Orange: rural Mapuche; Dark: urban Mapuche; White: non-Mapuche inhabitants
140-569: Santiago ( / ˌ s æ n t i ˈ ɑː ɡ oʊ / , US also / ˌ s ɑː n -/ ; Spanish: [sanˈtjaɣo] ), also known as Santiago de Chile ( Spanish: [san̪ˈtja.ɣo ðe ˈtʃi.le] ), is the capital and largest city of Chile and one of the largest cities in the Americas . It is located in the country's central valley and is the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region , which has
280-707: A cot–caught merger , which is rapidly spreading throughout the whole country. However, the South, Inland North, and a Northeastern coastal corridor passing through Rhode Island, New York City, Philadelphia, and Baltimore typically preserve an older cot–caught distinction. For that Northeastern corridor, the realization of the THOUGHT vowel is particularly marked , as depicted in humorous spellings, like in tawk and cawfee ( talk and coffee ), which intend to represent it being tense and diphthongal : [oə] . A split of TRAP into two separate phonemes , using different
420-520: A pronunciations for example in gap [æ] versus gas [eə] , further defines New York City as well as Philadelphia–Baltimore accents. Most Americans preserve all historical /r/ sounds, using what is known as a rhotic accent . The only traditional r -dropping (or non-rhoticity) in regional U.S. accents variably appears today in eastern New England , New York City , and some of the former plantation South primarily among older speakers (and, relatedly, some African-American Vernacular English across
560-489: A 14-metre (46 ft) statue of the Virgin Mary . Today, the statue is visible from various points in the city. However, the shrine was not completed until several decades later. The 1910 Chile Centennial celebrations marked the beginning of several urban development projects. The railway network was expanded, connecting the city and its growing suburbs with a new ring and route to Cajón del Maipo . A new railway station
700-631: A complex phenomenon of "both convergence and divergence": some accents are homogenizing and leveling , while others are diversifying and deviating further away from one another. Having been settled longer than the American West Coast, the East Coast has had more time to develop unique accents, and it currently comprises three or four linguistically significant regions, each of which possesses English varieties both different from each other as well as quite internally diverse: New England ,
840-583: A connection between the Merindonal subgroup mentioned above and the Mapuche language does not exist. Current linguists reject Greenberg's findings due to methodological concerns and opt instead for more conservative methods of classification. Moreover, many linguists do not accept the existence of an Amerindian language family due to the lack of available information needed to confirm it. Other authorities such as SIL International classify Mapuche as one of
980-447: A consonant, such as in pearl , car and fort . Non-rhotic American accents, those that do not pronounce ⟨r⟩ except before a vowel, such as some accents of Eastern New England , New York City , and African-Americans , and a specific few (often older ones) spoken by Southerners , are often quickly noticed by General American listeners and perceived as sounding especially ethnic, regional, or antiquated. Rhoticity
1120-486: A heated discussion about the actual implementation of mandatory earthquake standards in the city's modern architecture. Despite urban integration efforts, socioeconomic inequality and geosocial fragmentation remain two of the most important problems, both in the city and in the country. These problems have been considered one of the factors that led to the " Estallido Social " , a series of massive protests and severe riots carried out between 2019 and 2020. The protests led to
1260-477: A layer of smog blanketed the city. In response, the authorities implemented legislative measures to reduce industrial pollution and placed restrictions on vehicle use. To address the problem of transportation, the metro system underwent significant expansion, with lines being extended and three new lines added between 1997 and 2006 in the southeastern sector. In 2011, a new extension was inaugurated in Maipú, bringing
1400-717: A linguist from the United States, proposed a system of classification of the many indigenous languages of the Americas in which the Amerindian language family would include the large majority of languages found on the South American continent, which were formerly grouped in distinct families. The only families that fell outside of his framework were the Eskimo–Aleut languages and Na-Dene languages . According to this classification, Mapuche would be considered part of
1540-591: A merger with the THOUGHT ( caught ) set. Having taken place prior to the unrounding of the cot vowel, it results in lengthening and perhaps raising, merging the more recently separated vowel into the THOUGHT vowel in the following environments: before many instances of /f/ , /θ/ , and particularly /s/ (as in Austria, cloth, cost, loss, off, often, etc.), a few instances before /ŋ/ (as in strong, long, wrong ), and variably by region or speaker in gone , on , and certain other words. Unlike American accents,
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#17327720173231680-645: A migratory wave arising from the collapse of the Tiwanaku Empire around 1000 CE. There is a more recent lexical influence from the Quechuan languages ( pataka 'hundred', warangka 'thousand'), associated with the Inca Empire , and from Spanish. As result of Inca rule, there was some Mapudungun– Imperial Quechua bilingualism among the Mapuches of Aconcagua Valley at the time of the arrival of
1820-419: A mix of art deco, neo-gothic, and other styles. Santiago's cityscape is defined by several stand-alone hills and the fast-flowing Mapocho River , which is lined by parks such as Parque Bicentenario , Parque Forestal , and Parque de la Familia . The Andes Mountains are visible from most parts of the city and contribute to a smog problem, particularly during winter due to the lack of rain. The outskirts of
1960-636: A nice day , for sure); many are now distinctly old-fashioned (swell, groovy). Some English words now in general use, such as hijacking, disc jockey , boost, bulldoze and jazz , originated as American slang. American English has always shown a marked tendency to use words in different parts of speech and nouns are often used as verbs . Examples of nouns that are now also verbs are interview, advocate, vacuum, lobby, pressure, rear-end, transition, feature, profile, hashtag, head, divorce, loan, estimate, X-ray, spearhead, skyrocket, showcase, bad-mouth, vacation , major, and many others. Compounds coined in
2100-704: A north–south direction and 35 km (22 mi) from east to west. The Mapocho River flows through the city. The city is flanked by the main chain of the Andes to the east and the Chilean Coastal Range to the west. On the north, it is bordered by the Cordón de Chacabuco , a mountain range of the Andes. At the southern border lies the Angostura de Paine , an elongated spur of the Andes that almost reaches
2240-482: A population of seven million, representing 40% of Chile's total population. Most of the city is situated between 500–650 m (1,640–2,133 ft) above sea level . Founded in 1541 by the Spanish conquistador Pedro de Valdivia , Santiago has served as the capital city of Chile since colonial times. The city features a downtown core characterized by 19th-century neoclassical architecture and winding side streets with
2380-573: A powerful earthquake struck the city on 3 March 1985, causing minimal casualties but leaving many homeless and destroying numerous historic buildings. With the onset of the transition to democracy in 1990, the city of Santiago surpassed four million inhabitants, with the majority residing in the south, particularly in La Florida, which was the most populous area, followed by Puente Alto and Maipú. The real estate development in these municipalities, as well as in others such as Quilicura and Peñalolén,
2520-480: A process of extensive dialect mixture and leveling in which English varieties across the colonies became more homogeneous compared with the varieties in Britain. English thus predominated in the colonies even by the end of the 17th century's first immigration of non-English speakers from Western Europe and Africa. Additionally, firsthand descriptions of a fairly uniform American English (particularly in contrast to
2660-583: A push from more northern Huilliches , who in turn were being displaced by Mapuches . According to Ramírez "more than a dozen Mapuche – Rapa Nui cognates have been described". Among these are the Mapuche/Rapa Nui words toki / toki (axe), kuri / uri (black) and piti / iti (little). As the 16th and 17th century Central Chile was becoming a melting pot for uprooted indigenous peoples, it has been argued that Mapuche, Quechua and Spanish coexisted there, with significant bilingualism, during
2800-680: A series of other vowel shifts in the same region, known by linguists as the " Inland North ". The Inland North shares with the Eastern New England dialect (including Boston accents ) a backer tongue positioning of the GOOSE /u/ vowel (to [u] ) and the MOUTH /aʊ/ vowel (to [ɑʊ~äʊ] ) in comparison to the rest of the country. Ranging from northern New England across the Great Lakes to Minnesota, another Northern regional marker
2940-525: A serious civil confrontation, which led to thousands of arrests and accusations of human rights violations. Meanwhile, the demonstrations registered serious episodes of violence against public and private infrastructure, mainly in the surroundings of Plaza Baquedano , with the Santiago Metro being one of the most affected by these episodes: more than half of its stations registered damage (several being partially set on fire) and only eleven months later
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#17327720173233080-462: A survey, completed in 2003, polling English speakers across the United States about their specific everyday word choices, hoping to identify regionalisms. The study found that most Americans prefer the term sub for a long sandwich, soda (but pop in the Great Lakes region and generic coke in the South) for a sweet and bubbly soft drink , you or you guys for the plural of you (but y'all in
3220-453: A variation of American English in these islands. In 2021, about 245 million Americans, aged 5 or above, spoke English at home: a majority of the United States total population of roughly 330 million people. The United States has never had an official language at the federal level, but English is commonly used at the federal level and in states without an official language. 32 of the 50 states, in some cases as part of what has been called
3360-468: Is a historically debated topic and hypotheses have changed over time. In a 1970 publication, Stark argued that Mapuche is related to Mayan languages of Mesoamerica . The following year, Hamp adopted this same hypothesis. Stark later argued in 1973 that Mapuche descended from a language known as 'Yucha' which is a sister of Proto-Mayan language and a predecessor of the Chimuan languages , which hail from
3500-575: Is about 120,000 and that there are slightly more passive speakers of Mapuche in Chile. As of 2013 only 2.4% of urban speakers and 16% of rural speakers use Mapudungun when speaking with children, and only 3.8% of speakers aged 10–19 years in the south of Chile (the language's stronghold) are "highly competent" in the language. Speakers of Chilean Spanish who also speak Mapudungun tend to use more impersonal pronouns when speaking Spanish. In Cautín Province and Llifén contact with Mapuche language may be
3640-654: Is also associated with the United States, perhaps mostly in the Midwest and the South. American accents that have not undergone the cot–caught merger (the lexical sets LOT and THOUGHT ) have instead retained a LOT – CLOTH split : a 17th-century distinction in which certain words (labeled as the CLOTH lexical set ) separated away from the LOT set. The split, which has now reversed in most British English, simultaneously shifts this relatively recent CLOTH set into
3780-664: Is also home to a creole language known commonly as Hawaiian Pidgin , and some Hawaii residents speak English with a Pidgin-influenced accent. American English also gave rise to some dialects outside the country, for example, Philippine English , beginning during the American occupation of the Philippines and subsequently the Insular Government of the Philippine Islands ; Thomasites first established
3920-608: Is an Araucanian language related to Huilliche spoken in south-central Chile and west-central Argentina by the Mapuche people. It was formerly known as Araucanian , the name given to the Mapuche by the Spaniards; the Mapuche avoid it as a remnant of Spanish colonialism . Mapudungun is not an official language of the countries Chile and Argentina, receiving virtually no government support throughout its history. However, since 2013, Mapuche, along with Spanish, has been granted
4060-464: Is called either the "speech ( d/zuŋun ) of the land ( mapu )" or the "speech of the people ( tʃe )". An ⟨n⟩ may connect the two words. There are thus several ways to write the name of the language: Moulian et al. (2015) argue that the Puquina language influenced Mapuche language long before the rise of the Inca Empire . The influence of Puquine is thought to be the reason for
4200-464: Is centered in Arauco Province , Sub-group II is the dialect of Angol , Los Ángeles and the middle and lower Bío Bío River . Sub-group III is centered around Purén . In the areas around Lonquimay , Melipeuco and Allipén River dialect sub-group IV is spoken. Sub-group V is spoken at the coast of Araucanía Region including Queule , Budi Lake and Toltén . Temuco is the epicenter of
4340-538: Is common in most American accents despite being now rare in England because, during the 17th-century British colonization, nearly all dialects of English were rhotic, and most North American English simply remained that way. The preservation of rhoticity in North America was also supported by continuing waves of rhotic-accented Scotch-Irish immigrants, most intensely during the 18th century (and moderately during
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4480-420: Is often identified by Americans as a "country" accent, and is defined by the /aɪ/ vowel losing its gliding quality : [aː] , the initiation event for a complicated Southern vowel shift, including a " Southern drawl " that makes short front vowels into distinct-sounding gliding vowels . The fronting of the vowels of GOOSE , GOAT , MOUTH , and STRUT tends to also define Southern accents as well as
4620-492: Is present at over 1,000 meters of altitude. The natural vegetation of Santiago is made up of a thorny woodland of Vachellia caven (also known as Acacia caven and espinillo) and Prosopis chilensis in the west and an association of Vachellia caven and Baccharis paniculata in the east around the Andean foothills. American English American English , sometimes called United States English or U.S. English ,
4760-548: Is the Tupungato mountain at 6,570 m (21,555 ft). Other mountains include Tupungatito , San José , and Maipo . Cerro El Plomo is the highest mountain visible from Santiago's urban area. During recent decades, urban growth has outgrown the boundaries of the city, expanding to the east up the slopes of the Andean Precordillera . In areas such as La Dehesa, Lo Curro, and El Arrayan, urban development
4900-430: Is the common language at home, in public, and in government. Mapuche language Mapuche ( / m ə ˈ p uː tʃ i / mə- POO -che , Mapuche and Spanish: [maˈputʃe] ; from mapu 'land' and che 'people', meaning 'the people of the land') or Mapudungun (from mapu 'land' and dungun 'speak, speech', meaning 'the speech of the land'; also spelled Mapuzugun and Mapudungu )
5040-640: Is the set of varieties of the English language native to the United States. English is the most widely spoken language in the United States ; the de facto common language used in government, education, and commerce; and an official language in 32 of the 50 U.S. states . Since the late 20th century, American English has become the most influential form of English worldwide. Varieties of American English include many patterns of pronunciation, vocabulary, grammar and particularly spelling that are unified nationwide but distinct from other English dialects around
5180-469: Is the variable fronting of /ɑ/ before /r/ , for example, appearing four times in the stereotypical Boston shibboleth Park the car in Harvard Yard . Several other phenomena serve to distinguish regional U.S. accents. Boston , Pittsburgh , Upper Midwestern , and Western U.S. accents have fully completed a merger of the LOT vowel with the THOUGHT vowel ( /ɑ/ and /ɔ/ , respectively):
5320-474: The Apostle James , the patron saint of Spain. The city was established near Huelén, which Valdivia renamed Santa Lucía. He assigned the city's layout to master builder Pedro de Gamboa , who designed a grid plan . At its center, Gamboa placed a Plaza Mayor , which became the town's central hub. Surrounding the plaza, plots were designated for the cathedral , the jail, and the governor's house . The city
5460-525: The Arauco War . Santiago was left vulnerable, and a coalition of Mapuche and Picunche tribes led by chief Michimalonco destroyed the city on 11 September 1541, despite the efforts of a Spanish garrison of 55 soldiers defending the fort. The defense was led by Spanish conquistadora Inés de Suárez . When she realized they were being overpowered, she ordered the execution of all indigenous prisoners, displaying their heads on pikes and throwing some towards
5600-618: The Army of the Andes emerged victorious at the Battle of Chacabuco and restored the patriot government in Santiago. However, independence was still uncertain. The Spanish army achieved further victories in 1818 and advanced toward Santiago, but their progress was finally halted at the Battle of Maipú on April 5, 1818, on the Maipo River plains. With the end of the war, Bernardo O'Higgins
5740-592: The Edificio Diego Portales was constructed in 1972. In 1967, the new Pudahuel International Airport was opened, and after years of discussion, construction of the Santiago Metro began in 1969. The first phase of the Metro, which ran beneath the western section of Alameda, was opened in 1975 and soon became one of the most prestigious buildings in the city. Over the following years, the Metro continued to expand, with two perpendicular lines in place by
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5880-482: The English-only movement , have adopted legislation granting official or co-official status to English. Typically only "English" is specified, not a particular variety like American English. (From 1923 to 1969, the state of Illinois recognized its official language as "American", meaning American English.) Puerto Rico is the largest example of a United States territory in which another language – Spanish –
6020-622: The Mid-Atlantic states (including a New York accent as well as a unique Philadelphia–Baltimore accent ), and the South . As of the 20th century, the middle and eastern Great Lakes area , Chicago being the largest city with these speakers, also ushered in certain unique features, including the fronting of the LOT /ɑ/ vowel in the mouth toward [a] and tensing of the TRAP /æ/ vowel wholesale to [eə] . These sound changes have triggered
6160-499: The National Stadium emerged in 1938. In the following decades, Santiago continued to grow at an unprecedented rate. In 1940, the city had a population of 952,075 residents, which increased to 1,350,409 by 1952, and reached 1,907,378 in the 1960 census. This growth was reflected in the urbanization of rural areas on the outskirts of the city, where middle and lower-class families with stable housing were established. In 1930,
6300-551: The Native American languages . Examples of such names are opossum , raccoon , squash , moose (from Algonquian ), wigwam , and moccasin . American English speakers have integrated traditionally non-English terms and expressions into the mainstream cultural lexicon; for instance, en masse , from French ; cookie , from Dutch ; kindergarten from German , and rodeo from Spanish . Landscape features are often loanwords from French or Spanish, and
6440-639: The Picunche people (as they were known to Chileans) or the Promaucae (as referred to by the Incas) were under Inca rule from the late 15th century to the early 16th century. The Incas established a settlement of mitimas in the valley, located in the center of present-day Santiago, with fortifications such as Huaca de Chena and the El Plomo hill sanctuary. According to Chilean historian Armando de Ramón ,
6580-407: The Picunche people who lived in the area. Valdivia later called a meeting with the local chiefs, during which he explained his plan to establish a city on behalf of Charles IV of Spain . The city would serve as the capital of his governorship of Nueva Extremadura . On 12 February 1541, Valdivia officially founded the city of Santiago del Nuevo Extremo ( Santiago of New Extremadura ) in honor of
6720-887: The Teatro Municipal opera house and the Club Hípico de Santiago . In addition, the 1875 International Exposition was held in the Quinta Normal grounds. Santiago emerged as the central hub of the national railway system. On 14 September 1857, the first railway arrived in the city and terminated at the Santiago Estación Central railway station , which was under construction at the time and officially opened in 1884. During this period, rail lines connected Santiago to Valparaíso and regions in northern and southern Chile. The streets of Santiago were also paved, and by 1875, there were 1,107 railway cars in
6860-589: The Zona Austral and also with Chonan languages of Patagonia , some of which are now extinct. However, according to Key, there is a closer relation still between Mapuche and the Pano-Tacanan languages from Bolivia and Perú, a connection also made by Loos in 1973. Key also argued that there is a link to two Bolivian language isolates: the Mosetén and Yuracaré languages . In 1987, Joseph Greenberg ,
7000-409: The church of San Francisco in 1572. Both of these structures were primarily made of adobe and stone. In addition to the construction of significant buildings, the city began to thrive as the surrounding areas welcomed tens of thousands of livestock. During the 16th and 17th centuries, the growth of the city was hindered by a series of disasters including an earthquake , a smallpox epidemic in 1575,
7140-722: The francophile tastes of the 19th century Victorian era Britain (for example they preferred programme for program , manoeuvre for maneuver , cheque for check , etc.). AmE almost always uses -ize in words like realize . BrE prefers -ise , but also uses -ize on occasion (see: Oxford spelling ). There are a few differences in punctuation rules. British English is more tolerant of run-on sentences , called " comma splices " in American English, and American English prefers that periods and commas be placed inside closing quotation marks even in cases in which British rules would place them outside. American English also favors
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#17327720173237280-418: The ministries and other public services, as well as the start of the construction of medium-rise buildings. Meanwhile, the traditional residents of the center began to migrate to more rural areas like Providencia and Ñuñoa, which attracted the oligarchy and European immigrant professionals, and San Miguel for middle-class families. Additionally, in the periphery, villas were built by various organizations of
7420-546: The 17th century. However the indigenous language that has influenced Chilean Spanish the most is Quechua rather than Mapuche. In colonial times, many Spanish and Mestizos spoke the Mapuche language. For example, in the 17th century, many soldiers at the Valdivian Fort System had some command of Mapuche. During the 17th and 18th centuries, most of Chiloé Archipelago 's population was bilingual , and according to John Byron , many Spaniards preferred to use
7560-764: The 18th century; apartment , shanty in the 19th century; project, condominium , townhouse , mobile home in the 20th century; and parts thereof ( driveway , breezeway, backyard ) . Industry and material innovations from the 19th century onwards provide distinctive new words, phrases, and idioms through railroading (see further at rail terminology ) and transportation terminology, ranging from types of roads ( dirt roads , freeways ) to infrastructure ( parking lot , overpass , rest area ), to automotive terminology often now standard in English internationally. Already existing English words—such as store , shop , lumber —underwent shifts in meaning; others remained in
7700-495: The 1980s when the government embraced a neoliberal economic model. In 1979, the master plan was revised, expanding the urban area to over 62,000 hectares for real estate development. This led to urban sprawl , particularly in La Florida , causing the city to reach 40,619 hectares in size in the early 1990s. According to the 1992 census, Santiago became the country's most populous municipality, with 328,881 residents. Tragically,
7840-490: The 20th century. The use of English in the United States is a result of British colonization of the Americas . The first wave of English-speaking settlers arrived in North America during the early 17th century, followed by further migrations in the 18th and 19th centuries. During the 17th and 18th centuries, dialects from many different regions of England and the British Isles existed in every American colony, allowing
7980-774: The Andean language family, within the Meridional subgroup which also includes the Kawésgar language, the Puelche language , the Tehuelche language and the Yagán language. To Greenberg, Araucano isn't an individual language, but rather a subgroup composed of four languages: Araucano, Mapuche, Moluche, and Pehuenche. However, the comparative methods employed by Greenberg are controversial. In 1994, Viegas Barros directly contradicted Greenberg's hypothesis and part of Key's, arguing that
8120-627: The British form is a back-formation , such as AmE burglarize and BrE burgle (from burglar ). However, while individuals usually use one or the other, both forms will be widely understood and mostly used alongside each other within the two systems. While written American English is largely standardized across the country and spoken American English dialects are highly mutually intelligible, there are still several recognizable regional and ethnic accents and lexical distinctions. The regional sounds of present-day American English are reportedly engaged in
8260-413: The East Coast (perhaps in imitation of 19th-century London speech), even the East Coast has gradually begun to restore rhoticity, due to it becoming nationally prestigious in the 20th century. The pronunciation of ⟨r⟩ is a postalveolar approximant [ ɹ̠ ] or retroflex approximant [ ɻ ] , but a unique "bunched tongue" variant of the approximant r sound
8400-571: The Inland North. Rather than one particular accent, General American is best defined as an umbrella covering an American accent that does not incorporate features associated with some particular region, ethnicity, or socioeconomic group. Typical General American features include rhoticity , the father–bother merger , Mary–marry–merry merger , pre-nasal "short a " tensing , and other particular vowel sounds . General American features are embraced most by Americans who are highly educated or in
8540-597: The Mapocho River floods in 1590, 1608, and 1618, and a devastating earthquake on 13 May 1647 which resulted in the death of over 600 people and affected over 5,000 others. Despite these setbacks, the capital of the Captaincy General of Chile continued to grow, with all the power of the country being centered on the Plaza de Armas in Santiago. In 1767, the corregidor Luis Manuel de Zañartu launched one of
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#17327720173238680-858: The Mapuche territory today. Around Temuco , Freire and Gorbea the sub-group VI is spoken. Group VII is spoken in Valdivia Province plus Pucón and Curarrehue . The last "dialect" sub-group is VIII which is the Huilliche language spoken from Lago Ranco and Río Bueno to the south and is not mutually intelligible with the other dialects. These can be grouped in four dialect groups: north, central, south-central and south. These are further divided into eight sub-groups: I and II (northern), III–IV (central), V-VII (south-central) and VIII (southern). The sub-groups III-VII are more closely related to each other than they are to I-II and VIII. Croese finds these relationships as consistent, but not proof, with
8820-703: The Normal School of Preceptors, the School of Arts and Crafts, and the Quinta Normal . The latter comprised the Museum of Fine Arts (now the Museum of Science and Technology) and the National Museum of Natural History . These institutions were established primarily for educational purposes, but also served as examples of public planning during that period. In 1851, the first telegraph system connecting
8960-480: The Republic, and it is also part of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, governed by a popularly elected governor . When the term Santiago is used without further clarification, it typically refers to Gran Santiago (Greater Santiago), the metropolitan area characterized by continuous urban development. This area includes the commune of Santiago and over 40 other communes, encompassing much of Santiago Province and parts of neighboring provinces . The definition of
9100-415: The Santiago basin around the 10th millennium BC. These groups were primarily nomadic hunter-gatherers, traveling from the coast to the interior to hunt guanacos during the Andean snowmelt. By around 800 AD, the first permanent settlers established agricultural communities along the Mapocho River , where they cultivated crops such as maize , potatoes , and beans , and domesticated camelids. The villages of
9240-449: The South), sneakers for athletic shoes (but often tennis shoes outside the Northeast), and shopping cart for a cart used for carrying supermarket goods. American English and British English (BrE) often differ at the levels of phonology, phonetics, vocabulary, and, to a much lesser extent, grammar and orthography. The first large American dictionary, An American Dictionary of the English Language , known as Webster's Dictionary ,
9380-437: The Spanish in the 1530s and 1540s. The discovery of many Chono toponyms in Chiloé Archipelago , where Huilliche , a language closely related to Mapudungun, has been dominant, suggest that Mapudungun displaced Chono there prior to the arrival of the Spanish in the mid-16th century. A theory postulated by chronicler José Pérez García holds that the Cuncos settled in Chiloé Island in Pre-Hispanic times as consequence of
9520-528: The U.S. Several verbs ending in -ize are of U.S. origin; for example, fetishize, prioritize, burglarize, accessorize, weatherize , etc.; and so are some back-formations (locate, fine-tune, curate, donate, emote, upholster and enthuse). Among syntactic constructions that arose are outside of, headed for, meet up with, back of, etc. Americanisms formed by alteration of some existing words include notably pesky, phony, rambunctious, buddy, sundae , skeeter, sashay and kitty-corner. Adjectives that arose in
9660-505: The U.S. are for instance foothill , landslide (in all senses), backdrop , teenager , brainstorm , bandwagon , hitchhike , smalltime, and a huge number of others. Other compound words have been founded based on industrialization and the wave of the automobile: five-passenger car, four-door sedan, two-door sedan, and station-wagon (called an estate car in British English). Some are euphemistic ( human resources , affirmative action , correctional facility ). Many compound nouns have
9800-551: The U.S. are, for example, lengthy, bossy, cute and cutesy, punk (in all senses), sticky (of the weather), through (as in "finished"), and many colloquial forms such as peppy or wacky . A number of words and meanings that originated in Middle English or Early Modern English and that have been in everyday use in the United States have since disappeared in most varieties of British English; some of these have cognates in Lowland Scots . Terms such as fall ("autumn"), faucet ("tap"), diaper ("nappy"; itself unused in
9940-530: The U.S. while changing in Britain. Science, urbanization, and democracy have been important factors in bringing about changes in the written and spoken language of the United States. From the world of business and finance came new terms ( merger , downsize , bottom line ), from sports and gambling terminology came, specific jargon aside, common everyday American idioms, including many idioms related to baseball . The names of some American inventions remained largely confined to North America ( elevator [except in
10080-427: The U.S.), candy ("sweets"), skillet , eyeglasses , and obligate are often regarded as Americanisms. Fall for example came to denote the season in 16th century England, a contraction of Middle English expressions like "fall of the leaf" and "fall of the year." Gotten ( past participle of get ) is often considered to be largely an Americanism. Other words and meanings were brought back to Britain from
10220-597: The U.S., especially in the second half of the 20th century; these include hire ("to employ"), I guess (famously criticized by H. W. Fowler ), baggage , hit (a place), and the adverbs overly and presently ("currently"). Some of these, for example, monkey wrench and wastebasket , originated in 19th century Britain. The adjectives mad meaning "angry", smart meaning "intelligent", and sick meaning "ill" are also more frequent in American (and Irish) English than British English. Linguist Bert Vaux created
10360-538: The United States and the United Kingdom suggest that, while spoken American English deviated away from period British English in many ways, it is conservative in a few other ways, preserving certain features 21st-century British English has since lost. Full rhoticity (or "R-fulness") is typical of American accents, pronouncing the phoneme /r/ (corresponding to the letter ⟨r⟩ ) in all environments, including in syllable-final position or before
10500-605: The West and Midwest, and New York Latino English , spoken in the New York metropolitan area . Additionally, ethnic varieties such as Yeshiva English and " Yinglish " are spoken by some American Orthodox Jews , Cajun Vernacular English by some Cajuns in southern Louisiana , and Pennsylvania Dutch English by some Pennsylvania Dutch people. American Indian Englishes have been documented among diverse Indian tribes. The island state of Hawaii , though primarily English-speaking,
10640-555: The accents spoken in the " Midland ": a vast band of the country that constitutes an intermediate dialect region between the traditional North and South. Western U.S. accents mostly fall under the General American spectrum. Below, ten major American English accents are defined by their particular combinations of certain vowel sounds: In 2010, William Labov noted that Great Lakes, Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, and West Coast accents have undergone "vigorous new sound changes" since
10780-505: The aeronautical sense ], gasoline ) as did certain automotive terms ( truck , trunk ). New foreign loanwords came with 19th and early 20th century European immigration to the U.S.; notably, from Yiddish ( chutzpah , schmooze, bupkis, glitch ) and German ( hamburger , wiener ). A large number of English colloquialisms from various periods are American in origin; some have lost their American flavor (from OK and cool to nerd and 24/7 ), while others have not ( have
10920-576: The area served as a base for failed Inca expeditions to the south and was a junction along the Inca Trail . Pedro de Valdivia , a conquistador from Extremadura sent by Francisco Pizarro from Peru , arrived in the Mapocho valley on 13 December 1540, after a long journey from Cusco . Valdivia and his party camped by the river on the slopes of the Tupahue hill and gradually began interacting with
11060-466: The aristocracy lost much of its power, and the middle class, composed of merchants, bureaucrats, and professionals, acquired the role of setting national policy. In this context, Santiago began to develop a substantial middle- and lower-class population, while the upper classes sought refuge in the districts of the capital. Thus, the old moneyed class, who previously frequented Cousiño and Alameda Park, lost their hegemony over popular entertainment venues, and
11200-601: The attackers. In response to this brutal act, the indigenous forces dispersed in fear. The city was gradually rebuilt, with the newly established city of Concepción gaining political prominence as the Royal Audiencia of Chile was established there in 1565. However, the ongoing threat of the Arauco War and frequent earthquakes delayed the establishment of the Royal Court in Santiago until 1607, which solidified
11340-644: The beginning of Chile’s path to independence . The city, which became the capital of the newly formed nation, faced various challenges, particularly from military actions in the vicinity. Although institutions like the Instituto Nacional and the National Library were established during the Patria Vieja , they were shut down after the patriots’ defeat at the Battle of Rancagua in 1814. The royal government continued until 1817, when
11480-476: The capital to the Port of Valparaíso was inaugurated. During the "Liberal Republic" and the administration of Mayor Benjamín Vicuña Mackenna , a new phase in the urban development of the capital was initiated. One of the main projects during this period was the remodeling of Cerro Santa Lucía , which had fallen into disrepair despite its central location. In his effort to transform Santiago, Vicuña Mackenna initiated
11620-612: The cathedral's façade, the Palacio de La Moneda , the San Carlos Canal , and the completion of the embankments during the government of Ambrosio O'Higgins . These works were officially opened in 1798. The O'Higgins government also opened the road to Valparaíso in 1791, connecting the capital with the country's main port. On September 18, 1810, the First Government Junta was proclaimed in Santiago, marking
11760-492: The center, lies at 570 m (1,870 ft). Estadio San Carlos de Apoquindo , at the eastern edge of the city, has an elevation of 960 m (3,150 ft). The Santiago Basin is part of the Intermediate Depression and is remarkably flat, interrupted only by a few "island hills;" among them are Cerro Renca , Cerro Blanco , and Cerro Santa Lucía . The basin is approximately 80 kilometers (50 miles) in
11900-561: The central streets of Santiago, further diminishing the role of Valparaíso. The enactment of the Autonomous Municipalities Act empowered municipalities to establish various administrative divisions within the Santiago department, with the goal of enhancing local governance. In 1891, the municipalities of Maipú , Ñuñoa , Renca , Lampa , and Colina were created, followed by Providencia and Barrancas in 1897, and Las Condes in 1901. The La Victoria departmento
12040-564: The city are surrounded by vineyards, and Santiago is within an hour's drive of both the mountains and the Pacific Ocean. Santiago is the political and financial center of Chile and hosts the regional headquarters of many multinational corporations and organizations . The Chilean government's executive and judiciary branches are based in Santiago, while the Congress mostly meets in nearby Valparaíso . In Chile, several entities share
12180-412: The city created a crisis in the city center. To reinvigorate the area, the government transformed the main shopping streets into pedestrian walkways, as it did in the 1970s, and offered tax benefits for the construction of residential buildings, which attracted young adults. The city faced a series of problems due to disorganized growth. During the winter months, air pollution reached critical levels and
12320-472: The city's status as the capital. During the early years of the city, the Spanish suffered from severe shortages of food and other supplies. The Picunches had adopted a strategy of halting cultivation and retreating to more remote locations, which isolated the Spanish and forced them to resort to eating whatever they could find. The shortage of clothing meant that some Spanish had to dress with hides from dogs, cats, sea lions , and foxes . Although Santiago
12460-498: The city, while 45,000 people used trams daily. As the new century began, Santiago underwent various changes due to the rapid growth of industry. Valparaíso, which had previously been the economic center of the country, gradually lost its prominence to the capital. By 1895, 75% of the national manufacturing industry was located in Santiago, while only 28% was in Valparaíso. By 1910, major banks and shops had established themselves in
12600-623: The coast. The mountain range immediately bordering the city on the east is known as the Sierra de Ramón , which was formed due to tectonic activity of the San Ramón Fault . This range reaches 3296 meters at Cerro de Ramón . The Sierra de Ramón represents the " Precordillera " of the Andes. 20 km (12 mi) further east is the even larger Cordillera of the Andes , which has mountains and volcanoes that exceed 6,000 m (19,690 ft) and on which some glaciers are present. The tallest
12740-515: The community, participation in Chilean society, and the individual's choice towards the traditional or modern/urban way of life. There is no consensus among experts regarding the relation between Mapuche and other indigenous languages of South America and it is classified as a language isolate , or more conservatively, an unclassified language while researchers await more definitive evidence linking it to other languages. The origin of Mapuche
12880-575: The construction of new avenues, such as the Américo Vespucio Avenue and Panamericana Route 5 , as well as the expansion of 'industrial belts'. The 1962 World Cup provided a new impetus for city improvement efforts, and in 1966, the Santiago Metropolitan Park was established on Cerro San Cristóbal. The Ministry of Housing and Urbanism ( MINVU ) also began to eradicate shantytowns and build new homes. Finally,
13020-523: The construction of the Camino de Cintura , a road surrounding the entire city. The redevelopment of Alameda Avenue also took place during this time, turning it into the city's main road. Also during this era, O'Higgins Park was established with the help of European landscapers in 1873. The public park, known for its large gardens, lakes, and carriage trails, became a landmark in Santiago. Other notable structures were also opened during this period, including
13160-769: The construction of the Ciudad Parque Bicentenario, which marked the bicentenary of the Republic. The trend of constructing tall buildings continued in the eastern sector, which was highlighted by the opening of the Titanium La Portada and Gran Torre Santiago skyscrapers in the Costanera Center complex. On 27 February 2010, a powerful earthquake hit the capital city of Santiago, causing damage to some older buildings and rendering some modern structures uninhabitable. This sparked
13300-406: The country), though the vowel-consonant cluster found in "bird", "work", "hurt", "learn", etc. usually retains its r pronunciation, even in these non-rhotic American accents. Non-rhoticity among such speakers is presumed to have arisen from their upper classes' close historical contact with England, imitating London's r -dropping, a feature that has continued to gain prestige throughout England from
13440-614: The diverse regional dialects of British English) became common after the mid-18th century, while at the same time speakers' identification with this new variety increased. Since the 18th century, American English has developed into some new varieties, including regional dialects that retain minor influences from waves of immigrant speakers of diverse languages, primarily European languages. Some racial and regional variation in American English reflects these groups' geographic settlement, their de jure or de facto segregation, and patterns in their resettlement. This can be seen, for example, in
13580-742: The double quotation mark ("like this") over the single ('as here'). Vocabulary differences vary by region. For example, autumn is used more commonly in the United Kingdom, whereas fall is more common in American English. Some other differences include: aerial (United Kingdom) vs. antenna, biscuit (United Kingdom) vs. cookie/cracker, car park (United Kingdom) vs. parking lot, caravan (United Kingdom) vs. trailer, city centre (United Kingdom) vs. downtown, flat (United Kingdom) vs. apartment, fringe (United Kingdom) vs. bangs, and holiday (United Kingdom) vs. vacation. AmE sometimes favors words that are morphologically more complex, whereas BrE uses clipped forms, such as AmE transportation and BrE transport or where
13720-472: The eastern sector. This development extended to the Barrio Alto , which became an attractive location for the construction of high-rise buildings. Major companies and financial corporations established themselves in the area, giving rise to a thriving modern business center commonly known as Sanhattan . The departure of these companies to Barrio Alto and the construction of shopping centers all around
13860-516: The end of 1978. Building telecommunications infrastructure was also an important development of this period, as reflected in the construction of the Torre Entel , which, since its construction in 1975, has become one of the symbols of the capital and remained the tallest structure in the country for two decades. After the military coup of 1973 and the establishment of the military regime , significant changes in urban planning did not occur until
14000-460: The existence of Mapuche-Aymara-Quechua cognates . The following Pre-Incan cognates have been identified by Moulian et al. : sun ( Mapudungun : antü , Quechua : inti ), moon ( Mapudungun : küllen , Quechua : killa ), warlock ( Mapudungun : kalku , Quechua : kawchu ), salt ( Mapudungun : chadi , Quechua : cachi ) and mother ( Mapudungun : ñuque , Quechua : ñuñu ). This areal linguistic influence may have arrived with
14140-517: The following two centuries) when this ethnic group eventually made up one-seventh of the colonial population. Scotch-Irish settlers spread from Delaware and Pennsylvania throughout the larger Mid-Atlantic region, the inland regions of both the South and North, and throughout the West: American dialect areas that were all uninfluenced by upper-class non-rhoticity and that consequently have remained consistently rhotic. While non-rhoticity spread on
14280-592: The foothills of Las Condes and the La Reina sector. The regulation of growth in Santiago only began in the 1960s with the creation of various development plans for Greater Santiago, a concept that reflected the city's new reality as a much larger urban center. In 1958, the Intercommunal Plan of Santiago was released, which proposed a limit of 38,600 urban and semi-urban hectares for a maximum population of 3,260,000 residents. The plan also included plans for
14420-944: The hospital , BrE to hospital ; contrast, however, AmE actress Elizabeth Taylor , BrE the actress Elizabeth Taylor ). Often, these differences are a matter of relative preferences rather than absolute rules; and most are not stable since the two varieties are constantly influencing each other, and American English is not a standardized set of dialects. Differences in orthography are also minor. The main differences are that American English usually uses spellings such as flavor for British flavour , fiber for fibre , defense for defence , analyze for analyse , license for licence , catalog for catalogue and traveling for travelling . Noah Webster popularized such spellings in America, but he did not invent most of them. Rather, "he chose already existing options on such grounds as simplicity, analogy or etymology." Other differences are due to
14560-674: The influence of 18th-century Protestant Ulster Scots immigrants (known in the U.S. as the Scotch-Irish ) in Appalachia developing Appalachian English and the 20th-century Great Migration bringing African-American Vernacular English to the Great Lakes urban centers. Any phonologically unmarked North American accent falls under an umbrella known as General American. This section mostly refers to such General American features. Studies on historical usage of English in both
14700-438: The late 18th century onwards, but which has conversely lost prestige in the U.S. since at least the early 20th century. Non-rhoticity makes a word like car sound like cah or source like sauce . New York City and Southern accents are the most prominent regional accents of the country, as well as the most stigmatized and socially disfavored. Southern speech, strongest in southern Appalachia and certain areas of Texas,
14840-528: The latter derived from the Galician evolution of Vulgar Latin Sanctu Iacobu . Allegedly, there was no indigenous name for the area where Santiago is located, but the Mapuche language uses the adapted name Santiaw . Residents of the city and region are referred to as santiaguinos (for males) and santiaguinas (for females). Archaeological evidence suggests that the first human groups arrived in
14980-531: The local Huilliche language because they considered it "more beautiful". Around the same time, Governor Narciso de Santa María complained that Spanish settlers in the islands could not speak Spanish properly, but could speak Veliche, and that this second language was more used. Mapudungun was once the main language spoken in central Chile. The sociolinguistic situation of the Mapuche has changed rapidly. Now, nearly all of Mapuche people are bilingual or monolingual in Spanish. The degree of bilingualism depends on
15120-540: The metropolitan area has evolved over time as the city has expanded, incorporating smaller cities and rural areas. The name Santiago was chosen by the Spanish conqueror Pedro de Valdivia when he founded the city in 1541 as "Santiago del Nuevo Extremo," in reference to his home region of Extremadura and as a tribute to James the Great , the patron saint of Spain . The saint's name appears in various forms in Spanish, such as Diego , Jaime , Jacobo , or Santiago , with
15260-427: The mid-nineteenth century onwards, so they "are now more different from each other than they were 50 or 100 years ago", while other accents, like of New York City and Boston, have remained stable in that same time-frame. However, a General American sound system also has some debated degree of influence nationwide, for example, gradually beginning to oust the regional accent in urban areas of the South and at least some in
15400-617: The most formal contexts, and regional accents with the most General American native features include North Midland, Western New England, and Western accents. Although no longer region-specific, African-American Vernacular English , which remains the native variety of most working- and middle-class African Americans , has a close relationship to Southern dialects and has greatly influenced everyday speech of many Americans, including hip hop culture . Hispanic and Latino Americans have also developed native-speaker varieties of English. The best-studied Latino Englishes are Chicano English , spoken in
15540-574: The most significant architectural projects of the colonial period, the Calicanto Bridge, connecting the city to La Chimba on the north side of the Mapocho River. He also began constructing embankments to prevent river overflows. Although the bridge was completed, its piers were frequently damaged by the river. In 1780, Governor Agustín de Jáuregui hired the Italian architect Joaquín Toesca , who designed several important buildings, including
15680-520: The name Santiago , which can often lead to confusion. The commune of Santiago , also referred to as Santiago Centro , is an administrative division encompassing the area occupied by the city during colonial times. It is governed by the Municipality of Santiago and led by a mayor. This commune is part of Santiago Province , which is headed by a provincial delegate appointed by the President of
15820-546: The network returned to full normal service. The city lies in the center of the Santiago Basin , a large bowl-shaped valley consisting of broad and fertile lands surrounded by mountains. The city has a varying elevation, gradually increasing from 400 m (1,312 ft) in the western areas to more than 700 m (2,297 ft) in the eastern areas. Santiago's international airport , in the west, lies at an altitude of 460 m (1,509 ft). Plaza Baquedano , near
15960-639: The northern coast of Perú , and Uru-Chipaya ( Uruquilla and Chipaya ) languages, which are spoken by those who currently inhabit the islands of Lake Titicaca and peoples living in Oruro Department in Bolivia , respectively. This hypothesis was later rejected by Campbell in the same year. The research carried out by Mary R. Key in 1978 considered Mapuche to be related to other languages of Chile : specifically Kawésgar language and Yagán language which were both spoken by nomadic canoer communities from
16100-402: The past forms of a few verbs (for example, AmE/BrE: learned / learnt , burned / burnt , snuck/sneaked , dove/dived ) although the purportedly "British" forms can occasionally be seen in American English writing as well; different prepositions and adverbs in certain contexts (for example, AmE in school, BrE at school ); and whether or not a definite article is used, in very few cases (AmE to
16240-412: The population of Santiago to be 507,296 inhabitants, equivalent to 13.6% of the total population of Chile. This represented a growth of 52.5% from the 1907 census, an annual increase of 3.3%, which was almost three times the national average. This growth was mainly due to an influx of farmers from the southern regions who came to work in the factories and railroads that were being built. However, this growth
16380-418: The reason why there is aa lack of yeísmo among some Spanish speakers. The language has also influenced the Spanish lexicon within the areas in which it is spoken and has also incorporated loanwords from both Spanish and Quechua . Depending on the alphabet, the sound /tʃ/ is spelled ⟨ch⟩ or ⟨c⟩ , and /ŋ/ as ⟨g⟩ or ⟨ng⟩ . The language
16520-437: The status of an official language by the local government of Galvarino , one of the many Communes of Chile . It is not used as a language of instruction in either country's educational system despite the Chilean government's commitment to provide full access to education in Mapuche areas in southern Chile. There is an ongoing political debate over which alphabet to use as the standard alphabet of written Mapudungun. In 1982, it
16660-426: The streets. The harsh living conditions resulted in widespread diseases like tuberculosis, and took a toll on the homeless population. At the same time, unemployment rates and living costs skyrocketed, while the salaries of the people in Santiago fell. The situation would change several years later with a new industrial boom fostered by CORFO and the expansion of the state apparatus from the late 1930s. At this time,
16800-639: The theory of origin of the Mapuche proposed by Ricardo E. Latcham . The Mapudungun spoken in the Argentinian provinces of Neuquen and Río Negro is similar to that of the central dialect group in Chile, while the Ranquel (Rankülche) variety spoken in the Argentinian province of La Pampa is closer to the northern dialect group. Mapuche is a polysynthetic language with noun incorporation and root composition. Broadly speaking this means that words are formed by morpheme agglutination of lexical elements to
16940-488: The time. Modernity also spread in the city, with the introduction of the first theaters, the expansion of the telephone network, and the opening of Los Cerrillos Airport in 1928, among other advancements. The perception that the early 20th century was a time of economic prosperity due to technological advancements was in stark contrast to the living conditions of lower social classes. The previous decades of growth resulted in an unprecedented population boom starting in 1929, but
17080-431: The total length of the metropolitan railway to 105 km (65 mi). In the early 1990s, the bus system also underwent a major reform. In 2007, the master plan known as Transantiago was established, although it has faced various challenges since its implementation. Entering the 21st century, rapid development continued in Santiago. The Civic District was revitalized with the creation of the Plaza de la Ciudadanía and
17220-570: The traditional standard accent of (southern) England, Received Pronunciation (RP), has evolved a trap–bath split . Moreover, American accents preserve /h/ at the start of syllables, while perhaps a majority of the regional dialects of England participate in /h/ dropping , particularly in informal contexts. However, General American is also innovative in a number of its own ways: The process of coining new lexical items started as soon as English-speaking British-American colonists began borrowing names for unfamiliar flora, fauna, and topography from
17360-458: The two languages that form that Araucana family along with Huilliche. However, most current linguists maintain a more conservative stance, classifying Mapuche as a language that remains separated from other indigenous languages of South America while its differences and similarities to them are being studied. I II III IV V VI VII VIII Linguist Robert A. Croese divides Mapudungun into eight dialectal sub-groups (I-VIII). Sub-group I
17500-417: The urban area covered 6,500 hectares, which increased to 20,900 in 1960 and to 38,296 in 1980. Although growth was mainly concentrated in communities such as Barrancas to the west, Conchalí to the north, and La Cisterna and La Granja to the south, the center of the city lost population, leaving more space for commercial, banking, and government development. The upper class, on the other hand, began to settle in
17640-417: The verb-and-preposition combination: stopover, lineup, tryout, spin-off, shootout , holdup, hideout, comeback, makeover , and many more. Some prepositional and phrasal verbs are in fact of American origin ( win out, hold up, back up/off/down/out, face up to and many others). Noun endings such as -ee (retiree), -ery (bakery), -ster (gangster) and -cian (beautician) are also particularly productive in
17780-775: The word corn , used in England to refer to wheat (or any cereal), came to denote the maize plant, the most important crop in the U.S. Most Mexican Spanish contributions came after the War of 1812 , with the opening of the West, like ranch (now a common house style ). Due to Mexican culinary influence, many Spanish words are incorporated in general use when talking about certain popular dishes: cilantro (instead of coriander), queso, tacos, quesadillas, enchiladas, tostadas, fajitas, burritos, and guacamole. These words usually lack an English equivalent and are found in popular restaurants. New forms of dwelling created new terms ( lot , waterfront) and types of homes like log cabin , adobe in
17920-609: The world. Any American or Canadian accent perceived as lacking noticeably local, ethnic, or cultural markers is known in linguistics as General American ; it covers a fairly uniform accent continuum native to certain regions of the U.S. but especially associated with broadcast mass media and highly educated speech. However, historical and present linguistic evidence does not support the notion of there being one single mainstream American accent . The sound of American English continues to evolve, with some local accents disappearing, but several larger regional accents having emerged in
18060-527: Was accepted as Supreme Director and, like his father, undertook several important projects for the city. During the Patria Nueva era, previously closed institutions were reopened. The General Cemetery was inaugurated, work on the San Carlos Canal was completed, and the drying riverbed in the south arm of the Mapocho River, known as La Cañada, which had been used as a landfill for some time,
18200-579: Was also built in the north of the city: the Mapocho Station . The Parque Forestal was established on the southern side of the Mapocho river, and new buildings such as the Museum of Fine Arts , the Barros Arana public boarding school , and the National Library were opened. In addition, a sewer system was installed, serving approximately 85% of the city's population. The 1920 census estimated
18340-402: Was also divided, leading to the creation of Lo Cañas in 1891, which was then further split into La Granja and Puente Alto in 1892, followed by La Florida in 1899, and La Cisterna in 1925. The San Cristobal Hill underwent a prolonged process of development during this period. In 1903, an astronomical observatory was established on the hill, and the following year, construction began on
18480-453: Was concentrated in the suburbs and not in the city center. During this time, the downtown district consolidated as a commercial, financial, and administrative center, with the establishment of various shops and businesses around Ahumada Street and a Civic District in the vicinity of the Palace of La Moneda. The latter project involved the construction of modernist buildings for the offices of
18620-472: Was divided into eight blocks from north to south and ten blocks from east to west, between the Mapocho River and the Cañada with each quarter-block, or solar , granted to settlers. The colonial architecture following the grid plan consisted of one or two-story houses, adobe walls, tile roofs, and rooms around interior corridors and patios . Valdivia left for the south with his troops months later, initiating
18760-532: Was due to suburban expansion to the south and west of the capital, as well as the growth of the bustling district of La Chimba, which resulted from the division of old properties in the area. This new peripheral development marked the end of the previous checkerboard structure that had dominated the city center. During the Republican era, several institutions were founded, including the University of Chile ,
18900-541: Was estimated that there were 202,000 Mapuche speakers in Chile, including those that speak the Pehuenche and Huilliche dialects, and another 100,000 speakers in Argentina as of the year 2000. However, a 2002 study suggests that only 16% of those who identify as Mapuche speak the language (active speakers) and 18% can only understand it ( passive speakers ). These figures suggest that the total number of active speakers
19040-399: Was facing the threat of permanent destruction early on, due to attacks from indigenous peoples, earthquakes, and floods, the city began to grow rapidly. Out of the 126 blocks designed by Pedro de Gamboa in 1558, 40 were occupied. In 1580, the first major buildings in the city started to be erected, marked by the placement of the foundation stone of the first Cathedral in 1561 and the building of
19180-428: Was largely driven by the construction of housing projects for middle-class families. Meanwhile, high-income families relocated to the foothills, now commonly referred to as Barrio Alto , boosting the population of Las Condes and giving rise to young communes, including Lo Barnechea and Vitacura , both established in 1981 and 1991, respectively. The area around Providencia Avenue became an important commercial hub in
19320-495: Was met with tragedy as the Great Depression hit. The collapse of the nitrate industry in the north left 60,000 people unemployed, compounded by a decline in agricultural exports, resulting in an estimated 300,000 unemployed people nationwide. Desperate for survival, many migrants flocked to Santiago and its thriving industry. However, they often found themselves struggling to find housing, with many being forced to live on
19460-463: Was transformed into an avenue now known as the Alameda de las Delicias . Two earthquakes struck the city in the 19th century: one on November 19, 1822, and another on February 20, 1835. Despite these disasters, the city continued to grow rapidly. In 1820, the population was recorded as 46,000, but by 1854, it had risen to 69,018. By 1865, the census reported 115,337 residents. This significant increase
19600-469: Was written by Noah Webster in 1828, codifying several of these spellings. Differences in grammar are relatively minor, and do not normally affect mutual intelligibility; these include: typically a lack of differentiation between adjectives and adverbs, employing the equivalent adjectives as adverbs he ran quick / he ran quickly ; different use of some auxiliary verbs ; formal (rather than notional) agreement with collective nouns ; different preferences for
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