianism , another of Jaspers' examples, is one of the first monotheistic religions. William W. Malandra and R. C. Zaehner, suggest that Zoroaster may indeed have been an early contemporary of Cyrus the Great living around 550 BCE. Mary Boyce and other leading scholars who once supported much earlier dates for Zarathustra/Zoroaster have recently changed their position on when he likely lived, so that there
1935-410: A relationship between individuals, rather than families, came to the fore, and with it the increasing focus on individual liberty as a fundamental reality, given by " Nature and Nature's God ," which, in the ideal state , would be as universal as possible. In On Liberty , John Stuart Mill sought to define the "...nature and limits of the power which can be legitimately exercised by society over
2064-411: A remembering of things forgotten. David Christian notes that the first "universal religions" appeared in the age of the first universal empires and of the first all-encompassing trading networks . This conclusion overlooks the fact that Venus statues , for example, are found across much of Eurasia, and date back many millennia before the first empires. What some regard as the emergence of religion
2193-471: A strong response from Iran, based on their historical and cultural background. Iran has full-control over the islands. Kish island , as a free trade zone , is touted as a consumer's paradise, with malls, shopping centres, tourist attractions, and luxury hotels. Qeshm is the largest island in Iran, and a UNESCO Global Geopark since 2016. Its salt cave, Namakdan, is the largest in the world, and one of
2322-632: A tradition of travelling scholars, who roamed from city to city to exchange ideas. After the Spring and Autumn period (8th to 5th centuries BCE) and the Warring States period (5th to 3rd centuries BCE), Taoism and Confucianism emerged in China. In other regions, the scholars largely developed extant religious traditions; in India, Hinduism , Buddhism , and Jainism ; in Persia, Zoroastrianism ; in
2451-690: Is a country in West Asia . It borders Turkey to the northwest and Iraq to the west, Azerbaijan , Armenia , the Caspian Sea , and Turkmenistan to the north, Afghanistan to the east, Pakistan to the southeast, the Gulf of Oman and the Persian Gulf to the south. With a multi-ethnic population of almost 90 million in an area of 1,648,195 km (636,372 sq mi), Iran ranks 17th globally in both geographic size and population . It
2580-418: Is a major regional power , due to its large reserves of fossil fuels , including the world's second largest natural gas supply , third largest proven oil reserves , its geopolitically significant location, military capabilities , cultural hegemony , regional influence, and role as the world's focal point of Shia Islam . The Iranian economy is the world's 23rd-largest by PPP . Iran is a founding member of
2709-452: Is accountable only to the Rahbar. The Court's rulings are final and cannot be appealed. The Assembly of Experts, which meets for one week annually, comprises 86 "virtuous and learned" clerics elected by adult suffrage for 8-year terms. Iran is subdivided into thirty-one provinces ( Persian : استان ostân ), each governed from a local centre, usually the largest local city, which is called
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#17327654634522838-526: Is always an immoral violation of one's life, liberty, and property rights. Utilizing deceit instead of consent to achieve ends is also a violation of the Non-Aggression principle. Therefore, under the framework of the Non-Aggression principle, rape, murder, deception, involuntary taxation, government regulation, and other behaviors that initiate aggression against otherwise peaceful individuals are considered violations of this principle. This principle
2967-412: Is an emerging consensus regarding him as a contemporary or near-contemporary of Cyrus the Great. Jainism propagated the religion of sramanas (previous Tirthankaras ) and influenced Indian philosophy by propounding the principles of ahimsa (non-violence), karma , samsara , and asceticism . Mahavira (24th Tirthankara in the 5th century BCE), known as a fordmaker of Jainism and a contemporary with
3096-478: Is four times that of Europe's. There are over 200 protected areas to preserve biodiversity and wildlife, with over 30 being national parks . Iran's living fauna includes 34 bat species, Indian grey mongoose , small Indian mongoose , golden jackal , Indian wolf , foxes , striped hyena , leopard , Eurasian lynx , brown bear and Asian black bear . Ungulate species include wild boar , urial , Armenian mouflon , red deer , and goitered gazelle . One of
3225-559: Is in a seismically active area. On average, an earthquake of magnitude seven on the Richter scale occurs once every ten years. Most earthquakes are shallow-focus and can be very devastating, such as the 2003 Bam earthquake . Iran consists of the Iranian Plateau . It is one of the world's most mountainous countries; its landscape is dominated by rugged mountain ranges that separate basins or plateaus . The populous west part
3354-596: Is mandatory for all male citizen aged 18 to serve around 14 months in the IRIAF or IRGC. Liberty Liberty is the state of being free within society from oppressive restrictions imposed by authority on one's way of life, behavior, or political views. The concept of liberty can vary depending on perspective and context. In the Constitutional law of the United States , ordered liberty means creating
3483-403: Is more likely the emergence of institutionalized and codified religion. Anthropologist David Graeber has pointed out that "the core period of Jasper's Axial age ... corresponds almost exactly to the period in which coinage was invented. What's more, the three parts of the world where coins were first invented were also the very parts of the world where those sages lived; in fact, they became
3612-458: Is most commonly adhered to by libertarians . A common elevator pitch for this principle is, "Good ideas don't require force." According to republican theorists of freedom, like the historian Quentin Skinner or the philosopher Philip Pettit , one's liberty should not be viewed as the absence of interference in one's actions, but as non-domination. According to this view, which originates in
3741-534: Is protected from tyranny and the arbitrary exercise of authority , while the former refers to the liberty that comes from self-mastery, the freedom from inner compulsions such as weakness and fear. The modern day concept of political liberty has its origins in the Greek concepts of freedom and slavery. To be free, to the Greeks, was not to have a master, to be independent from a master (to live as one likes). That
3870-543: Is the sixth-largest country entirely in Asia and one of the world's most mountainous countries. Officially an Islamic republic , Iran has a Muslim-majority population . The country is divided into five regions with 31 provinces . Tehran is the nation's capital , largest city and financial center . A cradle of civilization , Iran has been inhabited since the Lower Palaeolithic . The large part of Iran
3999-551: Is the highest judge of the Supreme Court of Iran . The Chief Justice nominates candidates to serve as minister of justice, and the President selects one. The Chief Justice can serve for two five-year terms. The Special Clerical Court handles crimes allegedly committed by clerics , although it has taken on cases involving laypeople . The Special Clerical Court functions independently of the regular judicial framework and
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4128-635: Is the most mountainous, with ranges such as the Caucasus , Zagros , and Alborz , the last containing Mount Damavand , Iran's highest point, at 5,610 m (18,406 ft), which is the highest volcano in Asia. Iran's mountains have impacted its politics and economics for centuries. The north part is covered by the lush lowland Caspian Hyrcanian forests , near the southern shores of the Caspian Sea. The east part consists mostly of desert basins, such as
4257-506: Is to be under no other restraint but the law of nature. Freedom of people under government is to be under no restraint apart from standing rules to live by that are common to everyone in the society and made by the lawmaking power established in it. Persons have a right or liberty to (1) follow their own will in all things that the law has not prohibited and (2) not be subject to the inconstant, uncertain, unknown, and arbitrary wills of others. John Stuart Mill , in his 1859 work, On Liberty ,
4386-542: The Oxford English Dictionary as / ɪ ˈ r ɑː n / and / ɪ ˈ r æ n / , while American English dictionaries provide pronunciations which map to / ɪ ˈ r ɑː n , - ˈ r æ n , aɪ ˈ r æ n / , or / ɪ ˈ r æ n , ɪ ˈ r ɑː n , aɪ ˈ r æ n / . The Cambridge Dictionary lists / ɪ ˈ r ɑː n / as the British pronunciation and / ɪ ˈ r æ n / as
4515-489: The Army , the head of Supreme National Security Council , and has the power to declare a state of emergency after passage by the parliament. The President is responsible for the implementation of the constitution, and for the exercise of executive powers in implementing the decrees and general policies as outlined by the Rahbar, except for matters directly related to the Rahbar, who has the final say. The President functions as
4644-620: The Caucasus to the Russian Empire following the Russo-Persian Wars . Iran remained a monarchy until the 1979 Iranian Revolution , when it officially became an Islamic republic on 1 April 1979. Since then, Iran has experienced significant political, social, and economic changes. The establishment of the Islamic Republic of Iran led to the restructuring of its political system, with Ayatollah Khomeini as
4773-600: The Edicts of Ashoka the Great , which emphasize the importance of tolerance in public policy by the government. The slaughter or capture of prisoners of war also appears to have been condemned by Ashoka. Slavery also appears to have been non-existent in the Maurya Empire. However, according to Hermann Kulke and Dietmar Rothermund, "Ashoka's orders seem to have been resisted right from the beginning." Roman law also embraced certain limited forms of liberty, even under
4902-625: The G-15 , G-24 , G-77 , IAEA , IBRD , IDA , NAM , IDB , IFC , ILO , IMF , IMO , Interpol , OIC , OPEC , WHO , and the UN , and currently has observer status at the WTO . The military is organized under a unified structure, the Islamic Republic of Iran Armed Forces , comprising the Islamic Republic of Iran Army , which includes the Ground Forces , Air Defence Force , Air Force , and Navy ;
5031-639: The Islamic Golden Age . A series of Iranian Muslim dynasties ended Arab rule, revived the Persian language and ruled the country until the Seljuk and Mongol conquests of the 11th to 14th centuries. In the 16th century, the native Safavids re-established a unified Iranian state with Twelver Shi'ism as the official religion . During the Afsharid Empire in the 18th century, Iran was
5160-714: The Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps , which consists of the Ground Forces , Aerospace Force , Navy , Quds Force , and Basij ; and the Law Enforcement Command (Faraja), which serves an analogous function to a gendarme . While the IRIAF protects the country's sovereignty in a traditional capacity, the IRGC is mandated to ensure the integrity of the Republic, against foreign interference, coups, and internal riots. Since 1925 , it
5289-723: The Kassites , Mannaeans , and Gutians . Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel called the Persians the "first Historical People". The Iranian Empire began in the Iron Age with the rise of the Medes , who unified Iran as a nation and empire in 625 BC. The Achaemenid Empire (550–330 BC), founded by Cyrus the Great , was the largest empire the world had seen, spanning from the Balkans to North Africa and Central Asia . They were succeeded by
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5418-763: The Kavir Desert , which is the country's largest desert, and the Lut Desert , as well as salt lakes . The Lut Desert is the hottest recorded spot on the Earth's surface, with 70.7 °C recorded in 2005. The only large plains are found along the coast of the Caspian and at the north end of the Persian Gulf, where the country borders the mouth of the Arvand river . Smaller, discontinuous plains are found along
5547-623: The Late Middle Ages and early modern period , negatively impacting the region. Iran was reunified as an independent state in 1501 by the Safavid dynasty , which established Shia Islam as the empire's official religion, marking another turning point in the history of Islam . Iran functioned again as a leading world power, especially in rivalry with the Ottoman Empire . In the 19th century, Iran lost significant territories in
5676-470: The Levant , Judaism ; and in Greece, Sophism and other classical philosophies. Many of the cultures of the Axial Age have been considered second-generation societies because they developed on the basis of societies which preceded them. In China, the Hundred Schools of Thought (c. 6th century BCE) were in contention and Confucianism and Taoism arose during this era, and in this area it remains
5805-600: The Middle Ages and into the Renaissance . In addition to Jaspers, the philosopher Eric Voegelin referred to this age as The Great Leap of Being , constituting a new spiritual awakening and a shift of perception from societal to individual values. Thinkers and teachers like the Buddha, Pythagoras , Heraclitus , Parmenides, and Anaxagoras contributed to such awakenings which Plato would later call anamnesis , or
5934-574: The Mises Institute . France supported the Americans in their revolt against English rule and, in 1789, overthrew their own monarchy, with the cry of "Liberté, égalité, fraternité". The bloodbath that followed, known as the reign of terror , soured many people on the idea of liberty. Edmund Burke, considered one of the fathers of conservatism , wrote "The French had shewn themselves the ablest architects of ruin that had hitherto existed in
6063-478: The Republic of Azerbaijan (611 km or 380 mi); to the north by the Caspian Sea ; to the northeast by Turkmenistan (992 km or 616 mi); to the east by Afghanistan (936 km or 582 mi) and Pakistan (909 km or 565 mi); to the south by the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman ; and to the west by Iraq (1,458 km or 906 mi) and Turkey (499 km or 310 mi). Iran
6192-518: The Russian revolutionary anarchist Mikhail Bakunin , liberty did not mean an abstract ideal but a concrete reality based on the equal liberty of others. In a positive sense, liberty consists of "the fullest development of all the faculties and powers of every human being, by education, by scientific training, and by material prosperity." Such a conception of liberty is " eminently social , because it can only be realized in society," not in isolation. In
6321-650: The Seleucid , Parthian , and Sasanian Empires , who governed Iran for almost 1,000 years, making Iran a leading power once again. Persia's arch-rival during this time was the Roman Empire and its successor, the Byzantine Empire . Iran endured invasions by the Macedonians , Arabs , Turks , and Mongols . Despite these invasions, Iran continually reasserted its national identity and developed as
6450-581: The Silk Road creating a trans-Eurasian trade belt stretching from the Pacific to the Atlantic. Several scholars supposed ecological prime trigger for the rise of this Axial belt Stephen Sanderson researched religious evolution in the Axial Age, arguing that religions and religious change in general are essentially biosocial adaptations to changing environments. Ostrovsky suggests increased fertility in
6579-560: The South Caucasus . However, they have shared common interests, such as the issue of Kurdish separatism and the Qatar diplomatic crisis . Iran has a close and strong relationship with Tajikistan . Iran has deep economic relations and alliance with Iraq , Lebanon and Syria, with Syria often described as Iran's "closest ally". Russia is a key trading partner, especially in regard to its excess oil reserves. Both share
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#17327654634526708-420: The United Nations , OIC , OPEC , and ECO as well as a current member of the NAM , SCO , and BRICS . Iran is home to 28 UNESCO World Heritage Sites , the 10th highest in the world, and ranks 5th in Intangible Cultural Heritage , or human treasures. The term Iran ' the land of the Aryans ' derives from Middle Persian Ērān , first attested in a 3rd-century inscription at Naqsh-e Rostam , with
6837-418: The parliament . The Rahbar is the commander-in-chief of the Armed Forces , controls military intelligence and security operations, and has sole power to declare war or peace. The heads of the judiciary, state radio and television networks, commanders of the police and military, and the members of the Guardian Council are all appointed by the Rahbar. The Assembly of Experts is responsible for electing
6966-806: The 2nd-most powerful person in Iran, was assassinated by the US , heightening tensions between them . Iran retaliated against US airbases in Iraq , the largest ballistic missile attack ever on Americans; 110 sustained brain injuries . Hardliner Ebrahim Raisi ran for president again in 2021 , succeeding Hassan Rouhani . During Raisi's term, Iran intensified uranium enrichment , hindered international inspections, joined SCO and BRICS, supported Russia in its invasion of Ukraine and restored diplomatic relations with Saudi Arabia. In April 2024, Israel's airstrike on an Iranian consulate , killed an IRGC commander. Iran retaliated with UAVs , cruise and ballistic missiles ; 9 hit Israel. Western and Jordanian military helped Israel down some Iranian drones. It
7095-409: The Age. Historians Hermann Kulke and Max Ostrovsky demonstrated that the Age is even more Axial in historical and geopolitical senses. Jaspers, in fact, noted the tip of the iceberg. Pre-Axial cultures, he wrote, were dominated by the river valley civilizations while by the end of the Axial Age rose universal empires which dominated history for centuries since. With the researches of Kulke and Ostrovsky
7224-399: The American pronunciation. Voice of America 's pronunciation guide provides / ɪ ˈ r ɑː n / . Iran is home to one of the world's oldest continuous major civilizations, with historical and urban settlements dating back to 4000 BC. The western part of the Iranian plateau participated in the traditional ancient Near East with Elam (3200–539 BC), and later with other peoples such as
7353-481: The Axial Age has been published in 2019: generally the authors contested the existence of an "identifiable Axial Age confined to a few Eurasian hotspots in the last millennium BCE" but tended to accept “axiality” as a cluster of traits emerging time and again whenever societies reached a certain threshold of scale and level of complexity . Besides time, usage of the term has expanded beyond the original field. A philosopher, Jaspers focused on philosophical development of
7482-450: The Axial Age continues to be an influential idea, with many scholars accepting that profound changes in religious and philosophical discourse did indeed take place but disagreeing as to the underlying reasons. To quote Robert Bellah and Hans Joas , "The notion that in significant parts of Eurasia the middle centuries of the first millennium BCE mark a significant transition in human cultural history, and that this period can be referred to as
7611-463: The Axial Age is disputed. Some criticisms of Jaspers include the lack of a demonstrable common denominator between the intellectual developments that are supposed to have emerged in unison across ancient Greece, the Levant, India, and China; lack of any radical discontinuity with "preaxial" and "postaxial" periods; and exclusion of pivotal figures that do not fit the definition (for example, Jesus , Muhammad , and Akhenaten ). Despite these criticisms,
7740-566: The Axial Age, has become widely, but not universally, accepted." Jaspers introduced the concept of an Axial Age in his book Vom Ursprung und Ziel der Geschichte ( The Origin and Goal of History ), published in 1949. The simultaneous appearance of thinkers and philosophers in different areas of the world had been remarked by numerous authors since the 18th century, notably by the French Indologist Abraham Hyacinthe Anquetil-Duperron . Jaspers explicitly cited some of these authors, including Victor von Strauß (1859) and Ernst von Lasaulx (1870). He
7869-413: The Axial age by a series of examples: Confucius and Lao-Tse were living in China, all the schools of Chinese philosophy came into being, including those of Mo Ti , Chuang Tse , Lieh Tzu and a host of others; India produced the Upanishads and Buddha and, like China, ran the whole gamut of philosophical possibilities down to materialism , scepticism and nihilism ; in Iran, Zarathustra taught
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#17327654634527998-438: The Buddha, lived during this age. Buddhism , also of the sramana tradition of India, was another of the world's most influential philosophies, founded by Siddhartha Gautama , or the Buddha, who lived c. 5th century BCE; its spread was aided by Ashoka , who lived late in the period. Rabbinic Judaism accounts for its hard shift away from idolatry/polytheism (which was more common among Biblical Israelites ) by mythologizing
8127-487: The Chinese civilization expanded at the peak of the Axial Age, turning the original core into Country in the Middle (Chung-kuo). The new geopolitical setting of China changed less in the following two millennia than it did in the Axial Age. The Axial Age formed two major geopolitical systems, a wider China and a much vaster Indo-Mediterranean system. The two were separated from each other by Tibet which limited their political and military contacts but both systems were linked by
8256-473: The Guardian Council is not needed. The Leader can revert the decisions of the Guardian Council. The constitution gives the council three mandates: veto power over legislation passed by the parliament , supervision of elections and approving or disqualifying candidates seeking to run in local, parliamentary, presidential, or Assembly of Experts elections. The council can nullify a law based on two accounts: being against Sharia (Islamic law), or being against
8385-444: The Guardian Council, and serves as an advisory body to the Supreme Leader, making it one of the most powerful governing bodies in Iran. The Parliament has 207 constituencies, including the 5 reserved seats for religious minorities. The remaining 202 are territorial, each covering one or more of Iran's counties . Iran uses a form of Sharia law as its legal system, with elements of European Civil law . The Supreme Leader appoints
8514-515: The Islamic Republic of Iran was established by Ruhollah Khomeini , who became the country's first Supreme Leader . In 1980, Iraq invaded Iran , sparking the eight-year-long Iran–Iraq War , which ended in stalemate. Iran is officially governed as a unitary Islamic republic with a presidential system , with ultimate authority vested in a Supreme Leader. The government is authoritarian and has attracted widespread criticism for its significant violations of human rights and civil liberties. Iran
8643-447: The Latin word liber , from Proto-Italic * louðeros , from Proto-Indo-European * h₁léwdʰeros , from * h₁lewdʰ- ("people"). The word "liberty" is commonly used in slogans or quotes, such as in " Life, Liberty, and the pursuit of Happiness " and " Liberté, égalité, fraternité ". Philosophers from the earliest times have considered the question of liberty. Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius (121–180 AD) wrote:
8772-407: The Persian Gulf and Gulf of Oman have mild winters, and very humid and hot summers. The annual precipitation ranges from 135 to 355 mm (5.3 to 14.0 in). More than one-tenth of the country is forested . About 120 million hectares of forests and fields are government-owned for national exploitation. Iran's forests can be divided into five vegetation regions: Hyrcanian region which forms
8901-419: The Rahbar, and has the power to dismiss him on the basis of qualifications and popular esteem. To date, the Assembly of Experts has not challenged any of the Rahbar's decisions nor attempted to dismiss him. The previous head of the judicial system, Sadeq Larijani , appointed by the Rahbar, said that it is illegal for the Assembly of Experts to supervise the Rahbar. Many believe the Assembly of Experts has become
9030-450: The Revolution or Supreme Leadership Authority, is the head of state and responsible for supervision of policy. The president has limited power compared to the Rahbar. Key ministers are selected with the Rahbar's agreement and they have the ultimate say on foreign policy. The Rahbar is directly involved in ministerial appointments for Defence, Intelligence and Foreign Affairs, as well as other top ministries after submission of candidates from
9159-418: The Roman Digest , to be a liber homo , a free man, means not being subject to another's arbitrary will, that is to say, dominated by another. They also cite Machiavelli who asserted that you must be a member of a free self-governing civil association, a republic, if you are to enjoy individual liberty. The predominance of this view of liberty among parliamentarians during the English Civil War resulted in
9288-587: The Supreme Leader. Iran's foreign relations have been shaped by the Iran–Iraq War (1980–1988), ongoing tensions with the United States, and its nuclear program, which has been a point of contention in international diplomacy. In 1989, Akbar Rafsanjani concentrated on a pro-business policy of rebuilding the economy without breaking with the ideology of the revolution. He supported a free market domestically, favoring privatization of state industries and
9417-521: The Supreme Leader. The President is elected by universal suffrage for 4 years. Before elections , nominees to become a presidential candidate must be approved by the Guardian Council . The Council's members are chosen by the Leader, with the Leader having the power to dismiss the president. The President can only be re-elected for one term. The president is the deputy commander-in-chief of
9546-529: The West. Jaspers described the Axial Age as "an interregnum between two ages of great empire , a pause for liberty , a deep breath bringing the most lucid consciousness". It has also been suggested that the Axial Age was a historically liminal period, when "old certainties had lost their validity and new ones were still not ready". Jaspers had a particular interest in the similarities in circumstance and thought of its figures. Similarities included an engagement in
9675-429: The ability of socialism and communism progressively reducing the average length of the workday to expand the "realm of freedom", or discretionary free time, for each person. Marx's notion of communist society and human freedom is thus radically individualistic. While many anarchists see freedom slightly differently, all oppose authority, including the authority of the state, of capitalism , and of nationalism . For
9804-544: The absence of alienation, where "alienated labor" refers to work people are forced to perform and un-alienated work refers to individuals pursuing their own creative interests. For Karl Marx, meaningful freedom is only attainable in a communist society characterized by superabundance and free access. Such a social arrangement would eliminate the need for alienated labor and enable individuals to pursue their own creative interests, leaving them to develop and maximize their full potentialities. This goes alongside Marx's emphasis on
9933-567: The accompanying Parthian inscription using Aryān , in reference to the Iranians . Ērān and Aryān are oblique plural forms of gentilic nouns ēr- (Middle Persian) and ary- (Parthian), deriving from Proto-Iranian language *arya- (meaning ' Aryan ', i.e. of the Iranians), recognised as a derivative of Proto-Indo-European language *ar-yo- , meaning ' one who assembles (skilfully) ' . According to Iranian mythology ,
10062-736: The capital (Persian: مرکز , markaz ) of that province. The provincial authority is headed by a governor-general ( استاندار ostândâr ), who is appointed by the Minister of the Interior subject to approval of the cabinet . Iran maintains diplomatic relations with 165 countries , but not the United States and Israel —a state which Iran derecognised in 1979. Iran has an adversarial relationship with Saudi Arabia due to different political and ideologies. Iran and Turkey have been involved in modern proxy conflicts such as in Syria , Libya , and
10191-436: The commonwealth. People are free from the dominion of any will or legal restraint apart from that enacted by their own constituted lawmaking power according to the trust put in it. Thus, freedom is not as Sir Robert Filmer defines it: 'A liberty for everyone to do what he likes, to live as he pleases, and not to be tied by any laws.' Freedom is constrained by laws in both the state of nature and political society. Freedom of nature
10320-532: The concept has been called into question. In 2006 Diarmaid MacCulloch called the Jaspers thesis "a baggy monster, which tries to bundle up all sorts of diversities over four very different civilisations, only two of which had much contact with each other during the six centuries that (after adjustments) he eventually singled out, between 800 and 200 BCE". Jaspers himself had already noted this on page 2 of The Origin and Goal of History , where he says that one of
10449-548: The constitution. The Supreme National Security Council (SNSC) is at the top of the foreign policy decisions process. The council was formed during the 1989 Iranian constitutional referendum for the protection and support of national interests, the revolution, territorial integrity and national sovereignty. It is mandated by Article 176 of the Constitution to be presided over by the President . The Leader selects
10578-580: The core belief of liberalism is toleration. Liberals allow others freedom to do what they want, in exchange for having the same freedom in return. This idea of freedom is personal rather than political. William Safire points out that liberalism is attacked by both the Right and the Left: by the Right for defending such practices as abortion, homosexuality, and atheism, and by the Left for defending free enterprise and
10707-509: The country, which was succeeded by the Sasanian Empire in the third century AD. Ancient Iran saw some of the earliest developments of writing, agriculture, urbanisation, religion and central government. Muslims conquered the region in the seventh century AD, leading to Iran's Islamization . The blossoming literature , philosophy , mathematics , medicine , astronomy and art became major elements for Iranian civilization during
10836-472: The creation of the liberal concept of freedom as non-interference in Thomas Hobbes' Leviathan . Socialists view freedom as a concrete situation as opposed to a purely abstract ideal. Freedom is a state of being where individuals have agency to pursue their creative interests unhindered by coercive social relationships, specifically those they are forced to engage in as a requisite for survival under
10965-440: The entire country as Persia , until 1935, when Reza Shah requested the international community to use its native and original name, Iran ; Iranians called their nation Iran since at least 1000 BC. Today, both Iran and Persia are used culturally, while Iran remains mandatory in official use. The Persian pronunciation of Iran is [ʔiːˈɾɒːn] . Commonwealth English pronunciations of Iran are listed in
11094-403: The epicenters of Axial Age religious and philosophical creativity." Drawing on the work of classicist Richard Seaford and literary theorist Marc Shell on the relation between coinage and early Greek thought, Graeber argues that an understanding of the rise of markets is necessary to grasp the context in which the religious and philosophical insights of the Axial Age arose. The ultimate effect of
11223-580: The eradication of the Evil Inclination for idolatry which was said to occur in the early Second Temple period. It has been argued that this development in monotheism relates to the axial shifts described by Jaspers. Jaspers' axial shifts included the rise of Platonism (c. 4th century BCE) and Neoplatonism (3rd century AD), which would later become a major influence on the Western world through both Christianity and secular thought throughout
11352-586: The executive of affairs such as signing treaties and other international agreements, and administering national planning, budget, and state employment affairs, all as approved by the Rahbar. The President appoints ministers, subject to the approval of the Parliament, and the Rahbar, who can dismiss or reinstate any minister. The President supervises the Council of Ministers , coordinates government decisions, and selects government policies to be placed before
11481-418: The foundations upon which humanity still subsists today." Jaspers identified a number of key thinkers as having had a profound influence on future philosophies and religions, and identified characteristics common to each area from which those thinkers emerged. Jaspers held up this age as unique and one to which the rest of the history of human thought might be compared. Jaspers presented his first outline of
11610-509: The green belt of the north side of the country; the Turan region, which are mainly scattered in the center of Iran; Zagros region , which mainly contains oak forests in the west; the Persian Gulf region , which is scattered in the southern coastal belt; the Arasbarani region , which contains rare and unique species. More than 8,200 plant species are grown. The land covered by natural flora
11739-516: The head of the Supreme Court and chief public prosecutor. There are several types of courts, including public courts that deal with civil and criminal cases, and revolutionary courts which deal with certain offences, such as crimes against national security . The decisions of the revolutionary courts are final and cannot be appealed. The Chief Justice is the head of the judicial system and responsible for its administration and supervision. He
11868-542: The individual," and as such, he describes an inherent and continuous antagonism between liberty and authority and thus, the prevailing question becomes "how to make the fitting adjustment between individual independence and social control". According to a 2024 study, a global conception of liberty took form during the late Middle Ages (circa 1000–1600), as "emic terms used across Afro-Eurasia to denote liberty were interconnected through various translingual practices resulting from multilingual governance, courtly encounters, and
11997-531: The introduction of coinage was, he argues, an "ideal division of spheres of human activity that endures to this day: on the one hand the market, on the other, religion". German sociologist Max Weber played an important role in Jaspers' thinking. Shmuel Eisenstadt argues in the introduction to The Origins and Diversity of Axial Age Civilizations that Weber's work in his The Religion of China: Confucianism and Taoism , The Religion of India: The Sociology of Hinduism and Buddhism and Ancient Judaism provided
12126-498: The legislature. Eight Vice Presidents serve under the President, as well as a cabinet of 22 ministers, all appointed by the president. Presidential and parliamentary candidates must be approved by the 12-member Guardian Council (all members of which are appointed by the Leader) or the Leader, before running to ensure their allegiance. The Leader rarely does the vetting, but has the power to do so, in which case additional approval of
12255-655: The military or used for wildlife protection, and entry is prohibited or requires a permit. Iran took control of Bumusa , and the Greater and Lesser Tunbs in 1971, in the Strait of Hormuz between the Persian Gulf and Gulf of Oman. Despite the islands being small and having little natural resources or population, they are highly valuable for their strategic location. Although the United Arab Emirates claims sovereignty, it has consistently been met with
12384-441: The most famous animals is the critically endangered Asiatic cheetah , which survives only in Iran. Iran lost all its Asiatic lions and the extinct Caspian tigers by the early 20th century. Domestic ungulates are represented by sheep , goat , cattle , horse , water buffalo , donkey and camel . Bird species like pheasant , partridge , stork , eagles and falcons are native. The Supreme Leader , "Rahbar", Leader of
12513-693: The name comes from Iraj , a legendary king. Iran was referred to as Persia by the West , due to Greek historians who referred to all of Iran as Persís , meaning 'the land of the Persians '. Persia is the Fars province in southwest Iran, the 4th largest province, also known as Pârs . The Persian Fârs (فارس), derived from the earlier form Pârs (پارس), which is in turn derived from Pârsâ ( Old Persian : 𐎱𐎠𐎼𐎿). Due to Fars' historical importance, Persia originated from this territory through Greek in around 550 BC, and Westerners referred to
12642-557: The national budget. All parliamentary candidates and legislation from the assembly must be approved by the Guardian Council . The Guardian Council can and has dismissed elected members of the parliament. The parliament has no legal status without the Guardian Council, and the Council holds absolute veto power over legislation. The Expediency Discernment Council has the authority to mediate disputes between Parliament and
12771-643: The period in her book The Great Transformation , and the theory has been the focus of numerous academic conferences. In literature, Gore Vidal in his novel Creation covers much of this Axial Age through the fictional perspective of a Persian adventurer. Usage of the term has expanded beyond Jaspers' original formulation. Yves Lambert argues that the Enlightenment was a Second Axial Age, including thinkers such as Isaac Newton and Albert Einstein , wherein relationships between religion, secularism, and traditional thought are changing. A collective History of
12900-529: The president. Regional policy is directly controlled by the Rahbar, with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs' task limited to protocol and ceremonial occasions. Ambassadors to Arab countries, for example, are chosen by the Quds Force , which directly reports to the Rahbar. The Rahbar can order laws to be amended. Setad was estimated at $ 95 billion in 2013 by Reuters, accounts of which are secret even to
13029-418: The proverbial public square – but, as a practical matter, my most cherished rights are those that I possess in my bedroom and hospital room and death chamber. Most people are far more concerned that they can control their own bodies than they are about petitioning Congress. In modern America, various competing ideologies have divergent views about how best to promote liberty. Liberals in the original sense of
13158-553: The puzzles of the Axial Age is precisely that of a similar phenomenon simultaneously occurring in three civilizations which had no contact with each other. In 2013, another comprehensive critique appears in Iain Provan 's book Convenient Myths: The Axial Age, Dark Green Religion, and the World That Never Was . Persia Iran , officially the Islamic Republic of Iran ( IRI ), also known as Persia ,
13287-710: The quest for human meaning and the rise of a new élite class of religious leaders and thinkers in China, India and the Mediterranean. Individual thinkers each laid spiritual foundations within a framework of a changing social environment. Jaspers argues that the characteristics appeared under similar political circumstances: China, India, the Middle East and the Occident each comprised multiple small states engaged in internal and external struggles. The three regions all gave birth to, and then institutionalized,
13416-643: The rainy zones of the Eurasian temperate belt. He regards the Axial belt of civilizations as the embryo of the present Global North . It shifted northward during the Middle Ages due to climatic change and after the Seafaring Revolution penetrated to the temperate North America. "But from historical point of view, it is the same imperial belt which first appeared in the Axial Age." The validity of
13545-706: The remaining coast of the Persian Gulf, the Strait of Hormuz , and Gulf of Oman. Iranian islands are mainly located in the Persian Gulf. Iran has 102 islands in Urmia Lake , 427 in Aras River , several in Anzali Lagoon , Ashurade Island in the Caspian Sea , Sheytan Island in the Oman Sea and other inland islands. Iran has an uninhabited island at the far end of the Gulf of Oman , near Pakistan. A few islands can be visited by tourists. Most are owned by
13674-682: The rights of the individual over the collective. According to the Encyclopædia Britannica , libertarians hold liberty as their primary political value. Their approach to implementing liberty involves opposing any governmental coercion, aside from that which is necessary to prevent individuals from coercing each other. Libertarianism is guided by the principle commonly known as the Non-Aggression Principle (NAP). The Non-Aggression Principle asserts that aggression against an individual or an individual's property
13803-669: The rule of the Roman Emperors. However, these liberties were accorded only to Roman citizens . Many of the liberties enjoyed under Roman law endured through the Middle Ages, but were enjoyed solely by the nobility , rarely by the common man. The idea of inalienable and universal liberties had to wait until the Age of Enlightenment . The social contract theory, most influentially formulated by Hobbes , John Locke and Rousseau (though first suggested by Plato in The Republic ),
13932-516: The same rights and had the same freedom of religion , women had the same rights as men, and slavery was abolished (550 BC). All the palaces of the kings of Persia were built by paid workers in an era when slaves typically did such work. In the Maurya Empire of ancient India , citizens of all religions and ethnic groups had some rights to freedom , tolerance , and equality . The need for tolerance on an egalitarian basis can be found in
14061-619: The secretary of the Supreme Council, and the decisions of the council are effective after the confirmation by the Leader. The SNSC formulates nuclear policy, and would become effective if they are confirmed by the Leader. The legislature , known as the Islamic Consultative Assembly (ICA), Iranian Parliament or "Majles", is a unicameral body comprising 290 members elected for four-years. It drafts legislation, ratifies international treaties , and approves
14190-437: The spread of religions. Words for liberty in different languages paralleled each other in bilingual legal documents, resonated with each other in different translations of religious texts, and stood next to each other in bureaucratic glossaries and dictionaries." The study concludes, "thus, the concept(s) of liberty, instead of being a product of the West, is more accurately seen as a result of interactions among different parts of
14319-573: The west part. The UN Resident Coordinator for Iran, has said that " Water scarcity poses the most severe human security challenge in Iran today". To the west, settlements in the Zagros basin experience lower temperatures, severe winters with freezing average daily temperatures and heavy snowfall. The east and central basins are arid, with less than 200 mm (7.9 in) of rain and have occasional deserts. Average summer temperatures rarely exceed 38 °C (100.4 °F). The southern coastal plains of
14448-536: The whole iceberg emerged. Universal empires did not come by the end of the Axial Age. The first of them, Persia came at the peak of the Axial Age and conquered Mesopotamia and Egypt. Both ceased to be civilizations in themselves and became provinces in a completely new form of imperial system which stretched from India to Greece. Thus the Bronze Age civilizations were succeeded by Axial civilizations with their universal empires. Before forming another universal empire,
14577-517: The will to do. John Locke (1632–1704) rejected that definition of liberty. While not specifically mentioning Hobbes, he attacks Sir Robert Filmer who had the same definition. According to Locke: In the state of nature, liberty consists of being free from any superior power on Earth. People are not under the will or lawmaking authority of others but have only the law of nature for their rule. In political society, liberty consists of being under no other lawmaking power except that established by consent in
14706-514: The word "liberty" to mean the absence of arbitrary restraints, taking into account the rights of all involved. In this sense, the exercise of liberty is subject to capability and limited by the rights of others. Thus liberty entails the responsible use of freedom under the rule of law without depriving anyone else of their freedom. Liberty can be taken away as a form of punishment. In many countries, people can be deprived of their liberty if they are convicted of criminal acts. Liberty originates from
14835-543: The word see equality as a necessary component of freedom. Progressives stress freedom from business monopoly as essential. Libertarians disagree, and see economic and individual freedom as best. The Tea Party movement sees "big government" as an enemy of freedom. Other major participants in the modern American libertarian movement include the Libertarian Party , the Free State Project , and
14964-451: The world's longest caves. Iran's climate is diverse, ranging from arid and semi-arid , to subtropical along the Caspian coast and northern forests. On the north edge of the country, temperatures rarely fall below freezing and the area remains humid. Summer temperatures rarely exceed 29 °C (84.2 °F). Annual precipitation is 680 mm (26.8 in) in the east part of the plain and more than 1,700 mm (66.9 in) in
15093-532: The world." According to the Concise Oxford Dictionary of Politics , liberalism is "the belief that it is the aim of politics to preserve individual rights and to maximize freedom of choice ". But they point out that there is considerable discussion about how to achieve those goals. Every discussion of freedom depends on three key components: who is free, what they are free to do, and what forces restrict their freedom. John Gray argues that
15222-557: The world; the globalization of liberty did not start with the global expansion of the Euro-American empires but has a rich and complex history that predates them." Timeline: According to the 1776 United States Declaration of Independence , all people have a natural right to " Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness ". This declaration of liberty was troubled for 90 years by the continued institutionalization of legalized Black slavery, as slave owners argued that their liberty
15351-441: Was among the first to provide a political classification of rights , in particular through the notion of sovereignty and of natural rights . The thinkers of the Enlightenment reasoned that law governed both heavenly and human affairs, and that law gave the king his power, rather than the king's power giving force to law. This conception of law would find its culmination in the ideas of Montesquieu . The conception of law as
15480-511: Was elected to office. Iran has an area of 1,648,195 km (636,372 sq mi). It is the sixth-largest country entirely in Asia and the second-largest in West Asia. It lies between latitudes 24° and 40° N , and longitudes 44° and 64° E . It is bordered to the northwest by Armenia (35 km or 22 mi), the Azeri exclave of Nakhchivan (179 km or 111 mi), and
15609-409: Was expanded further to prohibit government interference with personal choices. In the 1965 United States Supreme Court decision Griswold v. Connecticut , Justice William O. Douglas argued that liberties relating to personal relationships, such as marriage, have a unique primacy of place in the hierarchy of freedoms. Jacob M. Appel has summarized this principle: I am grateful that I have rights in
15738-550: Was first unified as a political entity by the Medes under Cyaxares in the seventh century BC, and reached its territorial height in the sixth century BC, when Cyrus the Great founded the Achaemenid Empire , one of the largest in ancient history . Alexander the Great conquered the empire in the fourth century BC. An Iranian rebellion established the Parthian Empire in the third century BC and liberated
15867-648: Was known for his hardline views, nuclearisation, and hostility towards Israel , Saudi Arabia , the UK , the US and other states. He was the first president to be summoned by the parliament to answer questions regarding his presidency. In 2013, centrist and reformist Hassan Rouhani was elected president. In domestic policy, he encouraged personal freedom, free access to information, and improved women's rights. He improved Iran's diplomatic relations through exchanging conciliatory letters. The Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (JCPOA)
15996-551: Was paramount since it involved property, their slaves, and that Blacks had no rights that any White man was obliged to recognize. The Supreme Court, in the 1857 Dred Scott decision, upheld this principle. In 1866, after the American Civil War , the US Constitution was amended to extend rights to persons of color, and in 1920 voting rights were extended to women. By the later half of the 20th century, liberty
16125-658: Was reached in Vienna in 2015, between Iran, the P5+1 ( UN Security Council + Germany) and the EU. The negotiations centered around ending the economic sanctions in exchange for Iran's restriction in producing enriched uranium . In 2018, however, the US under Trump Administration withdrew from the deal and new sanctions were imposed. This nulled the economic provisions, left the agreement in jeopardy, and brought Iran to nuclear threshold status . In 2020, IRGC general, Qasem Soleimani ,
16254-414: Was the first to recognize the difference between liberty as the freedom to act and liberty as the absence of coercion. In his 1958 lecture " Two Concepts of Liberty ", Isaiah Berlin formally framed the differences between two perspectives as the distinction between two opposite concepts of liberty: positive liberty and negative liberty . The latter designates a negative condition in which an individual
16383-642: Was the largest drone strike in history, biggest missile attack in Iranian history, its first ever direct attack on Israel and the first time since 1991 , Israel was directly attacked by a state force. This occurred during heightened tensions amid the Israeli invasion of the Gaza Strip . In May 2024, President Raisi was killed in a helicopter crash , and Iran held a presidential election in June, when reformist and former Minister of Health , Masoud Pezeshkian ,
16512-468: Was the original Greek concept of freedom. It is closely linked with the concept of democracy, as Aristotle put it : This applied only to free men. In Athens, for instance, women could not vote or hold office and were legally and socially dependent on a male relative. The populations of the Persian Empire enjoyed some degree of freedom. Citizens of all religions and ethnic groups were given
16641-516: Was unaware of the first fully nuanced theory from 1873 by John Stuart Stuart-Glennie , forgotten by Jaspers' time, and which Stuart-Glennie termed "the moral revolution". Stuart-Glennie and Jaspers both claimed that the Axial Age should be viewed as an objective empirical fact of history, independently of religious considerations. Jaspers argued that during the Axial Age, "the spiritual foundations of humanity were laid simultaneously and independently in China, India, Persia, Judea, and Greece. And these are
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