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146-741: During the reign of George V and Bagrat V , the Zakarid territories once again reverted to the Kingdom of Georgia. The Zakarid dynasty continued to rule Ani until around 1350, when it was conquered and ravaged by the Chobanids . Armenian historians of the 13th century Kirakos Gandzaketsi and Vardan the Great reported that Ivane 's great grandfather "broke away from the Kurdish tribe of Babir", and established himself in northern Armenia. He then became

292-619: A few inscriptions over Armenia, especially in monasteries, and particularly at Ani , the Armenian capital. Some of their important inscriptions include: In 769 (ie 1320), by the mercy of God, I Khuandze, wife of Atabek Shahnshah (II) who died in this year, and caused us and our eastern country a great affliction, me, his wife, daughter of Chamchadin Sahip-Divan and of the Baroness Khorichah , (great-) granddaughter of

438-575: A high level of local autonomy, acting as an Armenian state with the right to court and collect taxes, while under nominal Georgian suzerainty. While they were vassals of the Georgian king, the Zakarids often acted independently and established their own political and tax systems. Their allegiance to the Georgian kings was mostly confined to providing the kings with military assistance during times of war. In their capital city of Ani, they named themselves

584-426: A major offensive in 1238-39, and took Ani in 1239. They obtained the submission of the Zakarids and left them in place in their regions. They confirmed Shanshe in his fief, and even added to it the fief of Avag , son of Ivane. Further, in 1243, they gave Akhlat to the princess T’amt’a, daughter of Ivane. The Mongols under General Chormaqan conquered the whole of historical Armenia and Georgia in 1238-39, leading to

730-739: A mixed Xiongnu-Donghu ancestry for some tribes (e.g. the Khitan ). The Donghu are mentioned by Sima Qian as already existing in Inner Mongolia north of Yan in 699–632 BCE along with the Shanrong . Unofficial Chinese sources such as Yi Zhou Shu ("Lost Book of Zhou") and the Classic of Mountains and Seas project the Donghu's activities back to the Shang dynasty (1600–1046 BCE). However,

876-507: A political expedient helping them better rule their realm. Zakare II Zakarian convened a synod at the highest level, with Levon (r.1187-1219) King of Cilician Armenia and his Catholicos, so that Miaphysites would converge with Chalcedonians in the rites and expression of their faith. In particular, the synod acknowledged that "icons of the Savior and all the saints should be accepted, and not despised as though they were pagan images", opening

1022-533: A powerful government hastened the further decline and disintegration of the Ilkhanate . The young and weak politician Abu Sa'id could not stop the decline of the state. In 1335, after his death, complete chaos began in the country, and in fact, Ilkhanate was divided into several neighboring states. George V took good advantage of the situation. He stopped paying tribute to the Mongols and expelled their army from

1168-481: A promise of inviolability and the nobility of Shorapani . In Kutaisi the Dadiani , Gurieli , Abkhazian and Svan nobles presented King George with great gifts and expressed their obedience. Then the king himself traveled to Mingrelia , Abkhazia and Guria and settled the affairs there. George V managed to incorporate Samtskhe peacefully. In 1334, when his uncle Sargis II Jaqeli , Prince of Samtskhe, died,

1314-677: A small army and 200 Kalmyk soldiers defeated 1,700 Soviet soldiers in Durvud province of Kalmykia but the Oirats' state was destroyed by the Soviet Army in 1930. Kalmykian nationalists and Pan-Mongolists attempted to migrate Kalmyks to Mongolia in the 1920s. Mongolia suggested to migrate the Soviet Union's Mongols to Mongolia in the 1920s but Russia refused the suggestion. Stalin deported all Kalmyks to Siberia in 1943 and around half of

1460-399: A sovereign state or merge Inner Mongolia with Mongolia. Mongolian is the official national language of Mongolia, where it is spoken by nearly 2.8 million people (2010 estimate), and the official provincial language of China's Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region , where there are at least 4.1 million ethnic Mongols. Across the whole of China, the language is spoken by roughly half of

1606-471: A style characteristic of Mongol-era Armenia. Riding a horse, Prince Amir Hasan wears a close-fitting tunic and a three-pointed hat with two ribbons, characteristic of 14th century Mongol nobility, and his facial features are similar to those of the Mongols. Prince Eacchi Proshian on his reliquary, dated circa 1300, is shown wearing a Mongol-style royal dress ( cloud collar ). The Zakarids are known from quite

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1752-537: A tradition of monumental painting before the 13th century. Wall paintings were not banned in Armenia, but were rare, and sources show suspicion towards a practice that was considered "Georgian" or "Byzantine", and bordering on the heretical. The development of monumental religious painting in Armenia in the 13th century was probably related to the efforts made by the Zakarids in bridging differences between "Armenian" Miaphysitism and "Georgian" Chalcedonism , possibly as

1898-736: A tribe of Shiwei . It resurfaced in the late 11th century during the Khitan -ruled Liao dynasty . After the fall of the Liao in 1125, the Khamag Mongols became a leading tribe on the Mongolian Plateau . However, their wars with the Jurchen -ruled Jin dynasty and the Tatar confederation had weakened them. In the thirteenth century, the word Mongol grew into an umbrella term for a large group of Mongolic-speaking tribes united under

2044-765: A vassal and a possible relative of the Kjurikid dynasty of Armenian kings in the Tashir-Dzoraget region. He received a fortress and became a Christian of the Armenian Miaphysite Church. Following the collapse of the Bagratuni dynasty of Armenia in 1045, Armenia was successively occupied by Byzantines and, following the Battle of Manzikert in 1071, by the Seljuks . Khosrov Zakarian ,

2190-414: Is a possibility that Georgian artists were hired in order to accomplish such pictorial programs, although Byzantines and Armenians are also known to have been involved. The signatures of the artists found beneath the paintings of some of the main figures at Akhtala Monastery have been found to be in Armenian and Greek. In 1220, according to the 13th century Armenian historian Kirakos Gandzaketsi , started

2336-1043: Is referred to as the Mongol heartland , especially in history books. The ancestors of the modern-day Mongols are referred to as Proto-Mongols . Broadly defined, the term includes the Mongols proper (also known as the Khalkha Mongols ), Buryats , Oirats , the Kalmyks and the Southern Mongols. The latter comprises the Abaga Mongols , Abaganar , Aohans , Arkhorchin, Asud , Baarins , Chahars , Darkhan ( Shar Darkhad ), Dörvön Khüükhed, Eastern Dorbets , Gorlos Mongols , Ikhmyangan, Jalaids, Jaruud, Kharchins , Khishigten , Khorchins , Khuuchid, Muumyangan, Naimans , Onnigud, Ordos , Sunud, Tumed , Urad and Üzemchins . The designation "Mongol" briefly appeared in 8th century records of Tang China to describe

2482-495: The Atabek Ivane (I) , as well as my son Zacharia (IV), for the salvation of the soul of the master and for the longevity of my brothers, we have waived in our heritage town of Ani the right to the counting of cows and donkeys, as well as on large and small entry permits. Anyone who attempts to put an obstacle to our dispositions, whether he is Armenian, Georgian or Mongolian, may he be judged and condemned by God, may he share

2628-589: The Chalcedonian faith of the Georgians. The younger brother Ivane eventually converted, allowing the two brothers to adroitely bridge the religious spectrum in Georgia, Ivane commanding Georgian troops while Zakare commanded Armenian ones. Conflicts regarding devotional practices still erupted between the two armies, hampering coordinated operations, as in a military campaign 1204. A synod had to be convened at

2774-455: The Chalcedonian faith, suggesting that the church may have belonged to a Chalcedonian community of Armenians, who had chosen to adopt Georgian styles and practices. Alternatively, this church may have served a larger community of both Armenians and Georgians, or may have served as an example of the unification of Miaphysite and Chalcedonian faiths, at least in their outward expression, as often desired by Zakarid rulers. Armenia relatively lacked

2920-723: The Dai Khitai in Afghanistan. With the expansion of the Mongol Empire, the Mongolic peoples settled over almost all Eurasia and carried on military campaigns from the Adriatic Sea to Indonesian Java and from Japan to Palestine . They simultaneously became Padishahs of Persia , Emperors of China , and Great Khans of the Mongols, and one ( Al-Adil Kitbugha ) became Sultan of Egypt . The Mongolic peoples of

3066-565: The Empire of Trebizond . A Michael Komnenos was Emperor from 1344 to 1349, but his only attested child was John III of Trebizond ; whether John III had siblings is unknown. He had a son David IX of Georgia and a daughter Soldane who married John of Poitiers-Lusignan . Mongols The Mongols are an East Asian ethnic group native to Mongolia , China ( Inner Mongolia and other 11 autonomous territories ), as well as Buryatia and Kalmykia republics of Russia . The Mongols are

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3212-625: The Golden Horde established themselves to govern Russia by 1240. By 1279, they conquered the Song dynasty and brought all of China proper under the control of the Yuan dynasty . ... from Chinggis up high down to the common people, all are shaven in the style pojiao . As with small boys in China, they leave three locks, one hanging from the crown of their heads. When it has grown some, they clip it;

3358-627: The Kingdom of Georgia from 1299 to 1302 and again from 1314 until his death in 1346. A flexible and far-sighted politician, he recovered Georgia from a century-long Mongol domination , restoring the country's previous strength and Christian culture. He grew up in Samtskhe , at the court of his grandfather Beka I Jaqeli . In 1299, Ghazan Khan engaged the young George in a fight against his own brother David VIII - he appointed him king, but his rights did not extend beyond Tbilisi , and therefore he

3504-474: The Mamluk Sultanate ; established economic ties with Italian city-states ; He achieved certain successes in the struggle to establish the influence of Georgia in the Empire of Trebizond . The extant document attributed to Giorgi V only encompasses the final segment of his royal title, omitting the complete formulation. Mikheil Bakhtadze suggests that the full title of King George swould have been "

3650-844: The Ming dynasty . After the fall of the Yuan dynasty in 1368, the Mongols continued to rule the Northern Yuan in northern China and the Mongolian steppe. However, the Oirads began to challenge the Eastern Mongols under the Borjigin monarchs in the late 14th century and Mongolia was divided into two parts: Western Mongolia ( Oirats ) and Eastern Mongolia ( Khalkha , Inner Mongols , Barga , Buryats ). The earliest written references to

3796-658: The Mongolia-Russia border . Oka Buryats revolted in 1767 and Russia completely conquered the Buryat region in the late 18th century. Russia and Qing were rival empires until the early 20th century, however, both empires carried out united policy against Central Asians. The Qing Empire conquered Upper Mongolia or the Oirat's Khoshut Khanate in the 1720s and 80,000 people were killed. By that period, Upper Mongolian population reached 200,000. The Dzungar Khanate conquered by

3942-597: The Mongolian and Tibetan Affairs Commission , lie dormant. Agin-Buryat Okrug and Ust-Orda Buryat Okrugs merged with Irkutsk Oblast and Chita Oblast in 2008 despite Buryats' resistance. Small scale protests occurred in Inner Mongolia in 2011 . The Inner Mongolian People's Party is a member of the Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization and its leaders are attemptin to establish

4088-632: The Rus' Principalities at the Battle of the Kalka River . Before dying, George IV made an alliance with the Sultanate of Rum , by marrying his sister Rusudan to Ghias ad-Din , son of the emir of Erzurum . In 1222, the Kipchaks , fleeing from Mongol devastation, came to the Armenian city of Gandzak , where they encountered the troops of the atabeg Ivane Zakarian, who were again defeated. Although

4234-809: The Shiwei (a subtribe called the "Shiwei Menggu" is held to be the origin of the Genghisid Mongols). Besides these three Xianbei groups, there were others such as the Murong , Duan and Tuoba . Their culture was nomadic, their religion shamanism or Buddhism and their military strength formidable. There is still no direct evidence that the Rouran spoke Mongolic languages , although most scholars agree that they were Proto-Mongolic. The Khitan, however, had two scripts of their own and many Mongolic words are found in their half-deciphered writings. Geographically,

4380-809: The Shiwei . The Khitans, who were independent after their separation from the Kumo Xi (of Wuhuan origin) in 388, continued as a minor power in Manchuria until one of them, Abaoji (872–926), established the Liao dynasty (916–1125). The destruction of Uyghur Khaganate by the Kirghiz resulted in the end of Turkic dominance in Mongolia. According to historians, Kirghiz were not interested in assimilating newly acquired lands; instead, they controlled local tribes through various manaps (tribal leaders). The Khitans occupied

4526-607: The Soviet–Japanese War of 1945 (Mongolian name: Liberation War of 1945 ). Japan forced Inner Mongolian and Barga people to fight against Mongolians but they surrendered to Mongolians and started to fight against their Japanese and Manchu allies. Marshal Khorloogiin Choibalsan called Inner Mongolians and Xinjiang Oirats to migrate to Mongolia during the war but the Soviet Army blocked Inner Mongolian migrants' way. It

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4672-743: The Tanahat Monastery (1273–1279). From this period, the Church of Areni was built in 1321 by Bishop Yovhannes Orbelian under the artistic supervisation of Momik , while the church of Spitakavor Monastery was built in 1321 by the Proshyan family. A few depictions of Armenians under Mongol rule are known, as in the Spitakavor Monastery , which was built by two princes from the Zakarid Proshian dynasty in 1318-1321,

4818-615: The Tuoba Xianbei ruled the southern part of Inner Mongolia and northern China, the Rouran ( Yujiulü Shelun was the first to use the title khagan in 402) ruled eastern Mongolia, western Mongolia, the northern part of Inner Mongolia and northern Mongolia, the Khitan were concentrated in eastern part of Inner Mongolia north of Korea and the Shiwei were located to the north of the Khitan. These tribes and kingdoms were soon overshadowed by

4964-709: The Xiongnu , whose identity is still debated today. Although some scholars maintain that they were proto-Mongols , they were more likely a multi-ethnic group of Mongolic and Turkic tribes . It has been suggested that the language of the Huns was related to the Xiongnu. The Donghu, however, can be much more easily labeled proto-Mongol since the Chinese histories trace only Mongolic tribes and kingdoms ( Xianbei and Wuhuan peoples) from them, although some historical texts claim

5110-468: The Yakuts after their migration to northern Siberia and about 30% of Yakut words have Mongol origin. However, remnants of the Yuan imperial family retreated north to Mongolia in 1368, retaining their language and culture. There were 250,000 Mongols in southern China and many Mongols were massacred by the rebel army. The survivors were trapped in southern China and eventually assimilated. The Dongxiangs , Bonans , Yugur and Monguor people were invaded by

5256-436: The (97,000–98,000) Kalmyks deported to Siberia died before being allowed to return home in 1957. The government of the Soviet Union forbade teaching the Kalmyk language during the deportation. The Kalmyks' main purpose was to migrate to Mongolia and many Kalmyks joined the German Army. Marshal Khorloogiin Choibalsan attempted to migrate the deportees to Mongolia and he met with them in Siberia during his visit to Russia. Under

5402-399: The 13th century, the high offices Atabeg (Governor General) and Amirspasalar (Commander-in-Chief of the Georgian army) had been held by the Zakarids , but following the Mongol invasions of Georgia the Mongol victors gave these offices to the "renegade" Sadun of Mankaberd in 1272. When Abaqa became the new Mongol ruler, Sadun received from the title of Atabeg Amirspasalar for

5548-399: The 14–16th centuries, however, the Ming dynasty was defeated by the Oirat, Southern Mongol, Eastern Mongol and united Mongol armies. Esen's 30,000 cavalries defeated 500,000 Chinese soldiers in the 1449 Tumu Crisis . Within eighteen months of his defeat of the titular Khan Taisun, in 1453, Esen himself took the title of Great Khan (1454–1455) of the Great Yuan . The Khalkha emerged during

5694-491: The 15th century and this conflict weakened Mongol strength. In 1688, the Western Mongol Dzungar Khanate 's king Galdan Boshugtu attacked Khalkha after murder of his younger brother by Tusheet Khan Chakhundorj (main or Central Khalkha leader) and the Khalkha-Oirat War began. Galdan threatened to kill Chakhundorj and Zanabazar (Javzandamba Khutagt I, spiritual head of Khalkha) but they escaped to Sunud (Inner Mongolia). Many Khalkha nobles and folks fled to Inner Mongolia because of

5840-467: The 18th century reports George V marrying a daughter of "the Greek Emperor, Lord Michael Komnenos ". However the reigning dynasty of the Byzantine Empire in the 14th century were the Palaiologoi , not the Komnenoi. The marriage of a daughter of Michael IX Palaiologos and his wife Rita of Armenia to a Georgian ruler is not recorded in Byzantine sources. Neither is the existence of any illegitimate daughters of Michael IX. The Komnenoi did rule however in

5986-413: The Armenian Prince Zakare were executed, and his father Shahnshah freed for a ramson. From around 1260, the Il-Khanate inscribed in stone and displayed Imperial decrees in their new territory of Armenia. Several examples have been found at the Church of the Holy Apostles in the capital Ani , inscribed on pilar or walls. These were official announcements, often yarlighs (imperial decrees), using

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6132-527: The Bogd Khan regime. Russia encouraged Mongolia to become an autonomous region of China in 1914. Mongolia lost Barga , Dzungaria, Tuva , Upper Mongolia and Inner Mongolia in the 1915 Treaty of Kyakhta . In October 1919, the Republic of China occupied Mongolia after the suspicious deaths of Mongolian patriotic nobles. On 3 February 1921 the White Russian army—led by Baron Ungern and mainly consisting of Mongolian volunteer cavalries, and Buryat and Tatar cossacks —liberated Ulaanbaatar . Baron Ungern's purpose

6278-432: The Bogd Khanate, and the Russian czar, Nicholas II , referred to it as "Mongolian imperialism". Additionally, the United Kingdom urged Russia to abolish Mongolian independence as it was concerned that "if Mongolians gain independence, then Central Asians will revolt". 10,000 Khalkha and Inner Mongolian cavalries (about 3,500 Inner Mongols) defeated 70,000 Chinese soldiers and controlled almost all of Inner Mongolia; however,

6424-466: The Buryat population in Russia died in the 1900s–1950s. 10,000 Buryats of the Buryat-Mongol Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic were massacred by Stalin's order in the 1930s. In 1919 the Buryats established a small theocratic Balagad state in Kizhinginsky District of Russia and it fell in 1926. In 1958, the name "Mongol" was removed from the name of the Buryat-Mongol Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic. On 22 January 1922 Mongolia proposed to migrate

6570-417: The Communists were unable to defeat Japan and Kuomintang . Mongolia and Soviets supported the Uyghur and Kazakh separatist movement during the 1930s and 1940s. By 1945, the Soviets refused to support them after its alliance with the Chinese Communist Party and Mongolia interrupted its relations with the separatists under pressure. Xinjiang Oirat militant groups operated together the Turkic peoples but

6716-485: The Georgian Bagratid Kingdom . The Armenians had to participate to most of the campaigns of the Mongols. They participated to the Siege of Baghdad in 1258. In 1259-1260, Shahnshah Zakarian participated to the Mongold-led Siege of Mayyāfāriqīn , together with the Armenian Prince Prosh Khaghbakian . The reduced Kingdom of Georgia (1256–1329) also under Mongol control, participated to most of these campaigns as well. In 1265, Armenian and Georgian troops participated to

6862-403: The Georgians ultimately prevailed in 1223, the Zakarian Prince Grigor Khaghbakian was captured and tortured to death by the Kipchak Turks . When the Khwarazmians under Jalal al-Din Mangburni invaded the region in 1226-1230, Dvin was ruled by the aging Ivane, who had given Ani to his nephew Shahnshah , son of Zakare. Dvin was lost, but Kars and Ani did not surrender. The Mongols led

7008-418: The Great said: "The headwaters of the Yenisei River must be Russian land". The Russian Empire sent the Kalmyks and Buryats to war to reduce the populations ( World War I and other wars). During the 20th century, Soviet scientists attempted to convince the Kalmyks and Buryats that they're not Mongols during (demongolization policy). 35,000 Buryats were killed during a rebellion in 1927, and around one-third of

7154-458: The Hu (胡) were not mentioned among the non-Shang fang (方 "border-region"; modern term fāngguó 方國 "fang-countries") in the extant oracle bones from the Shang period. The Xianbei formed part of the Donghu confederation, and possibly had in earlier times some independence within the Donghu confederation as well as from the Zhou dynasty. During the Warring States the poem " The Great Summons " ( Chinese : 大招 ; pinyin : Dà zhāo ) in

7300-425: The Kalmyk Khanate. The Kyrgyzs attacked them near Balkhash Lake . About 100,000–150,000 Kalmyks who settled on the west bank of the Volga River could not cross the river because the river did not freeze in the winter of 1771 and Catherine the Great executed influential nobles of them. After seven months of travel, only one-third (66,073) of the original group reached Dzungaria (Balkhash Lake, western border of

7446-401: The Kalmyks during the Kalmykian Famine but bolshevik Russia refused. 71,000–72,000 (93,000?; around half of the population) Kalmyks died during the Russian famine of 1921–22 . The Kalmyks revolted against the Soviet Union in 1926, 1930 and 1942–1943. In 1913, Nicholas II , tsar of Russia, said: "We need to prevent from Volg Tatars . But the Kalmyks are more dangerous than them because they are

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7592-438: The Kazakhs to migrate westwards. In 1687, he besieged the City of Turkistan . Under the leadership of Abul Khair Khan , the Kazakhs won major victories over the Dzungars at the Bulanty River in 1726, and at the Battle of Anrakay in 1729. The Khalkha eventually submitted to Qing rule in 1691 by Zanabazar 's decision, thus bringing all of today's Mongolia under the rule of the Qing dynasty but Khalkha de facto remained under

7738-482: The Law of the Russian Federation of April 26, 1991 "On Rehabilitation of Exiled Peoples," repressions against Kalmyks and other peoples were qualified as acts of genocide. On 3 October 2002 the Ministry of Foreign Affairs announced that Taiwan recognizes Mongolia as an independent country, although no legislative actions were taken to address concerns over its constitutional claims to Mongolia. Offices established to support Taipei's claims over Outer Mongolia, such as

7884-413: The Liao dynasty led by Yelü Dashi fled west through Mongolia after being defeated by the Jurchen -led Jin dynasty and founded the Qara Khitai (Western Liao dynasty) in 1124 while still maintaining control over western Mongolia. In 1218, Genghis Khan incorporated the Qara Khitai after which the Khitan passed into obscurity. Some remnants surfaced as the Qutlugh-Khanid dynasty (1222–1306) in Iran and

8030-446: The Manchus attack in exchange for thousands of taels of silver. By the 1620s, only the Chahars remained under his rule. The Chahar army was defeated in 1625 and 1628 by the Inner Mongol and Manchu armies due to Ligdan's faulty tactics. The Qing forces secured their control over Inner Mongolia by 1635, and the army of the last khan Ligdan moved to battle against Tibetan Gelugpa sect (Yellow Hat sect) forces. The Gelugpa forces supported

8176-431: The Manchus, while Ligdan supported Kagyu sect (Red Hat sect) of Tibetan Buddhism . Ligden died in 1634 on his way to Tibet . By 1636, most Inner Mongolian nobles had submitted to the Qing dynasty founded by the Manchus. Inner Mongolian Tengis noyan revolted against the Qing in the 1640s and the Khalkha battled to protect Sunud. Western Mongol Oirats and Eastern Mongolian Khalkhas vied for domination in Mongolia since

8322-450: The Monastery, a relief represents a young rider in princely attire with a bow, with the letters ԱՄՐ ՀՍ (AMR HS), indicating Prince Amir Hasan II of the Proshians, son of Eachi Proshian, who completed the church his father had started. The relief is dated to 1320–1322, date the church was completed. In these depictions, the Proshyans wear close-fitting clothing with an ornate belt and tall hats, and have round cheeks and almond-shaped eyes in

8468-416: The Mongolian army retreated due to lack of weapons in 1914. 400 Mongol soldiers and 3,795 Chinese soldiers died in this war. The Khalkhas, Khovd Oirats, Buryats, Dzungarian Oirats, Upper Mongols , Barga Mongols , most Inner Mongolian and some Tuvan leaders sent statements to support Bogd Khan's call of Mongolian reunification . In reality however, most of them were too prudent or irresolute to attempt joining

8614-421: The Mongols so send them to war to reduce the population". On 23 April 1923 Joseph Stalin , communist leader of Russia, said: "We are carrying out wrong policy on the Kalmyks who related to the Mongols. Our policy is too peaceful". In March 1927, Soviet deported 20,000 Kalmyks to Siberia, the tundra and Karelia .The Kalmyks founded the sovereign Republic of Oirat-Kalmyk on 22 March 1930. The Oirats' state had

8760-435: The Mongols, encouraged nobility to transfer part of their wealth for safeguarding to monastic institutions, either temporarily or permanently, all of this secured by Mongol edicts. In some cases, members of the nobility could become abbots, so as to secure the direct ownership and management of these eclesiastical ressources. Some of the main monastic holdings were in the monasteries of Kecharuyk and Geghard , Aghjots Vank or

8906-481: The Oirats and Khalkhas before the war. Galdan Boshugtu sent his army to "liberate" Inner Mongolia after defeating the Khalkha's army and called Inner Mongolian nobles to fight for Mongolian independence. Some Inner Mongolian nobles, Tibetans , Kumul Khanate and some Moghulistan 's nobles supported his war against the Manchus, however, Inner Mongolian nobles did not battle against the Qing. There were three khans in Khalkha and Zasagt Khan Shar (Western Khalkha leader)

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9052-425: The Oirats did not have the leading role due to their small population. Basmachis or Turkic and Tajik militants fought to liberate Soviet Central Asia until 1942. On February 2, 1913, the Treaty of friendship and alliance between the Government of Mongolia and Tibet was signed. Mongolian agents and Bogd Khan disrupted Soviet secret operations in Tibet to change its regime in the 1920s. On October 27, 1961,

9198-420: The Qing Empire). The Qing Empire transmigrated the Kalmyks to five different areas to prevent their revolt and influential leaders of the Kalmyks died soon (killed by the Manchus). Russia states that Buryatia voluntarily merged with Russia in 1659 due to Mongolian oppression and the Kalmyks voluntarily accepted Russian rule in 1609 but only Georgia voluntarily accepted Russian rule. In the early 20th century,

9344-402: The Qing dynasty in 1755–1758 because of their leaders and military commanders conflicts. Some scholars estimate that about 80% of the Dzungar population were destroyed by a combination of warfare and disease during the Qing conquest of the Dzungar Khanate in 1755–1758. Mark Levene, a historian whose recent research interests focus on genocide , has stated that the extermination of the Dzungars

9490-399: The Tsarist government imposed a council on the Kalmyk Khan, thereby diluting his authority, while continuing to expect the Kalmyk Khan to provide cavalry units to fight on behalf of Russia. The Russian Orthodox church , by contrast, pressured Buddhist Kalmyks to adopt Orthodoxy. In January 1771, approximately 200,000 (170,000) Kalmyks began the migration from their pastures on the left bank of

9636-421: The United Nations recognized Mongolian independence and granted the nation full membership in the organization. The powerful states of Russia and China have committed many abuses against Mongols in their homeland, including war crimes and crimes against humanity, sometimes characterized as cultural genocide , with targets among the Mongol language, culture, tradition, history, religion, and ethnic identity. Peter

9782-418: The Volga to Dzungaria, through the territories of their Bashkir and Kazakh enemies. The last Kalmyk khan Ubashi led the migration to restore Mongolian independence. Ubashi Khan sent his 30,000 cavalries to the Russo-Turkish War (1768–74) to gain weapon before the migration. The Empress Catherine the Great ordered the Russian army, Bashkirs and Kazakhs to exterminate all migrants and the Empress abolished

9928-409: The Xiongnu, killing 2000, after having received generous gifts from Emperor Guangwu of Han . The Xianbei reached their peak under Tanshihuai Khan (reigned 156–181) who expanded the vast, but short lived, Xianbei state (93–234). Three prominent groups split from the Xianbei state as recorded by the Chinese histories: the Rouran (claimed by some to be the Pannonian Avars ), the Khitan people and

10074-448: The Zakarids maintained nominal suzerainty to the Georgian, who were themselves tributaries of the Mongols. Between 1236 and 1256, before the creation of the Il-Khanate , Caucasia was placed under the military governorship of Chormaqan , and divided into 5 vilayets (provinces): Georgia (Gurjistan), Greater Armenia, Shirvan, Arran, and Mughan, with Armenian principalities becoming fragmented and essentially independent. After 1256, Armenia

10220-413: The Zakarids supported the monarchy against the insurgents during the rebellion of Prince Demna and the Orbeli family . The uprising was suppressed, and George III persecuted his opponents and elevated the Zakarids. Despite some complications in the reign of George III, the successes continued in the reign of the Queen Tamar . This was chiefly due to the Armenian generals Zakare and Ivane . Around

10366-435: The advancing Osmanli tribesmen led by Orhan I . In 1341 he interfered in the power struggle in the neighbouring Empire of Trebizond and supported Anna Anachoutlou who ascended the throne with the help of the Laz , only to be put to death a year later. He also organized a successful campaign against Shirvan , a neighboring state of Georgia. George V had friendly relations with King Philip VI of France , as evidenced by

10512-611: The anthology Verses of Chu mentions small-waisted and long-necked Xianbei women, and possibly also the book Discourses of the States , which states that during the reign of King Cheng of Zhou (reigned 1042–1021 BCE) the Xianbei came to participate at a meeting of Zhou subject-lords at Qiyang (岐阳) (now Qishan County ) but were only allowed to perform the fire ceremony under the supervision of Chu since they were not vassals (诸侯) by enfeoffment and establishment . The Xianbei chieftain

10658-642: The areas vacated by the Turkic Uyghurs bringing them under their control. The Yenisei Kirghiz state was centered on Khakassia and they were expelled from Mongolia by the Khitans in 924. Beginning in the 10th century, the Khitans, under the leadership of Abaoji , prevailed in several military campaigns against the Tang dynasty ' s border guards, and the Xi , Shiwei and Jurchen nomadic groups. Remnants of

10804-406: The boundaries were moveable: Ivane I Zakarian had converted to Chalcedonism in the early 13th century, and a significant number of Armenians had followed him, voluntarily or not. The Zakarids seem to have promoted a level of ambiguity between the two faiths, and voluntarily mixed elements from both, minimizing differences, possibly as a political expedient helping them better rule their realm. In

10950-535: The church St Gregory of Tigran Honents , dedicated in 1215 in Ani , the combination of scenes with the myths of the evangelists of Armenia and Georgia might suggest a conflation of Armenian Miaphysite and Georgian Chalcedonian rites. The Zakarids are also known for their efforts at church councils to bring together the Miaphysite and Chalcedonian faiths, especially in respect to their outward expression, such as rites and

11096-413: The city prospered, at least until the area was occupied by the Mongols in 1237. The Zakarians amassed a great fortune, governing all of northern Armenia. Zakare and his descendants ruled in northwestern Armenia with Ani as their capital, while Ivane and his offspring ruled eastern Armenia, including the city of Dvin . Eventually, their territories came to resemble those of Bagratid Armenia. They maintained

11242-575: The conflict between the Golden Horde and the Ilkhanate , ultimately defeating Berke in Shirvan . In 1284, Georgian and Armenian troops had to participate in the dynastic conflict between the Il-Khanate ruler Tekuder and Arghun , with troops under the Vicery of Georgia Alinaq Noyan and under Tekuder himself. Under Mongol rule, Armenia enjoyed relative political stability and prosperity from

11388-478: The control of the Mongols, and built many magnificent churches and monasteries. The later kings of Zakarids continued their control over Ani until the 1360, when they lost to the Kara Koyunlu Turkoman tribes, who made Ani their capital. Mongol rule was considered as particularly harsh, as described by a 1292 Armenian colophon : This book was written in the Armenian calendar year 741 (1292), under

11534-527: The correspondence between them. George V wrote to the King of France that he was ready to participate with him in the liberation of the "Holy Lands" of Syria-Palestine, and had 30,000 soldiers. George V died in 1346. He was succeeded by his only son, David IX . He was buried at the Gelati Monastery near Kutaisi , western Georgia . The identity of his wife is not known. The "Georgian Chronicle" of

11680-400: The country's 5.8 million ethnic Mongols (2005 estimate) However, the exact number of Mongolian speakers in China is unknown, as there is no data available on the language proficiency of that country's citizens. The use of Mongolian in China, specifically in Inner Mongolia, has witnessed periods of decline and revival over the last few hundred years. The language experienced a decline during

11826-544: The country. It was a long process, during which both peaceful and diplomatic and forceful means were used (this process lasted from 1327-1335). It is true that in the 30s and 40s of the 14th century, the Mongols organized several campaigns in order to restore their domination in Eastern Georgia , but they did not succeed. George V also extended diplomatic relations to the Bahri Mamluks of Egypt , achieving

11972-421: The disobedient feudal lords of the royal government, for which he did not avoid extreme measures; managed to unify Georgia , which was actually divided into three parts After the unification and strengthening of Georgia, George V expelled the Mongols from Georgia and ended their almost hundred-year rule. George V maintained active political relations with neighboring countries, as well as with Western Europe and

12118-574: The end of the 13th century to the early 14th century. The Armenians enjoyed a favorable relationship with the Mongol ruler Arghun , whom they had supported in his dynastic struggle against Tekuder : as a result Arghun supported Armenian nobles, and in particular the church, and exempted 150 monasteries from taxes. In particular, the Syunik Province became a center of intellectual, literary and artistic creativity. Monastic institutions grew under

12264-459: The fate of Satan and may he be his co-inhabitant of the gehenna ; let the Georgian be excommunicated and cursed; the Mongol be covered with shame and guilt before the prophets glorified in God; but may those who observe our provisions until the end of the world be blessed by Almighty God. Let anyone who opposes it be anathema, like Judas and like Cain. These favors and this charity were established under

12410-422: The father Eachi and his son Amir Hasan. The construction of the church was begun by Prince Eachi Proshian (died in 1318) (a grandson of Prosh Khaghbakian ), and completed in 1321 by his son Prince Amir Hasan II . Eachi Proshian (-1318) is depicted in one reliefs from Spitakavor, and on a golden reliquary, he which he shown holding his hands up in prayer, and wearing a Mongol-style dress ( cloud collar ). Also from

12556-453: The first Mongol incursions under Subutai , part of the Mongol invasions of Georgia . This first wave was only composed of 3 tümen (30,000 men), and was actually on a search for the fugitive Khwarizmian ruler Muhammad II of Khwarazm . The Zakarids served under the Georgian king George IV of Georgia to repulse them, with Ivane I Zakarian acting as atabeg (Governor General) and Amirspasalar (Commander-in-chief), their army only half

12702-561: The first historically traceable member of the Zakarid family, moved from Armenia to southern Georgia during the Seljuk invasions in the early 11th century . Over the next hundred years, the Zakarids gradually gained prominence at the Georgian court, where they became known as Mkhargrdzeli (Long-shoulder) or in Armenian : Երկայնաբազուկ , ( Yerkaynabazuk ). A family legend says that this name

12848-472: The formulation "[In the name of] the Ilkhan", with the aim of announcing or regulating taxes and import duties. These inscriptions used the Armenian language, but the format and even some of the terminology were Mongol. Following the Mongol conquest in 1236, Georgia and the Zakarid principality were organized into a province broken down into 8 administrative units ( tumans ). 5 of the tumans were Georgian while

12994-593: The government of Baron Lip. Ptough the scribe. 40°30′27″N 43°34′22″E  /  40.5075°N 43.5728°E  / 40.5075; 43.5728 George V of Georgia George V the Brilliant ( Georgian : გიორგი V ბრწყინვალე , romanized : giorgi V brts'q'invale ; also translated as the Illustrious , or Magnificent ; 1286–1346) of the Bagrationi dynasty , was the king ( mepe ) of

13140-546: The government's new policy and Soviets. The government and Soviet soldiers defeated the rebels in October. The Buryats started to migrate to Mongolia in the 1900s due to Russian oppression. Joseph Stalin 's regime stopped the migration in 1930 and started a campaign of ethnic cleansing against newcomers and Mongolians. During the Stalinist repressions in Mongolia , almost all adult Buryat men and 22,000–33,000 Mongols (3–5% of

13286-535: The heights of the Georgian army and court. Queen Tamar gave them the status of nakharar feudal lords, who took the name "Zak'arians", in honor of Zak'are . She gave them control of almost all her Armenian territories, with Ani as capital. In an inscription in Zakare's church in Ani , the brothers are called "Kings of Armenia". Still, Ivane and Zakare encountered animosity in some quarters because of their religious affiliation to Armenian Miaphysitism , rather than

13432-470: The highest level, and the Armenians agreed to harmonize some practices. Around the year 1199, a Georgian army under Zakare's command took the city of Ani from Shadaddid control, and in 1201, Tamar gave it to him as a fief. Thereafter, Zakarids maintained high degree of autonomy and often acted independently. The volume of trade seems to have increased in the early 13th century, and under the Zakarid princes

13578-643: The independence of Outer Mongolia, the Mongolian army controlled Khalkha and Khovd regions (modern day Uvs , Khovd , and Bayan-Ölgii provinces ), but Northern Xinjiang (the Altai and Ili regions of the Qing empire), Upper Mongolia , Barga and Inner Mongolia came under control of the newly formed Republic of China . On February 2, 1913, the Bogd Khanate of Mongolia sent Mongolian cavalries to "liberate" Inner Mongolia from China. Russia refused to sell weapons to

13724-589: The introduction of permanent formal taxes, consisting in a general tax of 1/13th to 1/10th on every property, and a large head tax of 60 silver drams spitaks ( aspers ) per male. According to the History of the Nation of the Archers , if a man could not pay, he was beaten, and given alive to the dogs. During the rule of the Il-Khanate under Hulegu (r. 1256–1265), taxes were further increased: Hulegu commanded that

13870-478: The king came to Samtskhe and confirmed Sargis's son, Qvarqvare , as the Prince of Samtskhe. This fact meant the restoration of the king's supremacy on Samtskhe and its return to Georgia. With this act, George V essentially completed the process of reunification of Georgia. In 1327, Abu Sa'id Bahadur Khan investigated his guardian and de facto governor of Qa'ena, Chupan , with his sons and supporters. The death of

14016-565: The king of Abkhazians, Kartvelians, Ranians, Kakhetians and Armenians, Sharvansha and Shahansha, the unifier of Likht-Imer and LikhtAmer, the ruler of all the East and West ." Bakhtadze also notes that the main difference between the title of King George V and previous rulers was an addition of "LikhtImer and Likht-Amer", as the unifier of both kingdoms. George was born to King Demetrius II of Georgia and his third wife Natela , daughter of Beka I Jaqeli , Prince and Atabeg of Samtskhe . Demetrius

14162-470: The last in which the Georgians fought in the Mongol ranks. In 1319 supported in the Il-Khanate in helping crush the revolt of the Mongol commander Qurumushi , who was the military Governor of Georgia. In 1320, he drove the marauding Alans out of the town Gori and forced them back to the Caucasus Mountains . King George was on friendly terms with the influential Mongol prince Choban , who

14308-614: The late Qing government encouraged Han Chinese settlement of Mongolian lands under the name of " New Policies " or "New Administration" (xinzheng). As a result, some Mongol leaders, especially those of Outer Mongolia, decided to seek Mongolian independence. After the Xinhai Revolution , the Mongolian Revolution on 30 November 1911 in Outer Mongolia ended an over 200-year rule of the Qing dynasty. With

14454-403: The late Qing period, a revival between 1947 and 1965, a second decline between 1966 and 1976, a second revival between 1977 and 1992, and a third decline between 1995 and 2012. However, in spite of the decline of the Mongolian language in some of Inner Mongolia's urban areas and educational spheres, the ethnic identity of the urbanized Chinese-speaking Mongols is most likely going to survive due to

14600-503: The local king Bagrat I to a vassal prince. In 1334 he reasserted royal authority over the virtually independent principality of Samtskhe , ruled by his cousin Qvarqvare I Jaqeli . Having restored the kingdom's unity, he focused now on cultural, social and economic projects. He changed the coins issued by Ghazan khan with the Georgian ones, called George's tetri . Between 1325 and 1338, he worked out two major law codes, one regulating

14746-465: The moment he became king, one of the main concerns of the king was to restore the unity of Georgia . After the death of David Narin in Western Georgia , Constantine I's own brother, Michael , rebelled. The fight between the brothers sometimes ended with a short truce, and sometimes it continued. In 1327, Constantine died and Michael took the throne, but two years later he also died. Michael

14892-462: The nobles of Greater Armenia to avoid rebellion against the Mongols, in order to help Hethum I obtain diplomatic support from the Mongols against the Mamluks and Seljuks . But a new Mongol tax, called qubchur , forced nobles to mortgage their estates, triggering a revolt of the nobles in 1259-1260, to which Arghun Aqa responded by a virulent military operation. The Georgian Princess Gontsa and

15038-516: The patronage of the Proshians and the Orbelians , who built numerous monasteries and provided them with various financial ressources. Smbat Orbelian (1249/50-73) had obtained from Möngke Khan that monastic properties which had been seized should be returned, and that they would be free from taxation. This tax-exempt status, contrasting with the generally heavy taxation of private property under

15184-595: The plough in Middle Mongol language sources appear towards the end of the 14th c. In 1434, Eastern Mongol Taisun Khan 's (1433–1452) Oirat prime minister Togoon Taish reunited the Mongols after killing Adai Khan in Khorchin . Togoon died in 1439 and his son Esen Taish became ruler of Northern Yuan dynasty. Esen later unified the Mongol tribes. The Ming dynasty attempted to invade the Northern Yuan in

15330-543: The population of Mongolia is only hundred thousands". The proportion of victims in relation to the population of the country is much higher than the corresponding figures of the Great Purge in the Soviet Union. The Manchukuo (1932–1945), puppet state of the Empire of Japan (1868–1947) invaded Barga and some part of Inner Mongolia with Japanese help. The Mongolian army advanced to the Great Wall of China during

15476-526: The present-day Xianbei (鮮卑). Again in Inner Mongolia another closely connected core Mongolic Xianbei region was the Upper Xiajiadian culture (1000–600 BCE) where the Donghu confederation was centered. After the Donghu were defeated by Xiongnu king Modu Chanyu , the Xianbei and Wuhuan survived as the main remnants of the confederation. Tadun Khan of the Wuhuan (died 207 AD) was the ancestor of

15622-456: The principal member of the large family of Mongolic peoples . The Oirats and the Buryats are classified either as distinct ethno-linguistic groups or subgroups of Mongols. The Mongols are bound together by a common heritage and ethnic identity . Their indigenous dialects are collectively known as the Mongolian language . The contiguous geographical area in which the Mongols primarily live

15768-464: The proto-Mongolic Kumo Xi . The Wuhuan are of the direct Donghu royal line and the New Book of Tang says that in 209 BCE, Modu Chanyu defeated the Wuhuan instead of using the word Donghu. The Xianbei, however, were of the lateral Donghu line and had a somewhat separate identity, although they shared the same language with the Wuhuan. In 49 CE the Xianbei ruler Bianhe (Bayan Khan?) raided and defeated

15914-509: The reign of Dayan Khan (1479–1543) as one of the six tumens of the Eastern Mongolic peoples. They quickly became the dominant Mongolic clan in Mongolia proper. He reunited the Mongols again. In 1550, Altan Khan led a Khalkha Mongol raid on Beijing. The Mongols voluntarily reunified during Eastern Mongolian Tümen Zasagt Khan rule (1558–1592) for the last time (the Mongol Empire united all Mongols before this). Eastern Mongolia

16060-465: The relations at the royal court and the other devised for the peace of a remote and disorderly mountainous district. Under him, Georgia established close international commercial ties, mainly with the Byzantine Empire , but also with the great European maritime republics , Genoa and Venice . During his reign, Armenian lands, including Ani , were part of the Kingdom of Georgia . From

16206-715: The remaining 3, composed of the Zakarid principality in Kars and Ani, as well as, the Awagids in Syunik and Artsakh , were Armenian. From 1236 to 1246, the Mongols did not interfere with the governing structure of the Zakarid state and appointed the Zakarids as heads of the tumans . While Zakarid Armenia was a vassal state of the Mongols and therefore subject to taxes and loyalty to the Khan, they were otherwise left to govern themselves and had relative autonomy during this period. Throughout

16352-612: The remains of the Zakarid capital of Ani , and the earliest known ones are those of St Gregory of Tigran Honents , dating to c.  1215 . These paintings, exclusively labelled in Georgian and Greek, may have belonged to a Georgian artistic tradition, as suggested by style, technique (intense blue backgrounds), and iconographical details. The paintings are focused on the main feasts of the Chalcedonian Church . Still, various characteristics and iconographical details are decidedly Armenian and relate to Miaphysitism . There

16498-681: The restoration of several Georgian monasteries in Palestine to the Georgian Orthodox Church and gaining free passage for Georgian pilgrims to the Holy Land . According to Kldiashvili (1997), the introduction of the Jerusalem cross , taken as the inspiration for the modern national flag of Georgia in the 1990s, might date to the reign of George V. In the 1330s, George secured the southwestern province of Klarjeti against

16644-728: The rise of the First Turkic Khaganate in 555, the Uyghur Khaganate in 745 and the Yenisei Kirghiz states in 840. The Tuoba were eventually absorbed into China. The Rouran fled west from the Göktürks and either disappeared into obscurity or, as some say, invaded Europe as the Avars under their Khan, Bayan I . Some Rouran under Tatar Khan migrated east, founding the Tatar confederation , who became part of

16790-624: The rule of Genghis Khan . There are several proposals for the ethnonym Mongol's etymology: In various times Mongolic peoples have been equated with the Scythians , the Magog , and the Tungusic peoples . Based on Chinese historical texts the ancestry of the Mongolic peoples can be traced back to the Donghu , a nomadic confederation occupying eastern Mongolia and Manchuria . The Donghu neighboured

16936-399: The rule of Galdan Boshugtu Khaan until 1696. The Mongol-Oirat's Code (a treaty of alliance) against foreign invasion between the Oirats and Khalkhas was signed in 1640, however, the Mongols could not unite against foreign invasions. Chakhundorj fought against Russian invasion of Outer Mongolia until 1688 and stopped Russian invasion of Khövsgöl Province . Zanabazar struggled to bring together

17082-489: The rule of the oppressor, of strange appearance and ruthless, which is called Tatar, of the impious race of Cathay , who invaded the whole world because of our sins. And they are so ruthless and cruel that brother kills brother and father kills son, but God's punishment will come. From 1236 to 1250, the Mongols essentially left Armenian governing structures in place. They initially satisfied themselves with plunder and booty from vanquished areas, but from 1243 Guyuk Khan ordered

17228-603: The sides of Lake Baikal were separated from Mongolia. In 1689 the Treaty of Nerchinsk established the northern border of Manchuria north of the present line. The Russians retained Trans-Baikalia between Lake Baikal and the Argun River north of Mongolia. The Treaty of Kyakhta (1727) , along with the Treaty of Nerchinsk, regulated the relations between Russian and Qing empires until the mid-nineteenth century, and established

17374-428: The size of the Mongol one. The Georgiand and Armenians were defeated, but the Mongol retreated with heavy losses. The Mongols came back the following year, but were blocked on the road to Tbilissi by an army of 70,000. The Mongols again won, but retreated to Tabriz . A third encounter the same year virtually annihilated the Georgian army, and the Mongols continued north to confront the Kipchaks at far as Soldaia , and

17520-553: The strands lower on both sides they plait to hang down on the shoulders. With the breakup of the empire, the dispersed Mongolic peoples quickly adopted the mostly Turkic cultures surrounding them and were assimilated, forming parts of Afghanistan's Hazaras , Azerbaijanis , Uzbeks , Karakalpaks , Tatars , Bashkirs , Turkmens , Uyghurs , Nogays , Kyrgyzs , Kazakhs , Caucasus peoples , Iranian peoples and Moghuls ; linguistic and cultural Persianization also began to be prominent in these territories. Some Mongols assimilated into

17666-581: The submission of the Kingdom of Georgia in the 1239 treaty . Three Mongols campaigns took place altogether from 1239 to 1244: capture of Ani and Kars in 1239, Karin in 1242, and defeat of the Seljuk Sultan in 1243-44 with the major Battle of Köse Dağ . After the Mongols captured Ani, the Zakarids ruled not as vassals of the Bagratids, but rather as vassals of the Mongols , under the governorships of Arghun Aqa . Still, while under Mongol control,

17812-528: The tax called taghar be collected from each individual listed in the royal register. From such he demanded 100 litrs of grain, 50 litrs of wine, 2 litrs of rice and [of] husks 3 sacks, 1 spitak [silver coin], 1 arrow, to say nothing of the bribes; and of 20 animals they demanded, plus 20 spitaks. From those who could not pay they took their sons and daughters as payment. Since 1251, the Catholicos of Armenian Cilicia Kostandin (1221–1267) had requested

17958-502: The title " Shahanshah " (king of kings) for their names and titles. In the dedicatory inscription of Tigran Honents , the Zakarians are referred to as the only "overlords", and the "powerful masters of the universe". The reconquered regions of historical Armenia had mixed confessional identities, with Armenians being mainly Miaphysites , and Georgians and Greeks mainly Chalcedonian Christians, and relations were often conflictual. But

18104-501: The total population; common citizens, monks, Pan-Mongolists, nationalists, patriots, hundreds of military officers, nobles, intellectuals and elite people) were shot dead under Soviet orders. Some authors also offer much higher estimates, up to 100,000 victims. Around the late 1930s the Mongolian People's Republic had an overall population of about 700,000 to 900,000 people. By 1939, Soviet said "We repressed too many people,

18250-475: The trust of the Mongols during his stay at Beka's court. He was friends with Chupan , the chief vizier of Ilkhan. This made it possible to correct the domestic situation. He energetically started solving the internal problems of the country: he expelled the Ossetians from Shida Kartli , who had settled with the support of the Mongols, whose pirate attacks were causing great damage to the population; He attacked

18396-402: The usage of icones. The Zakarids, under Georgian overlordship since 1199-1200, were active builders of religious monuments, such as the church of St Gregory of Tigran Honents , built in 1215 in Ani , or the Church of Kizkale . The donators of St Gregory of Tigran Honents were identified as Armenian Miaphysites in their inscriptions, but on the other hand the artistic program rather reflected

18542-767: The war. Few Khalkhas fled to the Buryat region and Russia threatened to exterminate them if they did not submit, but many of them submitted to Galdan Boshugtu. In 1683 Galdan 's armies reached Tashkent and the Syr Darya and crushed two armies of the Kazakhs . After that Galdan subjugated the Black Khirgizs and ravaged the Fergana Valley . From 1685 Galdan's forces aggressively pushed the Kazakhs. While his general Rabtan took Taraz , and his main force forced

18688-483: The way for the creation of monumental religious paintings such as those seen at Ani . The Zakarids then sponsored a large program of monumental pictorial art, blending Byzantine, Armenian and Georgian traditions. The beautiful murals of Akhtala Monastery , commissioned by Ivane I Zakarian in 1205-1216, are an example of Armenian- Chalcedonian art, blending Byzantine, Armenian and Georgian styles, and inscribed in Georgian, Greek and Armenian. Few paintings are found in

18834-545: The year 1199, they retook the city of Ani. Zakare and Ivane commanded the Georgian-Armenian armies for almost three decades, achieving major victories at Shamkor in 1195 and Basian in 1203 and leading raids into northern Persia in 1210. The two brothers, together with the Alanian David Soslan managed to put Georgia back on a winning track. Because of their successes, Zakare and Ivane reached

18980-545: The “ Kings of Ani ” exemplifying their independent ambitions from the Kings of Georgia. The Zakarid had their own vassals, including the Orbelians and Vachutians , and also had the ability to establish their own nakharar feudal vassals, often selected from the ranks of their best general, as in the case of the Proshian clan . They adopted "the trappings of both Christian and Muslim royal power", as shown in their adoption of

19126-483: Was "arguably the eighteenth century genocide par excellence." The Dzungar population reached 600,000 in 1755. About 200,000–250,000 Oirats migrated from western Mongolia to Volga River in 1607 and established the Kalmyk Khanate .The Torghuts were led by their Tayishi, Kho Orluk . Russia was concerned about their attack but the Kalmyks became a Russian ally and a treaty to protect the southern Russian border

19272-586: Was Galdan's ally. Tsetsen Khan (Eastern Khalkha leader) did not engage in this conflict. While Galdan was fighting in Eastern Mongolia, his nephew Tseveenravdan seized the Dzungarian throne in 1689 and this event made Galdan impossible to fight against the Qing Empire. The Russian and Qing Empires supported his action because this coup weakened Western Mongolian strength. Galdan Boshugtu's army

19418-727: Was a part of a Pan-Mongolian plan and few Oirats and Inner Mongols ( Huuchids , Bargas, Tümeds , about 800 Uzemchins ) arrived . Inner Mongolian leaders carried out active policy to merge Inner Mongolia with Mongolia since 1911. They founded the Inner Mongolian Army in 1929 but the Inner Mongolian Army disbanded after ending World War II. The Japanese Empire supported Pan-Mongolism since the 1910s but there have never been active relations between Mongolia and Imperial Japan due to Russian resistance. The nominally independent Inner Mongolian Mengjiang state (1936–1945)

19564-422: Was a reference to their Achaemenid ancestor Artaxerxes II the "Longarmed" (404–358 BC). During the 12th century, the Bagratids of Georgia enjoyed a resurgence in power, and managed to expand into Seljuk -occupied Armenia. The former Armenian capital Ani would be captured five times between 1124 and 1209. Under King George III of Georgia , Sargis Zakarian was appointed as governor of Ani in 1161. In 1177,

19710-583: Was appointed joint guardian of the ritual torch along with Chu viscount Xiong Yi . These early Xianbei came from the nearby Zhukaigou culture (2200–1500 BCE) in the Ordos Desert , where maternal DNA corresponds to the Mongol Daur people and the Tungusic Evenks . The Zhukaigou Xianbei (part of the Ordos culture of Inner Mongolia and northern Shaanxi ) had trade relations with the Shang. Liu Song dynasty commentator Pei Yin (裴駰), in his Jixie (集解), quoted Eastern Han dynasty scholar Fu Qian (服虔)'s assertion that Shanrong (山戎) and Beidi (北狄) are ancestors of

19856-436: Was called the "King of Tbilisi". Ghazan used David VIII's another brother Vakhtang III (reigned 1302-1308) for the same purpose. In 1314, after the deaths of David VIII and Vakhtang III, George V assumed the throne. He inherited an economically weakened and politically disintegrated country. He was a shrewd politician and initially preferred a cautious and peaceful relationship to fighting the Mongols . Nevertheless, he gained

20002-409: Was defeated by the outnumbering Qing army in 1696 and he died in 1697. The Mongols who fled to the Buryat region and Inner Mongolia returned after the war. Some Khalkhas mixed with the Buryats. The Buryats fought against Russian invasion since the 1620s and thousands of Buryats were massacred. The Buryat region was formally annexed to Russia by treaties in 1689 and 1727, when the territories on both

20148-444: Was directly incorporated into the Il-Khanate founded by Hulegu , and again under the Jalayirid and Chobanids Mongol successors, until Tamerlane brought a whole new era of devastation. The Proshyan dynasty was a family of the Armenian nobility , under Zakarid Armenia during the 13th–14th century CE. They too prospered as allies of the Mongols, as did the Zakarids and Orbelians . They benefited from trade routes to China under

20294-433: Was divided into three parts in the 17th century: Outer Mongolia (Khalkha), Inner Mongolia (Inner Mongols) and the Buryat region in southern Siberia . The last Mongol khagan was Ligdan in the early 17th century. He got into conflicts with the Manchus over the looting of Chinese cities, and managed to alienate most Mongol tribes. In 1618, Ligdan signed a treaty with the Ming dynasty to protect their northern border from

20440-513: Was established with support of Japan in 1936; also, some Buryat and Inner Mongol nobles founded a Pan-Mongolist government with the support of Japan in 1919. The Inner Mongols established the short-lived Republic of Inner Mongolia in 1945. Another part of Choibalsan's plan was to merge Inner Mongolia and Dzungaria with Mongolia. By 1945, Chinese communist leader Mao Zedong requested the Soviets to stop Pan-Mongolism because China lost its control over Inner Mongolia and without Inner Mongolian support

20586-444: Was executed by Abu Sa'id Khan in 1327. George used this loss as a pretext to rebel against the already weakened Ilkhanate . He stopped payments of tribute and drove the Mongols out of the country. The following year he ordered great festivities on the Mount Tsivi to celebrate the anniversary of the victory over the Mongols, and massacred there all oppositionist nobles. In 1329, George laid siege to Kutaisi , western Georgia, reducing

20732-476: Was executed by the Mongols in 1289, and the little Prince George was carried and grew up in Samtskhe , at the court of his grandfather, Beka I Jaqeli. In 1299, the Ilkhanid khan Ghazan installed him as a rival ruler to George's elder brother, the rebellious Georgian King David VIII . However, George's authority did not extend beyond the Mongol-protected capital Tbilisi , so George was referred to during this period as "The Shadow King of Tbilisi". In 1302, he

20878-408: Was left with a young son, Bagrat , who was not supported by the princes. George took advantage of this, contacted the nobles of Imereti , moved to Western Georgia in agreement with them and captured all the castles and cities. Bagrat was fortified in Kutaisi with a small number of supporters, but when George's army approached the city, Bagrat surrendered to the king, in exchange for which he received

21024-490: Was replaced by his brother, Vakhtang III . After the death of both his elder brothers – David and Vakhtang – George became a regent for David's son, George VI , who died underage in 1313, allowing George V to be crowned king for a second time. Having initially pledged his loyalty to the Il-khan Öljaitü , he began a program of reuniting the Georgian lands. In 1315, he led the Georgian auxiliaries to suppress an anti-Mongol revolt in Asia Minor , an expedition that would prove to be

21170-456: Was signed between the Kalmyk Khanate and Russia. In 1724 the Kalmyks came under control of Russia. By the early 18th century, there were approximately 300,000–350,000 Kalmyks and 15,000,000 Russians. The Tsardom of Russia gradually chipped away at the autonomy of the Kalmyk Khanate. These policies, for instance, encouraged the establishment of Russian and German settlements on pastures the Kalmyks used to roam and feed their livestock. In addition,

21316-560: Was to find allies to defeat the Soviet Union . The Statement of Reunification of Mongolia was adopted by Mongolian revolutionaries in 1921. The Soviet, however, considered Mongolia to be Chinese territory in 1924 during a secret meeting with the Republic of China. However, the Soviets officially recognized Mongolian independence in 1945 but carried out various policies (political, economic and cultural) against Mongolia until its fall in 1991 to prevent Pan-Mongolism and other irredentist movements . On 10 April 1932, Mongolians revolted against

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