119-849: Bhar is a caste or community in India. Influenced by the Arya Samaj movement, as were members of other castes, Baijnath Prasad Adhyapak published Rajbhar Jati ka Itihas in 1940. This book attempted to prove that the Rajbhar were formerly rulers who were related to the ancient Bhar tribe. Community that is related to the Bhar by occupation in Uttar Pradesh is Rajbhar. It falls under other backward classes in Uttar Pradesh. There were proposals in 2013 that some or all of these communities in
238-434: A 1000 years earlier. In an early Upanishad, Shudra is referred to as Pūşan or nourisher, suggesting that Shudras were the tillers of the soil. But soon afterwards, Shudras are not counted among the tax-payers and they are said to be given away along with the land when it is gifted. The majority of the artisans were also reduced to the position of Shudras, but there is no contempt indicated for their work. The Brahmins and
357-524: A Balinese colony in 1343. The uncle of Hayam Wuruk is mentioned in the charters of 1384–86. Mass Javanese immigration to Bali occurred in the next century when the Majapahit Empire fell in 1520. Bali's government then became an independent collection of Hindu kingdoms which led to a Balinese national identity and major enhancements in culture, arts, and economy. The nation with various kingdoms became independent for up to 386 years until 1906 when
476-518: A clear story": Approximately a third of groups in India experienced population bottlenecks as strong or stronger than the ones found to have occurred among similarly isolated groups in human history, such as the Ashkenazi Jews or the Finns , a phenomenon "exceedingly old" in most cases in India. The ostensibly undisputed overall conclusion from DNA research among castes is that, rather than being
595-472: A colour-based system, through a character named Bhrigu, "Brahmins varna was white, Kshatriyas was red, Vaishyas was yellow, and the Shudras' black". This description is questioned by Bharadvaja who says that colors are seen among all the varnas , that desire, anger, fear, greed, grief, anxiety, hunger and toil prevails over all human beings, that bile and blood flow from all human bodies, so what distinguishes
714-616: A degree of differentiation that is at least three times greater than that among European groups separated by similar geographic distances. Lacking genetic grounds to attribute this to differences in Ancestral North Indians ' ancestry among groups, in the Indian region from which the population came, or in social status, they examined the evidence for "bottlenecks" in the history of Indian groups They found identical, long stretches of sequence between pairs of individuals within
833-609: A few places apart from the West Bali National Park . They are born an orange colour, though they would have already changed to a more blackish colouration by their first year. In Java, however, there is more of a tendency for this species to retain its juvenile orange colour into adulthood, and a mixture of black and orange monkeys can be seen together as a family. Other rarer mammals include the Sunda leopard cat , Sunda pangolin and black giant squirrel . Snakes include
952-429: A fifth element, those deemed to be entirely outside its scope, such as tribal people and the untouchables (Dalits) . In ancient texts, Jati , meaning birth , is mentioned less often and clearly distinguished from varna . There are four varnas but thousands of jatis . The jatis are complex social groups that lack universally applicable definitions or characteristics and have been more flexible and diverse than
1071-466: A fixed hierarchy, caste functioned as one of several possible forms of social organization and identity. People could maintain multiple community affiliations, with caste sometimes taking precedence and other times being secondary to different social bonds. This flexibility allowed caste to serve as one way of creating social cohesion while leaving room for other types of community ties to flourish. Sociologist Anne Waldrop observes that while outsiders view
1190-707: A framework for grouping people into classes, first used in Vedic Indian society . It is referred to frequently in the ancient Indian texts. There are four classes: the Brahmins (priestly class), the Kshatriyas (rulers, administrators and warriors; also called Rajanyas), the Vaishyas (artisans, merchants, tradesmen and farmers), and the Shudras (labouring classes). The varna categorisation implicitly includes
1309-402: A massive eruption within the next 100 years. In late 2017 Mount Agung started erupting and large numbers of people were evacuated, temporarily closing the island's airport. Mountains range from centre to the eastern side, with Mount Agung the easternmost peak. Bali's volcanic nature has contributed to its exceptional fertility and its tall mountain ranges provide the high rainfall that supports
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#17327731539551428-530: A number of crafts. The chariot-maker ( rathakara ) and metal worker ( karmara ) enjoyed positions of importance and no stigma was attached to them. Similar observations hold for carpenters, tanners, weavers and others. Towards the end of the Atharvaveda period, new class distinctions emerged. The erstwhile dasas are renamed Shudras, probably to distinguish them from the new meaning of dasa as slave. The aryas are renamed vis or Vaishya (meaning
1547-718: A professor of Sanskrit and Indian Religions and credited with modern translations of Vedic literature, Dharma-sutras and Dharma-sastras , states that ancient and medieval Indian texts do not support the ritual pollution, purity-impurity premise implicit in the Dumont theory. According to Olivelle, purity-impurity is discussed in the Dharma-sastra texts, but only in the context of the individual's moral, ritual and biological pollution (eating certain kinds of food such as meat, going to bathroom). Olivelle writes in his review of post-Vedic Sutra and Shastra texts, "we see no instance when
1666-403: A real general definition of caste. It appears to me that any attempt at definition is bound to fail because of the complexity of the phenomenon. On the other hand, much literature on the subject is marred by lack of precision about the use of the term. Ghurye offered what he thought was a definition that could be applied across India, although he acknowledged that there were regional variations on
1785-563: A result of the terrorist bombings in 2002 and 2005 . The tourism industry has since recovered from these events. Although tourism produces the GDP's largest output, agriculture is still the island's biggest employer. Fishing also provides a significant number of jobs. Bali is also famous for its artisans who produce a vast array of handicrafts, including batik and ikat cloth and clothing , wooden carvings , stone carvings, painted art and silverware. Notably, individual villages typically adopt
1904-415: A score of 99.65, which was the highest score of Indonesia's 33 provinces. The score considers the level of total suspended solids , dissolved oxygen , and chemical oxygen demand in water. Erosion at Lebih Beach has seen seven metres (23 feet) of land lost every year. Decades ago, this beach was used for holy pilgrimages with more than 10,000 people, but they have now moved to Masceti Beach . In 2017,
2023-464: A secular social phenomenon driven by the necessities of economics, politics, and at times geography. Jeaneane Fowler says that although some people consider jati to be occupational segregation, in reality, the jati framework does not preclude or prevent a member of one caste from working in another occupation. A feature of jatis has been endogamy , in Susan Bayly 's words, that "both in
2142-537: A shift to endogamy took place during the first half of the first millennium CE, at least in northern India," due to the growing influence of Brahmanism. This shift is attested in the Manusmriti (1st to 3rd century CE), which "explicitly forbade intermarriage across castes." The Mahabharata , estimated to have been completed by the end of the fourth century CE, discusses the varna system in section 12.181, presenting two models. The first model describes varna as
2261-497: A single product, such as wind chimes or wooden furniture. The Arabica coffee production region is the highland region of Kintamani near Mount Batur . Generally, Balinese coffee is processed using the wet method. This results in a sweet, soft coffee with good consistency. Typical flavours include lemon and other citrus notes. Many coffee farmers in Kintamani are members of a traditional farming system called Subak Abian , which
2380-622: A source of advantage in an era of pre-Independence poverty, lack of institutional human rights, volatile political environment, and economic insecurity. According to social anthropologist Dipankar Gupta, guilds developed during the Mauryan period and crystallised into jatis in post-Mauryan times with the emergence of feudalism in India, which finally crystallised during the 7th–12th centuries. However, other scholars dispute when and how jatis developed in Indian history. Barbara Metcalf and Thomas Metcalf, both professors of History, write, "One of
2499-837: A specific deity as its personal Godhead. Inscriptions from 896 and 911 do not mention a king, until 914, when Sri Kesarivarma is mentioned. They also reveal an independent Bali, with a distinct dialect, where Buddhism and Shaivism were practised simultaneously. Mpu Sindok 's great-granddaughter, Mahendradatta (Gunapriyadharmapatni), married the Bali king Udayana Warmadewa (Dharmodayanavarmadeva) around 989, giving birth to Airlangga around 1001. This marriage also brought more Hinduism and Javanese culture to Bali. Princess Sakalendukirana appeared in 1098. Suradhipa reigned from 1115 to 1119, and Jayasakti from 1146 until 1150. Jayapangus appears on inscriptions between 1178 and 1181, while Adikuntiketana and his son Paramesvara in 1204. Balinese culture
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#17327731539552618-474: A specific geographic area. The confederation is the successor of the Bali Kingdom . The royal houses, which originated before Dutch colonisation , are not recognised by the government of Indonesia. Bali was inhabited around 2000 BC by Austronesian people who migrated originally from the island of Taiwan to Southeast Asia and Oceania through Maritime Southeast Asia . Culturally and linguistically,
2737-493: A term of pure/impure is used with reference to a group of individuals or a varna or caste". The only mention of impurity in the Shastra texts from the 1st millennium is about people who commit grievous sins and thereby fall out of their varna . These, writes Olivelle, are called "fallen people" and considered impure in the medieval Indian texts. The texts declare that these sinful, fallen people be ostracised. Olivelle adds that
2856-426: A year when Bali received nearly 5.7 million tourists, government officials declared a "garbage emergency" in response to the covering of 3.6-mile stretch of coastline in plastic waste brought in by the tide, amid concerns that the pollution could dissuade visitors from returning. Indonesia is one of the world's worst plastic polluters, with some estimates suggesting the country is the source of around 10 per cent of
2975-515: Is based on the Hindu philosophy of " Tri Hita Karana ". According to this philosophy, the three causes of happiness are good relations with God , other people, and the environment. The Subak Abian system is ideally suited to the production of fair trade and organic coffee production. Arabica coffee from Kintamani is the first product in Indonesia to request a geographical indication . In 1963
3094-560: Is considered Bali's cultural centre. The province is Indonesia's main tourist destination, with a significant rise in tourism since the 1980s, and becoming an Indonesian area of overtourism . Tourism-related business makes up 80% of the Bali economy. Bali is the only Hindu-majority province in Indonesia, with 86.9% of the population adhering to Balinese Hinduism . It is renowned for its highly developed arts, including traditional and modern dance, sculpture, painting, leather, metalworking, and music. The Indonesian International Film Festival
3213-673: Is held every year in Bali. Other international events that have been held in Bali include Miss World 2013 , the 2018 Annual Meetings of the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank Group and the 2022 G20 summit . In March 2017, TripAdvisor named Bali as the world's top destination in its Traveller's Choice award, which it also earned in January 2021. Bali is part of the Coral Triangle ,
3332-463: Is in place from approximately October to April, and this can bring significant rain, particularly from December to March. During the rainy season, there are comparatively fewer tourists seen in Bali. During the Easter and Christmas holidays, the weather is very unpredictable. Outside of the monsoon period, humidity is relatively low and any rain is unlikely in lowland areas. Bali lies just to the west of
3451-599: Is no clear linear order among them. The term caste is derived from the Portuguese word casta , meaning "race, lineage, breed" and, originally, "'pure or unmixed (stock or breed)". Originally not an Indian word, it is now widely used in English and in Indian languages , closely translated to varna and jati . The sociologist G. S. Ghurye wrote in 1932 that, despite much study by many people, we do not possess
3570-504: Is not an accurate representation of jati in English. Better terms would be ethnicity, ethnic identity and ethnic group. Research on caste systems across the Indian subcontinent during the latter 1900s revealed that caste was far more complex and dynamic than previously thought. While British colonial authorities had portrayed it as a uniform, rigid system fundamental to Indian society, studies showed that caste's significance and structure varied considerably between regions. Rather than being
3689-534: Is quite common around human settlements and temples, where it becomes accustomed to being fed by humans, particularly in any of the three "monkey forest" temples, such as the popular one in the Ubud area. They are also quite often kept as pets by locals. The second monkey, endemic to Java and some surrounding islands such as Bali, is far rarer and more elusive and is the Javan langur , locally known as "lutung". They occur in
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3808-475: Is surrounded by coral reefs . Beaches in the south tend to have white sand while those in the north and west have black sand . Bali has no major waterways, although the Ho River is navigable by small sampan boats. Black sand beaches between Pasut and Klatingdukuh are being developed for tourism, but apart from the seaside temple of Tanah Lot , they are not yet used for significant tourism. The largest city
3927-665: Is the island's cultural centre. Three small islands lie to the immediate south-east and all are administratively part of the Klungkung regency of Bali: Nusa Penida , Nusa Lembongan and Nusa Ceningan . These islands are separated from Bali by the Badung Strait . To the east, the Lombok Strait separates Bali from Lombok and marks the biogeographical division between the fauna of the Indomalayan realm and
4046-417: Is the provincial capital, Denpasar , near the southern coast. Its population is around 748,400 (mid 2023). Bali's second-largest city is the old colonial capital, Singaraja , which is located on the north coast and is home to around 150,000 people in 2020. Other important cities include the beach resort, Kuta , which is practically part of Denpasar's urban area, and Ubud , situated at the north of Denpasar,
4165-791: The 2022 G20 Bali summit , the seventeenth meeting of the Group of Twenty (G20) was held in Nusa Dua . The island of Bali lies 3.2 km (2.0 mi) east of Java , and is approximately 8 degrees south of the equator . Bali and Java are separated by the Bali Strait . East to west, the island is approximately 153 km (95 mi) wide and spans approximately 112 km (70 mi) north to south; administratively it covers 5,590.15 km (2,158.37 sq mi), or 5,387.31 km (2,080.05 sq mi) excluding offshore Nusa Penida District, which comprises three small islands off
4284-512: The British Raj . It is today the basis of affirmative action programmes in India as enforced through its constitution . The caste system consists of two different concepts, varna and jati , which may be regarded as different levels of analysis of this system. The caste system as it exists today is thought to be the result of developments during the collapse of the Mughal era and
4403-737: The Dutch intervention in Bali , a similar mass suicide occurred in the face of a Dutch assault in Klungkung . Afterwards, the Dutch governours exercised administrative control over the island, but local control over religion and culture generally remained intact. Dutch rule over Bali came later and was never as well established as in other parts of Indonesia such as Java and Maluku . In the 1930s, anthropologists Margaret Mead and Gregory Bateson , artists Miguel Covarrubias and Walter Spies , and musicologist Colin McPhee all spent time here. Their accounts of
4522-518: The Indologist , agrees that there has been no universally accepted definition of "caste". For example, for some early European documenters it was thought to correspond with the endogamous varnas referred to in ancient Indian scripts, and its meaning corresponds in the sense of estates . To later Europeans of the Raj era it was endogamous jatis , rather than varnas , that represented caste , such as
4641-484: The Lesser Sunda archipelago isolated. Being just 8 degrees south of the equator, Bali has a fairly even climate all year round. Average year-round temperature stands at around 30 °C (86 °F) with a humidity level of about 85%. Daytime temperatures at low elevations vary between 20 and 33 °C (68 and 91 °F), but the temperatures decrease significantly with increasing elevation. The west monsoon
4760-453: The Rigveda and, both then and later, a social ideal rather than a social reality". In contrast to the lack of details about varna system in the Rigveda , the Manusmriti includes an extensive and highly schematic commentary on the varna system, but it too provides "models rather than descriptions". Susan Bayly summarises that Manusmriti and other scriptures helped elevate Brahmins in
4879-643: The Rigveda was composed (1500-1200 BC), there were only two varnas in the Vedic society: arya varna and dasa varna . The distinction originally arose from tribal divisions. The Vedic people were Indo-European-speaking tribes who migrated over a period of several centuries into northern South Asia from the Bactria-Margiana , and mixed with the "indigenous Dravidic-speaking populations," but regarded themselves as superior. The Vedic tribes regarded themselves as arya (the noble ones) and
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4998-523: The Samajwadi Party -controlled Government of Uttar Pradesh . However, this proposal, which relates to votebank politics , has been stayed by the courts; the prior attempt had been rejected by the Government of India . In 2019, Yogi government of Uttar Pradesh again tried to include these 17 castes as scheduled caste but due to objection raised by Centre and Allahabad High Court, the proposal
5117-762: The Wallace Line ), and rhinoceros . Squirrels are quite commonly encountered, less often is the Asian palm civet , which is also kept in coffee farms to produce kopi luwak . Bats are well represented, perhaps the most famous place to encounter them remaining is the Goa Lawah (Temple of the Bats) where they are worshipped by the locals and also constitute a tourist attraction. They also occur in other cave temples, for instance at Gangga Beach. Two species of monkey occur. The crab-eating macaque , known locally as "kera",
5236-765: The Wallace Line , and thus has a fauna that is Asian in character, with very little Australasian influence, and has more in common with Java than with Lombok. An exception is the yellow-crested cockatoo , a member of a primarily Australasian family. There are around 280 species of birds, including the critically endangered Bali myna , which is endemic . Others include barn swallow , black-naped oriole , black racket-tailed treepie , crested serpent-eagle , crested treeswift , dollarbird , Java sparrow , lesser adjutant , long-tailed shrike , milky stork , Pacific swallow , red-rumped swallow , sacred kingfisher , sea eagle , woodswallow , savanna nightjar , stork-billed kingfisher , yellow-vented bulbul and great egret . Until
5355-440: The first free elections in 1999 . The province is divided into eight regencies ( kabupaten ) and one city ( kota ); all the regencies were originally inaugurated on 9 August 1958, while the city of Denpasar were created from part of Badung Regency on 15 January 1992. They are tabulated below with their areas and their populations at the 2010 census and the 2020 census, together with the official estimates as at mid 2023 and
5474-570: The king cobra and reticulated python . The water monitor can grow to at least 1.5 m (4.9 ft) in length and 50 kg (110 lb) and can move quickly. The rich coral reefs around the coast, particularly around popular diving spots such as Tulamben , Amed , Menjangan or neighbouring Nusa Penida , host a wide range of marine life, for instance hawksbill turtle , giant sunfish , giant manta ray , giant moray eel, bumphead parrotfish , hammerhead shark , reef shark , barracuda , and sea snakes . Dolphins are commonly encountered on
5593-531: The tourist industry has led to 200 out of 400 rivers on the island drying up. Research suggests that the southern part of Bali would face a water shortage. To ease the shortage, the central government plans to build a water catchment and processing facility at Petanu River in Gianyar. The 300 litres capacity of water per second will be channelled to Denpasar, Badung and Gianyar in 2013. A 2010 Environment Ministry report on its environmental quality index gave Bali
5712-476: The varna verse in the Rigveda , noting that the varna therein is mentioned only once. The Purusha Sukta verse is now generally considered to have been inserted at a later date into the Rigveda , probably as a charter myth . Stephanie Jamison and Joel Brereton, professors of Sanskrit and Religious studies, state, "there is no evidence in the Rigveda for an elaborate, much-subdivided and overarching caste system", and "the varna system seems to be embryonic in
5831-458: The varnas , he asks. The Mahabharata then declares, "There is no distinction of varnas . This whole universe is Brahman . It was created formerly by Brahma , came to be classified by acts." The epic then recites a behavioural model for varna , that those who were inclined to anger, pleasures and boldness attained the Kshatriya varna ; those who were inclined to cattle rearing and living off
5950-462: The varnas . He concludes that "If caste is defined as a system of group within the class, which are normally endogamous, commensal and craft-exclusive, we have no real evidence of its existence until comparatively late times." The Vedic texts neither mention the concept of untouchable people nor any practice of untouchability. The rituals in the Vedas ask the noble or king to eat with the commoner from
6069-416: The 1920s led to a change in this policy. Caste was no longer used by the colonial authority to functionally organize civil society. This reflected changes in administrative practices, understandings of expertise, and the rise of new European scholarly institutions. After the 1920s, the colonial administration began a policy of positive discrimination by reserving a certain percentage of government jobs for
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#17327731539556188-411: The 2,378 jatis that colonial administrators classified by occupation in the early 20th century. Arvind Sharma , a professor of comparative religion , notes that caste has been used synonymously to refer to both varna and jati but that "serious Indologists now observe considerable caution in this respect" because, while related, the concepts are considered to be distinct. In this he agrees with
6307-531: The 3,000 or more castes of modern India had evolved from the four primitive classes, and the term 'caste' was applied indiscriminately to both varna or class, and jati or caste proper. This is a false terminology; castes rise and fall in the social scale, and old castes die out and new ones are formed, but the four great classes are stable. There are never more or less than four and for over 2,000 years their order of precedence has not altered." The sociologist André Beteille notes that, while varna mainly played
6426-611: The Bali Beach Hotel in Sanur was built by Sukarno and boosted tourism in Bali. Before the Bali Beach Hotel construction, there were only three significant tourist-class hotels on the island. Construction of hotels and restaurants began to spread throughout Bali. Tourism further increased in Bali after the Ngurah Rai International Airport opened in 1970. The Buleleng regency government encouraged
6545-630: The Balinese are closely related to the people of the Indonesian archipelago, Malaysia , Brunei , the Philippines , and Oceania . Stone tools dating from this time have been found near the village of Cekik in the island's west. In ancient Bali, nine Hindu sects existed, the Pasupata , Bhairawa , Siwa Shidanta, Vaishnava , Bodha , Brahma , Resi, Sora and Ganapatya . Each sect revered
6664-543: The Brahmin took food from anyone, suggesting that strictures of commensality were as yet unknown. The Nikaya texts also imply that endogamy was not mandated. The contestations of the period are also evident from the texts describing dialogues of Buddha with the Brahmins. The Brahmins maintain their divinely ordained superiority and assert their right to draw service from the lower orders. Buddha responds by pointing out
6783-468: The Dutch subjugated and repulsed the natives for economic control and took it over. The first known European contact with Bali is thought to have been made in 1512, when a Portuguese expedition led by Antonio Abreu and Francisco Serrão sighted its northern shores. It was the first expedition of a series of bi-annual fleets to the Moluccas, that throughout the 16th century travelled along the coasts of
6902-583: The Human Development Index for each regency and city. The province forms one of Indonesia's 84 national electoral districts to elect members to the People's Representative Council . The Bali Electoral District consists of all of the 8 regencies in the province, together with the city of Denpasar, and elects 9 members to the People's Representative Council. In the 1970s, the Balinese economy
7021-550: The Indologist Arthur Basham , who noted that the Portuguese colonists of India used casta to describe ... tribes, clans or families. The name stuck and became the usual word for the Hindu social group. In attempting to account for the remarkable proliferation of castes in 18th- and 19th-century India, authorities credulously accepted the traditional view that by a process of intermarriage and subdivision
7140-563: The Indonesian archipelago during the second half of the 19th century. Dutch political and economic control over Bali began in the 1840s on the island's north coast when the Dutch pitted various competing Balinese realms against each other. In the late 1890s, struggles between Balinese kingdoms on the island's south were exploited by the Dutch to increase their control. In June 1860, the famous Welsh naturalist, Alfred Russel Wallace , travelled to Bali from Singapore , landing at Buleleng on
7259-705: The Kshatriyas are given a special position in the rituals, distinguishing them from both the Vaishyas and the Shudras. The Vaishya is said to be "oppressed at will" and the Shudra "beaten at will." Knowledge of this period is supplemented by Pali Buddhist texts. Whereas the Brahmanical texts speak of the four-fold varna system, the Buddhist texts present an alternative picture of the society, stratified along
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#17327731539557378-579: The South Indian Tamil literature from the Sangam period (3rd BCE-3rd c.CE). This theory discards the Indo-Aryan varna model as the basis of caste, and is centred on the ritual power of the king, who was "supported by a group of ritual and magical specialists of low social status," with their ritual occupations being considered 'polluted'. According to Hart, it may be this model that provided
7497-610: The Sunda Islands. Bali was also mapped in 1512, in the chart of Francisco Rodrigues, aboard the expedition. In 1585, a ship foundered off the Bukit Peninsula and left a few Portuguese in the service of Dewa Agung . In 1597, the Dutch merchant-explorer Cornelis de Houtman arrived at Bali, and the Dutch East India Company was established in 1602. The Dutch government expanded its control across
7616-538: The addition of the Shudras is probably a Brahmanical invention from northern India. The varna system is propounded in revered Hindu religious texts, and understood as idealised human callings. The Purusha Sukta of the Rigveda and Manusmriti ' s comment on it, being the oft-cited texts. Counter to these textual classifications, many revered Hindu texts and doctrines question and disagree with this system of social classification. Scholars have questioned
7735-500: The area with the highest biodiversity of marine species, especially fish and turtles. In this area alone, over 500 reef-building coral species can be found. For comparison, this is about seven times as many as in the entire Caribbean . Bali is the home of the Subak irrigation system , a UNESCO World Heritage Site . It is also home to a unified confederation of kingdoms composed of 10 traditional royal Balinese houses, each house ruling
7854-464: The basic facts of biological birth common to all men and asserts that the ability to draw service is obtained economically, not by divine right. Using the example of the northwest of the subcontinent, Buddha points out that aryas could become dasas and vice versa. This form of social mobility was endorsed by Buddha. According to Moorjani et al. (2013), endogamy set in after 100 CE. According to Basu et al. (2016), admixture between populations
7973-465: The caste system is also practiced in Bali . After achieving independence in 1947, India enacted many affirmative action policies for the upliftment of historically marginalized groups as enforced through its constitution. These policies included reserving a quota of places for these groups in higher education and government employment. Varna , meaning type, order, colour, or class are
8092-418: The colonial construction of caste led to the livening up, divisions and lobbying to the British officials for favourable caste classification in India for economic opportunities, and this had added new complexities to the concept of caste. Graham Chapman and others have reiterated the complexity, and they note that there are differences between theoretical constructs and the practical reality. Ronald Inden ,
8211-406: The command of KNIL Lieutenant Colonel W.P. Roodenburg. On 19 February 1942, the Japanese forces landed near the town of Sanoer (Sanur). The island was quickly captured. During the Japanese occupation, a Balinese military officer, I Gusti Ngurah Rai , formed a Balinese 'freedom army'. The harshness of Japanese occupation forces made them more resented than the Dutch colonial rulers. In 1945, Bali
8330-476: The concerns with "pollution" of the members of low status groups. The Hart model for caste origin, writes Samuel, envisions "the ancient Indian society consisting of a majority without internal caste divisions and a minority consisting of a number of small occupationally polluted groups". The varnas originated in late Vedic society (c. 1000–500 BCE). The first three groups, Brahmins, Kshatriyas and Vaishya, have parallels with other Indo-European societies, while
8449-474: The country. A bombing in 2002 by militant Islamists in the tourist area of Kuta killed 202 people, mostly foreigners. This attack, and another in 2005 , severely reduced tourism, producing much economic hardship on the island. On 27 November 2017, Mount Agung erupted five times, causing the evacuation of thousands, disrupting air travel and causing much environmental damage. Further eruptions also occurred between 2018 and 2019. On 15–16 November 2022,
8568-608: The distinctly different fauna of Australasia . The transition is known as the Wallace Line , named after Alfred Russel Wallace , who first proposed a transition zone between these two major biomes . When sea levels dropped during the Pleistocene ice age , Bali was connected to Java and Sumatra and to the mainland of Asia and shared the Asian fauna, but the deep water of the Lombok Strait continued to keep Lombok Island and
8687-533: The early 20th century, Bali was possibly home to several large mammals : banteng , leopard and the endemic Bali tiger . The banteng still occurs in its domestic form, whereas leopards are found only in neighbouring Java, and the Bali tiger is extinct. The last definite record of a tiger on Bali dates from 1937 when one was shot, though the subspecies may have survived until the 1940s or 1950s. Pleistocene and Holocene megafaunas include banteng and giant tapir (based on speculations that they might have reached up to
8806-470: The existence and nature of varna and jati in documents and inscriptions of medieval India. Supporting evidence has been elusive, and contradictory evidence has emerged. Bali Bali ( English: / ˈ b ɑː l i / ; Balinese : ᬩᬮᬶ ) is a province of Indonesia and the westernmost of the Lesser Sunda Islands . East of Java and west of Lombok , the province includes
8925-421: The extermination of PKI members. As a result of the 1965–66 upheavals, Suharto was able to manoeuvre Sukarno out of the presidency . His "New Order" government re-established relations with Western countries. The pre-War Bali as "paradise" was revived in a modern form. The resulting large growth in tourism has led to a dramatic increase in Balinese standards of living and significant foreign exchange earned for
9044-424: The general theme. His model definition for caste included the following six characteristics: The above Ghurye's model of caste thereafter attracted scholarly criticism for relying on the census reports produced by the colonial government, the "superior, inferior" racist theories of H. H. Risley , and for fitting his definition to then prevalent orientalist perspectives on caste. Ghurye added, in 1932, that
9163-431: The highly productive agriculture sector. South of the mountains is a broad, steadily descending area where most of Bali's large rice crop is grown. The northern side of the mountains slopes more steeply to the sea and is the main coffee-producing area of the island, along with rice, vegetables, and cattle. The longest river, Ayung River , flows approximately 75 km (47 mi) (see List of rivers of Bali ). The island
9282-408: The historical circumstances. The latter has criticised the former for its caste origin theory, claiming that it has dehistoricized and decontextualised Indian society. According to Samuel, referencing George L. Hart , central aspects of the later Indian caste system may originate from the ritual kingship system prior to the arrival of Brahmanism, Buddhism and Jainism in India. The system is seen in
9401-514: The invention of colonialism , "as Dirks [and others] suggested," long-term endogamy , as embodied in modern Indian society in the institution of caste, has been "overwhelmingly important for millennia." A 2016 study based on the DNA analysis of unrelated Indians determined that endogamous jatis originated during the Gupta Empire . During the early Vedic period in northern India, when
9520-514: The island and its peoples created a western image of Bali as "an enchanted land of aesthetes at peace with themselves and nature". Western tourists began to visit the island. The sensuous image of Bali was enhanced in the West by a quasi-pornographic 1932 documentary Virgins of Bali about a day in the lives of two teenage Balinese girls whom the film's narrator Deane Dickason notes in the first scene "bathe their shamelessly nude bronze bodies". Under
9639-626: The island of Bali and a few smaller offshore islands, notably Nusa Penida , Nusa Lembongan , and Nusa Ceningan to the southeast. The provincial capital, Denpasar , is the most populous city in the Lesser Sunda Islands and the second-largest, after Makassar , in Eastern Indonesia . Denpasar metropolitan area is the extended metropolitan area around Denpasar . The upland town of Ubud in Greater Denpasar
9758-576: The land. The gahapatis were the primary taxpayers of the state. This class was apparently not defined by birth, but by individual economic growth. While there was an alignment between kulas and occupations at least at the high and low ends, there was no strict linkage between class/caste and occupation, especially among those in the middle range. Many occupations listed such as accounting and writing were not linked to jatis . Peter Masefield, in his review of caste in India, states that anyone could in principle perform any profession. The texts state that
9877-473: The lines of jati , kula and occupation. It is likely that the varna system, while being a part of the Brahmanical ideology, was not practically operative in the society. In the Buddhist texts, Brahmin and Kshatriya are described as jatis rather than varnas . They were in fact the jatis of high rank. The jatis of low rank were mentioned as chandala and occupational classes like bamboo weavers, hunters, chariot-makers and sweepers. The concept of kulas
9996-533: The looser version of the Hays code that existed up to 1934, nudity involving "civilised" (i.e. white) women was banned, but permitted with "uncivilised" (i.e. all non-white women), a loophole that was exploited by the producers of Virgins of Bali . The film, which mostly consisted of scenes of topless Balinese women was a great success in 1932, and almost single-handedly made Bali into a popular spot for tourists. Imperial Japan occupied Bali during World War II. It
10115-402: The lower castes are more similar to Asians. There is no evidence of restrictions regarding food and marriage during the Vedic period. According to Moorjani et al. (2013), co-authored by Reich, extensive admixture took place between 2200 BCE and 100 CE (4200 to 1900 before present), whereafter India shifted to "a region in which mixture was rare." In southern India, endogamy may have set in
10234-641: The lower castes. In 1948, negative discrimination on the basis of caste was banned by law and further enshrined in the Indian constitution in 1950; however, the system continues to be practiced in parts of India. There are 3,000 castes and 25,000 sub-castes in India, each related to a specific occupation. Caste-based differences have also been practised in other regions and religions in the Indian subcontinent , like Nepalese Buddhism, Christianity , Islam , Judaism and Sikhism . It has been challenged by many reformist Hindu movements, Sikhism, Christianity, and present-day Neo Buddhism . With Indian influences,
10353-490: The members of the tribe) and the new elite classes of Brahmins (priests) and Kshatriyas (warriors) are designated as new varnas . The Shudras were not only the erstwhile dasas but also included the aboriginal tribes that were assimilated into the Aryan society as it expanded into Gangetic settlements. This class-distinction is still reflected in the fact that the upper castes have a higher genetic affinity to Europeans, while
10472-422: The north coast near Singaraja and Lovina . A team of scientists surveyed from 29 April 2011, to 11 May 2011, at 33 sea sites around Bali. They discovered 952 species of reef fish of which 8 were new discoveries at Pemuteran, Gilimanuk, Nusa Dua , Tulamben and Candidasa , and 393 coral species, including two new ones at Padangbai and between Padangbai and Amed . The average coverage level of healthy coral
10591-412: The north coast of the island. Wallace's trip to Bali was instrumental in helping him devise his Wallace Line theory. The Wallace Line is a faunal boundary that runs through the strait between Bali and Lombok . It is a boundary between species. In his travel memoir The Malay Archipelago , Wallace wrote of his experience in Bali, which has a strong mention of the unique Balinese irrigation methods : I
10710-432: The overwhelming focus in matters relating to purity/impurity in the Dharma-sastra texts concerns "individuals irrespective of their varna affiliation" and all four varnas could attain purity or impurity by the content of their character, ethical intent, actions, innocence or ignorance (acts by children), stipulations, and ritualistic behaviours. Dumont, in his later publications, acknowledged that ancient varna hierarchy
10829-402: The past and for many though not all Indians in more modern times, those born into a given caste would normally expect to find marriage partner" within their jati . A 2016 study based on the DNA analysis of unrelated Indians determined that endogamous jatis originated during the Gupta Empire . Jatis have existed in India among Hindus, Muslims, Christians, and tribal people, and there
10948-630: The plough attained the Vaishya varna ; those who were fond of violence, covetousness and impurity attained the Shudra varna . The Brahmin class is modeled in the epic as the archetype default state of man dedicated to truth, austerity and pure conduct. In the Mahabharata and pre-medieval era Hindu texts, according to Hiltebeitel, "it is important to recognise, in theory, varna is nongenealogical. The four varnas are not lineages, but categories". Scholars have tried to locate historical evidence for
11067-502: The pride of the best-cultivated parts of Europe. The Dutch mounted large naval and ground assaults at the Sanur region in 1906 and were met by the thousands of members of the royal family and their followers who rather than yield to the superior Dutch force committed ritual suicide ( puputan ) to avoid the humiliation of surrender. Despite Dutch demands for surrender, an estimated 200 Balinese killed themselves rather than surrender. In
11186-528: The question of rigidity in caste and believe that there is considerable flexibility and mobility in the caste hierarchies. There are at least two perspectives for the origins of the caste system in ancient and medieval India, which focus on either ideological factors or on socio-economic factors. The first school has focused on religious anthropology and disregarded other historical evidence as secondary or derivative of this tradition. The second school has focused on sociological evidence and sought to understand
11305-524: The rise of the British colonial government in India. The British Raj furthered this development, making rigid caste organisation a central mechanism of administration. Between 1860 and 1920, the British incorporated the Indian caste system into their system of governance, granting administrative jobs and senior appointments only to Christians and people belonging to certain castes. Social unrest during
11424-427: The rival tribes were called dasa , dasyu and pani . The dasas were frequent allies of the Aryan tribes, and they were probably assimilated into the Aryan society, giving rise to a class distinction. Many dasas were, however, in a servile position, giving rise to the eventual meaning of dasa as servant or slave. The Rigvedic society was not distinguished by occupations. Many husbandmen and artisans practised
11543-430: The role of caste in classical Hindu literature, it is jati that plays that role in present times. Varna represents a closed collection of social orders whereas jati is entirely open-ended, thought of as a "natural kind whose members share a common substance." Any number of new jatis can be added depending on need, such as tribes, sects, denominations, religious or linguistic minorities and nationalities. Thus, "Caste"
11662-466: The same group, the "only explanation" for which is the pairs of individuals descended from ancestors in the last few thousands of years who carried that DNA segment. Since the average size of the DNA segments reveals how long ago in the past the shared ancestors lived, the study of a data set of more than 250 jati groups, spread throughout India, provided results that, according to the researchers, "told
11781-468: The same vessel. Later Vedic texts ridicule some professions, but the concept of untouchability is not found in them. The post-Vedic texts, particularly Manusmriti mentions outcastes and suggests that they be ostracised. Recent scholarship states that the discussion of outcastes in post-Vedic texts is different from the system widely discussed in colonial era Indian literature, and in Dumont's structural theory on caste system in India. Patrick Olivelle ,
11900-414: The social hierarchy and these were a factor in the making of the varna system, but the ancient texts did not in some way "create the phenomenon of caste" in India. Jeaneane Fowler, a professor of philosophy and religious studies, states that it is impossible to determine how and why the jatis came into existence. Susan Bayly, on the other hand, suggests that the jati system emerged because it offered
12019-425: The southeast coast of Bali. Its population density was roughly 788 people/km (2,040 people/sq mi) in mid 2023. Bali's central mountains include several peaks over 2,000 metres (6,600 feet) in elevation and active volcanoes such as Mount Batur . The highest is Mount Agung (3,031 m; 9,944 ft), known as the "mother mountain", which is an active volcano rated as one of the world's most likely sites for
12138-474: The state should be reclassified as Scheduled Castes under India's system of positive discrimination ; this would have involved declassifying them from the Other Backwards Class (OBC) category. Whether or not this would happen was a significant issue in the campaign for the 2014 Indian general election . They are among 17 OBC communities that were again proposed for Scheduled Caste status by
12257-421: The surprising arguments of fresh scholarship, based on inscriptional and other contemporaneous evidence, is that until relatively recent centuries, social organisation in much of the subcontinent was little touched by the four varnas . Nor were jati the building blocks of society." According to Basham, ancient Indian literature refers often to varnas , but hardly if ever to jatis as a system of groups within
12376-455: The term caste as a static phenomenon of stereotypical tradition-bound India, empirical facts suggest caste has been a radically changing feature. The term means different things to different Indians. In the context of politically active modern India, where job and school quotas are reserved for affirmative action based on castes, the term has become a sensitive and controversial subject. Sociologists such as M. N. Srinivas and Damle have debated
12495-719: The widening of social divisions across Indonesia in the 1950s and early 1960s, Bali saw conflict between supporters of the traditional caste system , and those rejecting this system. Politically, the opposition was represented by supporters of the Indonesian Communist Party (PKI) and the Indonesian Nationalist Party (PNI), with tensions and ill-feeling further increased by the PKI's land reform programmes. A purported coup attempt in Jakarta
12614-518: The world's plastic waste. In the national legislature , Bali is represented by nine members, with a single electoral district covering the whole province. The Bali Regional People's Representative Council, the provincial legislature, has 55 members. The province's politics has historically been dominated by the Indonesian Democratic Party of Struggle (PDI-P), which has won by far the most votes in every election in Bali since
12733-457: Was "rapidly replaced by endogamy [...] among upper castes and Indo-European speakers predominantly[...] almost simultaneously, possibly by decree of the rulers, in upper-caste populations of all geographical regions, about 70 generations before present, probably during the reign (319–550 CE) of the ardent Hindu Gupta rulers." Johannes Bronkhorst , referring to Basu et al. (2016) and Moorjani et al. (2013) states that "it seems safe to conclude that
12852-1120: Was 36% (better than in Raja Ampat and Halmahera by 29% or in Fakfak and Kaimana by 25%) with the highest coverage found in Gili Selang and Gili Mimpang in Candidasa , Karangasem Regency . Among the larger trees the most common are: banyan trees, jackfruit , coconuts , bamboo species, acacia trees and also endless rows of coconuts and banana species. Numerous flowers can be seen: hibiscus , frangipani , bougainvillea , poinsettia , oleander , jasmine , water lily , lotus , roses , begonias , orchids and hydrangeas exist. On higher grounds that receive more moisture, for instance, around Kintamani , certain species of fern trees, mushrooms and even pine trees thrive well. Rice comes in many varieties. Other plants with agricultural value include: salak , mangosteen , corn , Kintamani orange, coffee and water spinach . Over-exploitation by
12971-575: Was astonished and delighted; as my visit to Java was some years later, I had never beheld so beautiful and well-cultivated a district out of Europe. A slightly undulating plain extends from the seacoast about ten or twelve miles (16 or 19 kilometres) inland, where it is bounded by a fine range of wooded and cultivated hills. Houses and villages, marked out by dense clumps of coconut palms , tamarind and other fruit trees, are dotted about in every direction; while between them extend luxurious rice grounds, watered by an elaborate system of irrigation that would be
13090-488: Was averted by forces led by General Suharto. The army became the dominant power as it instigated a violent anti-communist purge , in which the army blamed the PKI for the coup. Most estimates suggest that at least 500,000 people were killed across Indonesia, with an estimated 80,000 killed in Bali, equivalent to 5% of the island's population. With no Islamic forces involved as in Java and Sumatra, upper-caste PNI landlords led
13209-586: Was broadly similar. Along with Brahmins and Kshatriyas, a class called gahapatis (literally householders, but effectively propertied classes) was also included among high kulas . The people of high kulas were engaged in occupations of high rank, viz ., agriculture, trade, cattle-keeping, computing, accounting and writing, and those of low kulas were engaged in low-ranked occupations such as basket-weaving and sweeping. The gahapatis were an economic class of land-holding agriculturists, who employed dasa-kammakaras (slaves and hired labourers) to work on
13328-491: Was largely agriculture-based in terms of both output and employment. Tourism is now the largest single industry in terms of income, and as a result, Bali is one of Indonesia's wealthiest regions. In 2003, around 80% of Bali's economy was tourism related. By the end of June 2011, the rate of non-performing loans of all banks in Bali were 2.23%, lower than the average of Indonesian banking industry non-performing loan rates (about 5%). The economy, however, suffered significantly as
13447-533: Was liberated by the British 5th infantry Division under the command of Major-General Robert Mansergh who took the Japanese surrender. Once Japanese forces had been repatriated the island was handed over to the Dutch the following year. In 1946, the Dutch constituted Bali as one of the 13 administrative districts of the newly proclaimed State of East Indonesia , a rival state to the Republic of Indonesia, which
13566-399: Was not based on purity-impurity ranking principle, and that the Vedic literature is devoid of the untouchability concept. In the 21st century, advances genetics research enabled biologists and geneticists to study the antiquity of castes in India. In studying the degree of differentiation of each jati with all others on the basis of differences of mutation frequencies, they identified
13685-535: Was not originally a target in their Netherlands East Indies Campaign, but as the airfields on Borneo were inoperative due to heavy rains, the Imperial Japanese Army decided to occupy Bali, which did not suffer from comparable weather. The island had no regular Royal Netherlands East Indies Army (KNIL) troops. There was only a Native Auxiliary Corps Prajoda (Korps Prajoda) consisting of about 600 native soldiers and several Dutch KNIL officers under
13804-438: Was previously often assumed. Certain scholars of caste have considered jati to have its basis in religion, assuming that the sacred elements of life in India envelop the secular aspects; for example, the anthropologist Louis Dumont described the ritual rankings that exist within the jati system as being based on the concepts of religious purity and pollution. This view has been disputed by other scholars who believe it to be
13923-628: Was proclaimed and headed by Sukarno and Hatta . Bali was included in the " Republic of the United States of Indonesia " when the Netherlands recognised Indonesian independence on 29 December 1949. The first governor of Bali, Anak Agung Bagus Suteja , was appointed by President Sukarno in 1958, when Bali became a province. The 1963 eruption of Mount Agung killed thousands, created economic havoc, and forced many displaced Balinese to be transmigrated to other parts of Indonesia. Mirroring
14042-535: Was stopped. Citations Bibliography Caste system in India The caste system in India is the paradigmatic ethnographic instance of social classification based on castes . It has its origins in ancient India , and was transformed by various ruling elites in medieval , early-modern, and modern India, especially in the aftermath of the collapse of the Mughal Empire and the establishment of
14161-674: Was strongly influenced by Indian, Chinese, and particularly Hindu culture, beginning around the 1st century AD. The name Bali dwipa ("Bali island") has been discovered from various inscriptions, including the Blanjong pillar inscription written by Sri Kesari Warmadewa in 914 AD and mentioning Walidwipa . It was during this time that the people developed their complex irrigation system subak to grow rice in wet-field cultivation . Some religious and cultural traditions still practised today can be traced to this period. The Hindu-Buddhist Majapahit Empire (1293–1520 AD) on eastern Java founded
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