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71-655: The Didi 10 ( Georgian : დიდი 10 , "Big 10") is a professional domestic rugby union club competition in Georgia . For sponsorship reasons the league is known as the Crocobet Didi 10. It is the top tier of rugby competition in the country. As of 16 September 2024 Georgian language Georgian is most closely related to the Zan languages ( Megrelian and Laz ) and more distantly to Svan . Georgian has various dialects , with standard Georgian based on

142-457: A vigesimal numeric system like Basque and (partially) French . Numbers greater than 20 and less than 100 are described as the sum of the greatest possible multiple of 20 plus the remainder. For example, "93" literally translates as 'four times twenty plus thirteen' ( ოთხმოცდაცამეტი , otkhmotsdatsamet’i ). One of the most important Georgian dictionaries is the Explanatory dictionary of

213-404: A Moroccan speaking with a Kuwaiti), they are able to code switch into MSA for the sake of communication. The Aramaic language has been diglossic for much of its history, with many different literary standards serving as the "high" liturgical languages, including Syriac language , Jewish Palestinian Aramaic , Jewish Babylonian Aramaic , Samaritan Aramaic language and Mandaic language , while

284-569: A Roman grammarian from the 2nd century AD. The first direct attestations of the language are inscriptions and palimpsests dating to the 5th century, and the oldest surviving literary work is the 5th century Martyrdom of the Holy Queen Shushanik by Iakob Tsurtaveli . The emergence of Georgian as a written language appears to have been the result of the Christianization of Georgia in the mid-4th century, which led to

355-665: A capital-like effect called Mtavruli for titles and inscriptions. Georgian is an agglutinative language with a complex verb structure that can include up to eight morphemes , exhibiting polypersonalism . The language has seven noun cases and employs a left-branching structure with adjectives preceding nouns and postpositions instead of prepositions. Georgian lacks grammatical gender and articles, with definite meanings established through context. Georgian's rich derivation system allows for extensive noun and verb formation from roots, with many words featuring initial consonant clusters. The Georgian writing system has evolved from ancient scripts to

426-515: A dictionary, and several local newspapers. Persian or New Persian has been used continually as the literary language of major areas in Western Asia , the Caucasus , Central Asia and South Asia . The language written today remains essentially the same as that used by Ferdowsi despite variant colloquial dialects and forms. For many centuries, people belonging to the educated classes from

497-490: A diglossic continuum. The formal style is generally used in formal writing and speech. It is, for example, the language of textbooks, of much of Kannada literature and of public speaking and debate. Novels, even popular ones, will use the literary style for all description and narration and use the colloquial form only for dialogue, if they use it at all. In recent times, however, the modern colloquial form has been making inroads into areas that have traditionally been considered

568-408: A literary variant, literary Finnish, and a spoken variant, spoken Finnish . Both are considered a form of non-dialectal standard language, and are used throughout the country. Literary Finnish is a consciously created fusion of dialects for use as a literary language, which is rarely spoken at all, being confined to writing and official speeches. The Georgian language has a literary liturgical form,

639-468: A modern colloquial form. These styles shade into each other, forming a diglossic continuum. The modern literary style is generally used in formal writing and speech. It is, for example, the language of textbooks, of much of Tamil literature and of public speaking and debate. Novels, even popular ones, will use the literary style for all description and narration and use the colloquial form only for dialogue, if they use it at all. In recent times, however,

710-490: A ri means 'friend'; megobrebi ( megob Ø rebi ) means 'friends', with the loss of a in the last syllable of the word stem. Georgian has seven noun cases: nominative , ergative , dative , genitive , instrumental , adverbial and vocative . An interesting feature of Georgian is that, while the subject of a sentence is generally in the nominative case and the object is in the accusative case (or dative), one can find this reversed in many situations (this depends mainly on

781-399: A row, as may be seen in words like გვფრცქვნ ი gvprtskvni 'you peel us' and მწვრთნ ელი mts’vrtneli 'trainer'. Vicenik has observed that Georgian vowels following ejective stops have creaky voice and suggests this may be one cue distinguishing ejectives from their aspirated and voiced counterparts. Georgian has been written in a variety of scripts over its history. Currently

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852-428: A tone, it can also be known as formal language . It may be the standardized variety of a language. It can sometimes differ noticeably from the various spoken lects , but the difference between literary and non-literary forms is greater in some languages than in others. If there is a strong divergence between a written form and the spoken vernacular , the language is said to exhibit diglossia . The understanding of

923-470: A variety of dialects (including the Żejtun dialect , Qormi dialect and Gozitan amongst others) that co-exist alongside Standard Maltese. Literary Maltese, unlike Standard Maltese, features a preponderance of Semitic vocabulary and grammatical patterns; however, this traditional separation between Semitic and Romance influences in Maltese literature (especially Maltese poetry and Catholic liturgy on

994-589: A word. Georgian vowels in non-initial syllables are pronounced with a shorter duration compared to vowels in initial syllables. long polysyllabic words may have a secondary stress on their third or fourth syllable. Georgian contains many "harmonic clusters" involving two consonants of a similar type (voiced, aspirated, or ejective) that are pronounced with only a single release; e.g. ბგ ერა bgera 'sound', ცხ ოვრება tskhovreba 'life', and წყ ალი ts’q’ali 'water'. There are also frequent consonant clusters , sometimes involving more than six consonants in

1065-475: Is because syllables in the language often begin with two consonants. Recordings are available on the relevant Wiktionary entries, linked to below. Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights : Literary language Literary language is the form (register) of a language used when writing in a formal, academic , or particularly polite tone; when speaking or writing in such

1136-498: Is closely based on the Classical language, and most Arabs consider the two varieties to be two registers of the same language. Literary Arabic or classical Arabic is the official language of all Arab countries and is the only form of Arabic taught in schools at all stages . The sociolinguistic situation of Arabic in modern times provides a prime example of the linguistic phenomenon of diglossia —the use of two distinct varieties of

1207-1003: Is rather light, and in fact Georgian transliterates the tenuis stops in foreign words and names with the ejectives. The coronal occlusives ( /tʰ tʼ d n/ , not necessarily affricates) are variously described as apical dental, laminal alveolar, and "dental". Per Canepari, the main realizations of the vowels are [ i ], [ e̞ ], [ ä ], [ o̞ ], [ u ]. Aronson describes their realizations as [ i̞ ], [ e̞ ], [ ä ] (but "slightly fronted"), [ o̞ ], [ u̞ ]. Shosted transcribed one speaker's pronunciation more-or-less consistently with [ i ], [ ɛ ], [ ɑ ], [ ɔ ], [ u ]. Allophonically, [ ə ] may be inserted to break up consonant clusters, as in /dɡas/ [dəɡäs] . In casual speech, /iV, Vi/ sequences can be realized phonetically as [jV~i̯V, Vj~Vi̯]. Phrase-final unstressed vowels may sometimes be partially reduced. Prosody in Georgian involves stress, intonation, and rhythm. Stress

1278-578: Is the country's national language and one of two official languages, alongside English. Today, Filipino is considered the proper term for the language of the Philippines, especially by Filipino-speakers who are not of Tagalog origin, with many referring to the Filipino language as "Tagalog-based". The language is taught in schools throughout the country and is the official language of education and business. Native Tagalog-speakers meanwhile comprise one of

1349-401: Is very weak, and linguists disagree as to where stress occurs in words. Jun, Vicenik, and Lofstedt have proposed that Georgian stress and intonation are the result of pitch accents on the first syllable of a word and near the end of a phrase. According to Borise, Georgian has fixed initial word-level stress cued primarily by greater syllable duration and intensity of the initial syllable of

1420-458: The Dittionario giorgiano e italiano . These were meant to help western Catholic missionaries learn Georgian for evangelical purposes. On the left are IPA symbols, and on the right are the corresponding letters of the modern Georgian alphabet, which is essentially phonemic. Former /qʰ/ ( ჴ ) has merged with /x/ ( ხ ), leaving only the latter. The glottalization of the ejectives

1491-499: The Mkhedruli script is almost completely dominant; the others are used mostly in religious documents and architecture. Mkhedruli has 33 letters in common use; a half dozen more are obsolete in Georgian, though still used in other alphabets, like Mingrelian, Laz, and Svan. The letters of Mkhedruli correspond closely to the phonemes of the Georgian language. According to the traditional account written down by Leonti Mroveli in

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1562-738: The Bosphorus to the Bay of Bengal would be expected to know some Persian. It was once the language of culture (especially of poetry), from the Balkans to the Deccan , functioning as a lingua franca . Until the late 18th century, Persian was the dominant literary language of Georgia 's elite. Persian was the second major vehicle after Arabic in transmitting Islamic culture and has a particularly prominent place in Sufism. Slavonic-Serbian ( slavenosrpski )

1633-761: The Classical period , it was the language of the Mai State , Tondo Dynasty (according to the Laguna Copperplate Inscription ) and southern Luzon . It was written using Baybayin , a syllabary which is a member of the Brahmic family, before the Spanish Romanised the alphabet beginning in the late 15th century. Tagalog was also the spoken language of the 1896 Philippine Revolution . The 1987 Constitution maintains that Filipino

1704-516: The Georgian Orthodox Church and together are called Khutsuri 'priest alphabet'. In Mkhedruli , there is no case. Sometimes, however, a capital-like effect, called Mtavruli ('title' or 'heading'), is achieved by modifying the letters so that their vertical sizes are identical and they rest on the baseline with no descenders. These capital-like letters are often used in page headings, chapter titles, monumental inscriptions, and

1775-496: The Javanese language , alphabet characters derived from the alphabets used to write Sanskrit , no longer in ordinary use, are used in literary words as a mark of respect. Kannada exhibits a strong diglossia , like Tamil , also characterised by three styles: a classical literary style modelled on the ancient language, a modern literary and formal style, and a modern colloquial form. These styles shade into each other, forming

1846-457: The Kartlian dialect. Over the centuries, it has exerted a strong influence on the other dialects. As a result, they are all, generally, mutually intelligible with standard Georgian, and with one another. The history of the Georgian language is conventionally divided into the following phases: The earliest extant references to Georgian are found in the writings of Marcus Cornelius Fronto ,

1917-773: The Mande languages of West Africa . It blends the principal elements of the partially mutually intelligible Manding languages . The movement promoting N'Ko literacy was instrumental in shaping the Maninka cultural identity in Guinea, and has also strengthened the Mande identity in other parts of West Africa. N'Ko publications include a translation of the Qur'an , a variety of textbooks on subjects such as physics and geography , poetic and philosophical works, descriptions of traditional medicine,

1988-905: The Meiji period , some authors started to use the colloquial form of the language in their literature. Following the government policy after the World War II , the standard form of contemporary Japanese language is used for most literature published since the 1950s. The standard language is based on the colloquial language in Tokyo area, and its literary stylistics in polite form differs little from its formal speech. Notable characteristics of literary language in contemporary Japanese would include more frequent use of Chinese origin words, less use of expressions against prescriptive grammar (such as " ら抜き言葉 "), and use of non-polite normal form (" -だ / -である ") stylistics that are rarely used in colloquial language. In

2059-523: The Old Georgian language , while the vernacular spoken varieties are the Georgian dialects and other related Kartvelian languages like Svan language , Mingrelian language , and Laz language . German differentiates between Hochdeutsch / Standarddeutsch ( Standard German ) and Umgangssprache (everyday/vernacular language). Amongst the differences is the regular use of the genitive case or

2130-661: The Präteritum is considered somewhat declamatory. The German Konjunktiv I / II ("er habe" / "er hätte") is also used more regularly in written form being replaced by the conditional ("er würde geben") in spoken language, although in some southern German dialects the Konjunktiv II is used more often. Generally there is a continuum between more dialectical varieties to more standard varieties in German, while colloquial German nonetheless tends to increase analytic elements at

2201-570: The spoken language . At the same time, Literary Chinese was based largely upon the Classical Chinese, and writers frequently borrowed from the classical language into their literary writings. Literary Chinese therefore shows a great deal of similarity to Classical Chinese, even though the similarity decreased over the centuries. Starting from early 20th century, written vernacular Chinese ( simplified Chinese : 白话文 ; traditional Chinese : 白話文 ; pinyin : báihuàwén ) became

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2272-457: The 11th century, the first Georgian script was created by the first ruler of the Kingdom of Iberia , Pharnavaz , in the 3rd century BC. The first examples of a Georgian script date from the 5th century AD. There are now three Georgian scripts, called Asomtavruli 'capitals', Nuskhuri 'small letters', and Mkhedruli . The first two are used together as upper and lower case in the writings of

2343-468: The 17th century are defined as prototype mediums of literary English and are taught in advanced English classes. Furthermore, many literary words that are used today are found in abundance in the works of Shakespeare and as well as in King James Bible, hence the literary importance of early modern English in contemporary English literature and English studies . Modern Standard Arabic is

2414-736: The 3rd century AD, while Vulgar Latin was the common, spoken variety used across the Roman Empire . The Latin brought by Roman soldiers to Gaul , Iberia , or Dacia was not identical to the Latin of Cicero , and differed from it in vocabulary, syntax, and grammar. Some literary works with low-register language from the Classical Latin period give a glimpse into the world of early Vulgar Latin. The works of Plautus and Terence , being comedies with many characters who were slaves , preserve some early basilectal Latin features, as does

2485-568: The Georgian language ( ქართული ენის განმარტებითი ლექსიკონი ). It consists of eight volumes and about 115,000 words. It was produced between 1950 and 1964, by a team of linguists under the direction of Arnold Chikobava . Georgian has a word derivation system, which allows the derivation of nouns from verb roots both with prefixes and suffixes, for example: It is also possible to derive verbs from nouns: Likewise, verbs can be derived from adjectives, for example: In Georgian many nouns and adjectives begin with two or more contiguous consonants. This

2556-856: The Kartlian dialect, and all dialects are mutually intelligible. The history of Georgian spans from Early Old Georgian in the 5th century, to Modern Georgian today. Its development as a written language began with the Christianization of Georgia in the 4th century. Georgian phonology features a rich consonant system, including aspirated, voiced, and ejective stops , affricates , and fricatives . Its vowel system consists of five vowels with varying realizations. Georgian prosody involves weak stress, with disagreements among linguists on its placement. The language's phonotactics include complex consonant clusters and harmonic clusters. The Mkhedruli script , dominant in modern usage, corresponds closely to Georgian phonemes and has no case distinction, though it employs

2627-403: The character of the verb). This is called the dative construction . In the past tense of the transitive verbs, and in the present tense of the verb "to know", the subject is in the ergative case. Georgian has a rich word-derivation system. By using a root, and adding some definite prefixes and suffixes, one can derive many nouns and adjectives from the root. For example, from the root - kart -,

2698-493: The contemporary literary and standard register of Classical Arabic used in writing across all Arabic -speaking countries and any governing body with Arabic as an official language. Many western scholars distinguish two varieties: the Classical Arabic of the Qur'an and early Islamic (7th to 9th centuries) literature ; and Modern Standard Arabic (MSA), the standard language in use today. The modern standard language

2769-458: The current Mkhedruli, used for most purposes. The language has a robust grammatical framework with unique features such as syncope in morphophonology and a left-branching syntax. Georgian's vocabulary is highly derivational, allowing for diverse word formations, while its numeric system is vigesimal. No claimed genetic links between the Kartvelian languages and any other language family in

2840-446: The expense of synthetic elements . From the early nineteenth century until the mid-20th century, Katharevousa , a form of Greek , was used for literary purposes. In later years, Katharevousa was used only for official and formal purposes (such as politics, letters, official documents, and newscasting) while Dimotiki , 'demotic' or popular Greek, was the daily language. This created a diglossic situation until in 1976, Dimotiki

2911-498: The following words can be derived: Kart veli ('a Georgian person'), Kart uli ('the Georgian language') and Sa kart velo ('the country of Georgia'). Most Georgian surnames end in - dze 'son' (Western Georgia), - shvili 'child' (Eastern Georgia), - ia (Western Georgia, Samegrelo ), - ani (Western Georgia, Svaneti ), - uri (Eastern Georgia), etc. The ending - eli is a particle of nobility, comparable to French de , Dutch van , German von or Polish - ski . Georgian has

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2982-680: The high register in Mongolia itself while in Inner Mongolia a standard Mongolian based on Chakhar Mongolian serves as the high register for all Mongols in China. The Buryat language, which is seen by some as part of the Mongolian language, has been turned into a standard literary form itself in Russia. N'Ko is a literary language devised by Solomana Kante in 1949 as a writing system for

3053-482: The island) is changing. Standard Manchu was based on the language spoken by the Jianzhou Jurchens during Nurhaci's time, while other unwritten Manchu dialects such as that of Aigun and Sanjiazi were also spoken in addition to the related Xibe language . The Classical Mongolian language was the high register used for religious and official purposes, while the various Mongolian dialects served as

3124-485: The largest linguistic and cultural groups of the Philippines, numbering an estimated 14 million. Notably, in Eastern European and Slavic linguistics, the term "literary language" has also been used as a synonym of " standard language ". Tamil exhibits a strong diglossia , characterised by three styles: a classical literary style modelled on the ancient language, a modern literary and formal style and

3195-498: The like. This is the Georgian standard keyboard layout. The standard Windows keyboard is essentially that of manual typewriters . Georgian is an agglutinative language . Certain prefixes and suffixes can be joined in order to build a verb. In some cases, one verb can have up to eight different morphemes in it at the same time. An example is ageshenebinat ('you [all] should've built [it]'). The verb can be broken down to parts: a-g-e-shen-eb-in-a-t . Each morpheme here contributes to

3266-630: The literary standard and had the Uzbek language standardized as a literary language for, and the Taranchi dialect of Ili was chosen as the literary standard for Modern Uyghur, while other dialects like the Kashgar and Turpan dialects continue to be spoken. Standard Yoruba is the literary form of the Yoruba language of West Africa , the standard variety learnt at school and that spoken by newsreaders on

3337-577: The literary standard. This is mostly aligned with a standardized form of Mandarin Chinese , which however means there exists considerable divergence between written vernacular Chinese and other Chinese variants like Cantonese , Shanghainese , Hokkien and Sichuanese . Some of these variants have their own literary form, but none of them are currently used in official formal registers, although they may be used in legal transcription, and in certain media and entertainment settings. The Finnish language has

3408-646: The low register, like Khalkha Mongolian , Chakhar Mongolian , Khorchin Mongolian , Kharchin Mongolian , Baarin Mongolian , Ordos Mongolian and the Buryat language . The Tibetan Buddhist canon was translated into Classical Mongolian. The Oirat Mongols who spoke the Oirat Mongol language and dialects like Kalmyk language or Torgut Oirat used a separate standard written with the Clear script . The Mongolian language , based on Khalkha Mongolian, now serves as

3479-472: The meaning of the verb tense or the person who has performed the verb. The verb conjugation also exhibits polypersonalism ; a verb may potentially include morphemes representing both the subject and the object. In Georgian morphophonology , syncope is a common phenomenon. When a suffix (especially the plural suffix - eb -) is attached to a word that has either of the vowels a or e in the last syllable, this vowel is, in most words, lost. For example, megob

3550-805: The modern colloquial form has been making inroads into areas that have traditionally been considered the province of the modern literary style: for instance most cinema , theatre and popular entertainment on television and radio. Classical Tibetan was the high register used universally by all Tibetans while the various mutually unintelligible Tibetic languages serve as the low register vernacular, like Central Tibetan language in Ü-Tsang (Tibet proper), Khams Tibetan in Kham , Amdo Tibetan in Amdo , Ladakhi language in Ladakh and Dzongkha in Bhutan . Classical Tibetan

3621-630: The official and literary languages, and standardized literary English did not emerge until the end of the Middle Ages . At this time and into the Renaissance , the practice of aureation (the introduction of terms from classical languages , often through poetry) was an important part of the reclamation of status for the English language, and many historically aureate terms are now part of general common usage . Modern English no longer has quite

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3692-939: The political fragmentation of the time. Now, it is the standard language of Italy. Until the late 1940s, the prominent literary language in Japan was the Classical Japanese language ( 文語 , bungo ) , which is based on the language spoken in Heian period ( Late Old Japanese ) and is different from the contemporary Japanese language in grammar and some vocabulary. It still has relevance for historians, literary scholars, and lawyers (many Japanese laws that survived World War II are still written in bungo , although there are ongoing efforts to modernize their language). Bungo grammar and vocabulary are occasionally used in modern Japanese for effect, and fixed form poetries like Haiku and Tanka are still mainly written in this form. In

3763-463: The popular language, known as Serbo-Croatian . Tagalog was the basis of the Filipino language ; both share the same vocabulary and grammatical system and are mutually intelligible. However, there is a significant political and social history that underlies the reasons for differentiating between Tagalog and Filipino. Modern Tagalog is derived from Archaic Tagalog , which was likely spoken during

3834-413: The province of the modern literary style: for instance most cinema , theatre and popular entertainment on television and radio. There are also many dialects of Kannada, Which are Dharwad Kannada of North Karnataka , Arebhashe of Dakshina Kannada and Kodagu, Kundakannada of Kundapura, Havyaka Kannada are major dialects. Classical Latin was the literary register used in writing from 75 BC to

3905-528: The radio. Standard Yoruba has its origin in the 1850s, when Samuel A. Crowther , native Yoruba and the first African Anglican Bishop in Nigeria, published a Yoruba grammar and started his translation of the Bible. Though for a large part based on the Ọyọ and Ibadan dialects, Standard Yoruba incorporates several features from other dialects. Additionally, it has some features peculiar to itself only, for example

3976-658: The recorded speech of the freedmen in the Cena Trimalchionis by Petronius Arbiter . At the Third Council of Tours in 813, priests were ordered to preach in the vernacular language—either in the rustica lingua romanica (Vulgar Latin), or in the Germanic vernaculars —since the common people could no longer understand formal Latin. The Malay language exists in a classical variety, two modern standard variety and several vernacular dialects. Maltese has

4047-640: The replacement of Aramaic as the literary language . By the 11th century, Old Georgian had developed into Middle Georgian. The most famous work of this period is the epic poem The Knight in the Panther's Skin , written by Shota Rustaveli in the 12th century. In 1629, a certain Nikoloz Cholokashvili authored the first printed books written (partially) in Georgian, the Alphabetum Ibericum sive Georgianum cum Oratione and

4118-670: The same distinction between literary and colloquial registers. English has been used as a literary language in countries that were formerly part of the British Empire , for instance in India up to the present day, Malaysia in the early 20th century and Nigeria , where English remains the official language. Written in Early Modern English , the King James Bible and works by William Shakespeare from

4189-530: The same language, usually in different social contexts. Educated Arabic speakers are usually able to communicate in MSA in formal situations. This diglossic situation facilitates code-switching in which a speaker switches back and forth between the two varieties of the language, sometimes even within the same sentence. In instances in which highly educated Arabic-speakers of different nationalities engage in conversation but find their dialects mutually unintelligible (e.g.

4260-399: The simple past tense Präteritum in written language. In vernacular German, genitive phrases ("des Tages") are frequently replaced with a construction of "von" + dative object ("von dem Tag") - comparable to English "the dog's tail" vs. "the tail of the dog" - likewise the Präteritum ("ich ging") can be substituted with the perfect ("ich bin gegangen") to a certain degree. Nevertheless,

4331-597: The standard official language learned are now the unrelated languages Urdu and English, and in Baltistan , the Tibetan Balti language serves as the low register while the unrelated Urdu is the official language. The Turkic Chagatai language served as the high register literary standard for Central Asian Turkic peoples, while the vernacular low register languages were the Uzbek language and Eastern Turki (Modern Uyghur) . The Soviet Union abolished Chagatai as

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4402-489: The term differs from one linguistic tradition to another and is dependent on the terminological conventions adopted. For much of its history, there has been a distinction in the English language between an elevated literary language (written) and a colloquial or vernacular language (spoken, but sometimes also represented in writing). After the Norman conquest of England , for instance, Latin and French displaced English as

4473-417: The two forms are identical; differing forms, such as verb conjugations, are easily converted from one form to another. However, the vocabulary is quite different from one form to the other and must be learned separately. Among the works of Rabindranath Tagore are examples of both shadhubhasha (especially among his earlier works) and chôlitôbhasha (especially among his later works). The national anthem of India

4544-404: The use of neither the Präteritum nor especially the genitive case is totally unusual in daily language, though it is considered rare, and might be dependent on a region's dialect and/or the grade of education of the speaker. People of higher education use the genitive more regularly in their casual speech and the use of perfect instead of Präteritum is especially common in southern Germany, where

4615-562: The vernacular Neo-Aramaic languages serve as the vernacular language spoken by the common people like Northeastern Neo-Aramaic ( Assyrian Neo-Aramaic , Bohtan Neo-Aramaic , Chaldean Neo-Aramaic , Hértevin language , Koy Sanjaq Syriac language , Senaya language ), Western Neo-Aramaic , Northeastern Neo-Aramaic , Central Neo-Aramaic ( Mlahsô language , Turoyo language ), Neo-Mandaic , Hulaulá language , Lishana Deni , Lishanid Noshan , Lishán Didán , Betanure Jewish Neo-Aramaic , and Barzani Jewish Neo-Aramaic . The Armenian language

4686-399: The world are accepted in mainstream linguistics. Among the Kartvelian languages, Georgian is most closely related to the so-called Zan languages ( Megrelian and Laz ); glottochronological studies indicate that it split from the latter approximately 2700 years ago. Svan is a more distant relative that split off much earlier, perhaps 4000 years ago. Standard Georgian is largely based on

4757-531: Was a diglossic language for much of its history, with Classical Armenian serving as the "high" literary standard and liturgical language, and the Western Armenian and Eastern Armenian dialects serving as the vernacular language of the Armenian people. Western Armenian and Eastern Armenian were eventually standardized into their own literary forms. Standard Bengali has two forms: Grammatically,

4828-574: Was made the official language. During the revival of the Hebrew language , spoken and literary Hebrew were revived separately, causing a dispersion between the two. The dispersion started to narrow sometime after the two movements merged, but substantial differences between the two still exist. When Italy unified in 1860, Italian existed mainly as a literary language. Different languages were spoken throughout Italy, almost all of which were Romance languages which had developed in every region, due to

4899-461: Was originally written in the shadhubhasha form of Bengali. Literary Chinese ( 文言文 ; wényánwén ; 'written-speech writing') is the form of written Chinese used from the end of the Han dynasty to the early 20th century. Literary Chinese continually diverged from Classical Chinese , as the dialects of China became more disparate and as the classical written language became less representative of

4970-511: Was the literary language of Serbs in the Habsburg monarchy used from the mid-18th century to 1825. It was a linguistic blend of Church Slavonic of the Russian recension, vernacular Serbian ( Štokavian dialect ), and Russian . At the beginning of the 19th century, it was severely attacked by Vuk Karadžić and his followers, whose reformatory efforts formed modern literary Serbian based on

5041-693: Was used for official and religious purposes, such as in Tibetan Buddhist religious texts like the Tibetan Buddhist canon and taught and learned in monasteries and schools in Tibetan Buddhist regions. Now, Standard Tibetan , based on the Lhasa dialect, serves as the high register in China. In Bhutan, the Tibetan Dzongkha language has been standardised and replaced Classical Tibetan for official purposes and education, in Ladakh ,

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