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102-639: It may also be translated as " Khan of Khans", equivalent to King of Kings . In Bulgarian, the title became known as Khan , while in modern Turkic, the title became Khaan with the g sound becoming almost silent or non-existent; the ğ in modern Turkish Kağan is also silent. After the division of the Mongol Empire , monarchs of the Yuan dynasty and the Northern Yuan held the title of Khagan . Kağan, Hakan and Kaan , Turkish equivalents of

204-652: A nökür was someone who had left his clan or tribe to pledge loyalty to and serve a charismatic warlord; if this derivation were correct, Róurán 柔然 was originally not an ethnonym, but a social term referring to the dynastic founder's origins or the core circle of companions who helped him build his state. However, Golden identifies philological problems: the ethnonym should have been * nöŋör to be cognate to nökür , & possible assimilation of -/k/- to -/n/- in Chinese transcription needs further linguistic proofs. Even if 柔然 somehow transmitted nökür , it more likely denoted

306-708: A "full" khan , too. Compare also the rendition of the name of early Bulgarian ruler Pagan as Καμπαγάνος ( Kampaganos ), likely resulting from a misinterpretation of "Kan Pagan", in Patriarch Nicephorus 's so-called Breviarium . In general, however, the inscriptions as well as other sources designate the supreme ruler of Danube Bulgaria with titles that exist in the language in which they are written – archontes , meaning 'commander or magistrate' in Greek , and knyaz , meaning "duke" or "prince" in Slavic . Among

408-454: A Rouran princess reported being dissatisfied with being second to Emperor Wendi 's principal wife. The first khagan Shelun is said to have concluded a "treaty of peace based on kinship" ( huoqin ) with the rulers of Jin . The royal house of Rouran is also said to have intermarried with the royal house of the Haital ( Hephthalites ) in the 6th century. Since the time of Shelun Khan,

510-810: A common surname. Khan and its female forms occur in many personal names, generally without any nobiliary of political relevance, although it remains a common part of noble names as well. Notably in South Asia it has become a part of many South Asian Muslim names, especially when Pashtun (also known as Afghan ) descent is claimed. It is also used by many Muslim Rajputs of Indian subcontinent who were awarded this surname by Mughals for their bravery. and it's widely used by Baloch and Awan tribes. Rouran Khaganate The Rouran Khaganate ( 柔然 ; Róurán ), also known as Ruanruan or Juan-juan ( 蠕蠕 ; Ruǎnruǎn ) (or variously Jou-jan , Ruruan , Ju-juan , Ruru , Ruirui , Rouru , Rouruan or Tantan ),

612-610: A connection between the Pannonian Avars and the earlier Rouran. However, Savelyev & Jeong 2020 notes that there is still little genetic data on the Rouran themselves, and that their genetic relationship with the Pannonian Avars therefore still remains inconclusive. The received view is that the relationships of the language remain a puzzle and that it may be an isolate. Alexander Vovin (2004, 2010) considered

714-585: A descendant of the ruling clan, died in Hebei , leaving an epitaph reporting his royal descent from the Yujiulü clan . According to Xu (2005), some Rouran remnants fled to the northwest of the Greater Khingan mountain range, and renamed themselves 大檀 Dàtán ( MC : * da -dan ) or 檀檀 Tántán (MC: * dan-dan ) after Tantan , personal name of a historical Rouran Khagan. Tantan were gradually incorporated into

816-468: A few days they will be either taken or destroyed. In 434, the Rouran entered a marriage alliance with Northern Wei . In 443, Northern Wei attacked the Rouran. In 449, the Rouran were defeated in battle by Northern Wei. In 456, Northern Wei attacked the Rouran. In 458, Northern Wei attacked the Rouran. In 460, the Rouran subjugated the Ashina tribe residing around modern Turpan and resettled them in

918-535: A gift from the Chinese, while Khagan Shelun is said to have once declared that the soldiers who fought outstandingly would receive captives. However, "there is nothing in the sources about the enslavement of prisoners of war". There is, however, evidence that the Rouran resettled people in the steppe. Initially the Rouran chiefs, having no letters to make records, "counted approximately the number of warriors by using sheep's droppings ". Later, they learned to make records using notches on wood. A later source claims that

1020-454: A herd of colts and heifers do against tigers or a pack of wolves? As for the Rouran, they graze in the north during the summer; in autumn, they come south and in winter raid our frontiers. We have only to attack them in summer in their pasture lands. At that time their horses are useless: the stallions are busy with the fillies, and the mares with their foals. If we but come upon them there and cut them off from their grazing and their water, within

1122-474: A mostly pillaged but still consistent treasure, Byzantine coins and about a thousand vessels and clay figurines. Among the latter was the figurine of a shaman , standing in a dancing posture and holding a saw-like instrument. This figurine is thought to reflect the young princess' Rouran/nomadic roots. On one occasion, in 540, the Rourans allegedly attacked Western Wei reportedly with a million warriors because

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1224-640: A political turmoil. Dayan Khan (1464–1517/1543) once revived the Emperor's authority and recovered its reputation on the Mongolian Plateau , but with the distribution of his empire among his sons and relatives as fiefs it again caused decentralized rule. The last Khagan of the Chahars , Ligdan Khan , died in 1634 while fighting the Jurchen -led Later Jin dynasty . In contemporary Mongolian language

1326-399: A post and a title to Fushengmou, her then former husband. The Rouran titles included mofu , mohetu (cf. Mongolian batur, baghatur ), mohe rufei (cf. Mongolian baga köbegün ), hexi , sili and sili-mohe , totoufa , totouteng , sijin (cf. Turkic irkin), xielifa (cf. Turkic eltäbär). It is known that in 521 Khagan Anagui was given two bondmaids as

1428-567: A serious threat to empires in the Central Plain and Central Asia . One of the earliest notable examples of such principalities in Europe was Danube Bulgaria (presumably also Old Great Bulgaria ), ruled by a khan or a kan at least from the 7th to the 9th century. The title "khan" is not attested directly in inscriptions and texts referring to Bulgar rulers – the only similar title found so far, Kanasubigi , has been found solely in

1530-544: A slave of the Xianbei . Rouran women were commonly taken as wives or concubines by the Xianbei. After the Xianbei migrated south and settled in Chinese lands during the late 3rd century AD, the Rouran made a name for themselves as fierce warriors. However they remained politically fragmented until 402 AD when Shelun gained support of all the Rouran chieftains and united the Rouran under one banner. Immediately after uniting,

1632-666: A subordinate ruler. In the Seljük Empire , it was the highest noble title, ranking above malik (king) and emir (prince). In the Mongol Empire it signified the ruler of a horde ( ulus ) , while the ruler of all the Mongols was the khagan or great khan. It is a title commonly used to signify the head of a Pashtun tribe or clan. The title subsequently declined in importance. During the Safavid and Qajar dynasty it

1734-794: A sudden internal revolution led by the Göktürks, hence the still vivid memories of empire in the Avar Khagan, a fact paralleled later by the Kara-Khitans who migrated a long distance west after being suddenly dislodged from northern China but still kept their pretensions to empire and defeated the Great Seljuk Empire in the Battle of Qatwan as the Western Liao. The Hephthalite Empire in southern Central Asia would not fall to

1836-418: A vassal state ( fanli ). Following the growth of Rouran and the turning of Wei into a classical Chinese state, they were considered partners of equal rights by Wei ( lindi gangli ). In 424, the Rouran invaded Northern Wei but were repulsed. In 429, Northern Wei launched a major offensive against the Rouran and killed a large number of people. The Chinese are foot soldiers and we are horsemen. What can

1938-529: A very, very eastern profile," says Choongwon Jeong, a co-author and a geneticist at Seoul National University. That genetic data backs up two historical accounts of the Avar's origins. One sixth century Chinese source describes an enigmatic steppe people called the Rouran, one of many horse-riding nomadic groups that swept out of the Mongolian steppes to attack their northern borders. The Rouran's grassland empire

2040-406: A wide circle composing the nomadic aristocracy, including elders, chieftains, military commanders. The grandees could be high or low ranking. According to Kradin, the khagan could confer titles in reward of services rendered and outstanding deeds. He cites as an example of this an event occurred in 518, when Nagai entitled the sorceress Diwai khagatun , taking her as his wife, and gave a compensation,

2142-549: Is a Classical Chinese transcription of the endonym of the confederacy; meanwhile, 蠕蠕 Ruǎnruǎn ~ Rúrú ( Weishu ), which connoted something akin to "wriggling worm" , was used derogatorily in Tuoba-Xianbei sources. Other transcriptions are 蝚蠕 Róurú ~ Róuruǎn ( Jinshu ); 茹茹 Rúrú ( Beiqishu , Zhoushu , Suishu ); 芮芮 Ruìruì ( Nanqishu , Liangshu , Songshu ), 大檀 Dàtán and 檀檀 Tántán ( Songshu ). However, Baumer (2018), while acknowledging that Ruanruan (蠕蠕)

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2244-524: Is of non-Altaic origin, but instead linked to Yeniseian *qεʔ ~ qaʔ "big, great". The origin of qan itself is harder according to Vovin. He says that the origin for the word qan is not found in any reconstructed proto-language and was used widely by Turkic, Mongolic, Chinese and Korean people with variations from kan, qan, han and hwan. A relation exists possibly to the Yeniseian words *qʌ:j or *χʌ:j meaning "ruler". It may be impossible to prove

2346-431: Is rendered as Khan of Khans . It was the title of Chinese Emperor Emperor Taizong of Tang ( Heavenly Khagan , reigned 626 to 649) and Genghis Khan 's successors selected to rule the Mongol Empire starting from 1229. Genghis Khan himself was referred as qa'an (khagan) only posthumously. For instance Möngke Khan (reigned 1251–1259) and Ogedei Khan (reigned 1229–1241) would be "Khagans" but not Chagatai Khan , who

2448-452: The Book of Song there is the story of an educated Rouran "whose knowledge shamed a wise Chinese functionary". There is no record of monuments erected by the Rouran, though there is evidence of the latter requesting doctors, weavers and other artisans to be sent from China. Imitating the Chinese, Anagui Khan introduced the use of officials at court, "surrounded himself with advisers trained in

2550-530: The Altai Mountains . The Rouran also ousted the previous dynasty of Gaochang (the remnants of the Northern Liang ) and installed Kan Bozhou as its king. In 492, Emperor Tuoba Hong sent 70 thousand horsemen against Rouran. The outcome of the expedition does not appear in Chinese sources and is thus unknown. According to Nikolay Kradin , since Chinese sources are silent about the outcome of

2652-751: The Ashina ruling clan of the Göktürks and their dynastic successors among such peoples as the Khazars (cf. the compound military title Khagan Bek ). Minor rulers were rather relegated to the lower title of khan. Both Khagan as such and the Turkish form Hakan, with the specification in Arabic al-Barrayn wa al-Bahrayn (meaning literally "of both lands and both seas"), or rather fully in Ottoman Turkish Hakan ül-Berreyn vel-Bahreyn , were among

2754-491: The British Raj , as an honor akin to the ranks of nobility, often for loyalty to the crown. Khan Sahib was another title of honour. In the major Indian Muslim state of Hyderabad , Khan was the lowest of the aristocratic titles bestowed by the ruling Nizam upon Muslim retainers, ranking under Khan Bahadur , Nawab (homonymous with a high Muslim ruler's title), Jang, Daula , Mulk , Umara , Jah . The equivalent for

2856-604: The Eastern Orthodox faith. The title Khan rose to unprecedented prominence with the Mongol Temüjin 's creation of the Mongol empire , the largest contiguous empire in history, which he ruled as Genghis Khan . Before 1229 the title was used to designate leaders of important tribes as well as tribal confederations (the Mongol Empire considered the largest one), and rulers of non-Mongol countries. Shortly before

2958-688: The Great Khans . The title Khan of Khans was among numerous titles used by the Sultans of the Ottoman empire as well as the rulers of the Golden Horde and its descendant states. The title Khan was also used in the Seljuk Turk dynasties of the near-east to designate a head of multiple tribes, clans or nations, who was below an Atabeg in rank. Jurchen and Manchu rulers also used

3060-567: The Göktürks adopted the title and brought it to the rest of Asia. In the middle of the sixth century the Iranians knew of a "Kagan – King of the Turks". Various Mongolic and Turkic peoples from Central Asia gave the title new prominence after period of the Mongol Empire (1206–1368) in the Old World and later brought the title "khan" into Northern Asia, where locals later adopted it. Khagan

3162-902: The Göktürks crushed the Rouran ruling Mongolia, also used this title. The Avars invaded Europe , and for over a century ruled the Carpathian region. Westerners Latinized the title "Khagan" into "Gaganus" (in Historia Francorum ), "Cagan" (in the Annales Fuldenses ), or "Cacano" (in the Historia Langobardorum ). The Secret History of the Mongols , written for that very dynasty, clearly distinguishes Khagan and Khan : only Genghis Khan and his ruling descendants are called Khagan , while other rulers are referred to as Khan . The title "Khagan" or "Khaan" most literally translates to "great/supreme ruler" in

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3264-590: The Ilkhanate truly recognized the Yuan's overlordship as allies (although it was effectively autonomous). Because Kublai founded the Yuan, the members of the other branches of the Borjigin could take part in the election of a new Khagan as the supporters of one or other of the contestants, but they could not enter the contest as candidates themselves. Later, Yuan emperors made peace with the three western khanates of

3366-672: The Northern Yan as well as the Northern Wei dynasty and its successors Eastern and Western Wei , which were fighting each other, and each seeking the support of Rouran to defeat the other. Both parties, in turn, took the initiative of proposing such marriages to forge important alliances or solidify relations. In the 1970s, the Tomb of Princess Linhe was unearthed in Ci County, Hebei. It contained artistically invaluable murals,

3468-655: The Pannonian Avars (known by such names as Varchonites or Pseudo Avars ), who settled in Pannonia (centred on modern Hungary) during the 6th century. These Avars were pursued into the Byzantine Empire by the Göktürks, who referred to the Avars as a slave or vassal people, and requested that the Byzantines expel them. While this Rouran-Avars link remains a controversial theory, a recent DNA study has confirmed

3570-838: The Safavids , or their successive Afsharid and Qajar dynasties outside their territories of Persia proper. For example, in present Armenia and nearby territories to the left and right, there was the khanate of Erivan (sole incumbent 1807–1827 Hosein Quli Khan Qajar). Diverse khanates existed in Dagestan (now part of Russia), Azerbaijan , including Baku (present capital), Ganja , Jawad , Quba (Kuba), Salyan , Shakki ( Sheki , ruler style Bashchi since 1743) and Shirvan= Shamakha (1748–1786 temporarily split into Khoja Shamakha and Yeni Shamakha ), Talysh (1747–1814); Nakhichevan and (Nagorno) Karabakh . As hinted above,

3672-635: The Shiwei tribal complex and later emerged as Great- Da Shiwei (大室韋) in Suishu . Klyashtorny, apud Golden (2013), reconstructed 大檀 / 檀檀 as * tatar / dadar , "the people who, [Klyashtorny] concludes, assisted Datan in the 420s in his internal struggles and who later are noted as the Otuz Tatar ("Thirty Tatars") who were among the mourners at the funeral of Bumın Qağan (see the inscriptions of Kül Tegin, E4 and Bilge Qağan, E5)". Some scholars claim that

3774-463: The Xianbei confederation for their chief between 283 and 289. The Rourans may have been the first people who used the titles khagan and khan for their emperors. However, Russian linguist Alexander Vovin (2007) believes that the term qaγan originated among the Xiongnu people, who were Yeniseian -speaking (according to Vovin), and then it diffused across language families. Subsequently,

3876-718: The 3rd century to 6th century AD. The wooden frame saddle and the iron stirrups in found at these burials in Mongolia are one of the earliest examples found in Central and East Asia. The capital of the Rouran likely changed over time. The headquarters of the Rouran Khan ( ting ) was said to be initially northwest of Gansu . Later the capital of the Rouran became the legendary town of Mumocheng , said to have been "encircled with two walls constructed by Liang Shu". The existence of this city would be proof of early urbanization among

3978-590: The Göktürks until 560. The Hephthalites themselves had previously been vassals to the Rouran and adopted the title Khagan from them. They were also already known as the Hephthalites to the Byzantines. In view of these facts a strong Rouran component in the Avar Khaganate has been seen as likely, although the Khaganate later included many other peoples such as Slavs and Goths. Li et al. 2018 examined

4080-625: The Manchu-led Qing dynasty which extended into Inner Asia by the 18th century, their Turkic Muslim subjects (and surrounding Muslim khanates like the Khanate of Kokand ) associated the Qing rulers with this name and commonly referred to the Qing emperors as the "Chinese khagan" ( Khāqān-i Chīn ). In the early 10th century, the Rus' people employed the title of kagan (or qaghan ), reported by

4182-409: The Mongol Empire and were considered as their nominal suzerain. The nominal supremacy, while based on nothing like the same foundations as that of the earlier khagans (such as the continued border clashes among them), did last for a few decades, until the Yuan dynasty collapsed in 1368. After the breakdown of Mongol Empire and the fall of the Yuan dynasty in the mid-14th century, the Mongols turned into

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4284-533: The Mongol language, and by extension "sovereign", "monarch", "high king", or "emperor". The title can also be expanded with the addition of "Yekhe" (meaning "great" or "grand") to produce "Yekhe Khagan", meaning "Great Emperor". The Mongol Empire began to split politically with the Toluid Civil War during 1260–1264 and the death of Kublai Khan in 1294, but the term Ikh Khagan (Great Khan, or Emperor)

4386-444: The Mongols. Klyastorny reconstructed the ethnonym behind the Chinese transcription 柔然 Róurán ( LHC : * ńu-ńan ; EMC : * ɲuw-ɲian > LMC: * riw-rian ) as * nönör and compares it to Mongolic нөкүр nökür "friend, comrade, companion" ( Khalkha нөхөр nöhör ). According to Klyashtorny, * nönör denotes "stepnaja vol'nica" "a free, roving band in the steppe, the ' companions ' of the early Rouran leaders". In early Mongol society,

4488-564: The Ottoman sultans primacy among Turkish monarchs . Though it was not entirely an imitation of Genghis Khanid doctrine, the Oghuz claim to sovereignty followed the same pattern. Bayezid I advanced this claim against Timur , who denigrated the Ottoman lineage. Emperor Taizong of Tang was crowned Tian Kehan , or "heavenly Khagan" after defeating the Tujue ( Göktürks ). A later letter sent by

4590-587: The Persian geographer Ahmad ibn Rustah , who wrote between 903 and 913. It is believed that the tradition endured in the eleventh century, as the metropolitan bishop of Kiev in the Kievan Rus' , Hilarion of Kiev , calls both grand prince Vladimir I of Kiev (978–1015) and grand prince Yaroslav the Wise (1019–1054) by the title of kagan , while a graffito on the walls of Saint Sophia's Cathedral gives

4692-659: The Prophet of the Lord of the Universe; next followed a series of specifically "regional" titles, starting with Protector of the Holy Cities of Mecca, Medina and Jerusalem.) "Khagan" is the second title of Safavid and Qajar shahs (kings) of Iran. For example, Agha Muhammad Khan Qajar, Fath Ali Shah and other Qajar shahs used this title. The nickname of Shah Ismail and other Safavid shahs is Kagan-i Suleyman shan (Khagan with

4794-450: The Rouran Khaganate until the beginning of the 5th century, with the royal house of Rourans intermarrying with the royal houses of the Hephthalites. The Rouran Khaganate ended when they were defeated by a Göktürk rebellion at the peak of their power, which subsequently led to the rise of the Turks in world history. Their Khaganate overthrown, some Rouran remnants possibly became Tatars while others possibly migrated west and became

4896-434: The Rouran and Yujiulü Dengshuzi led 3000 soldiers in retreat to Western Wei . He was later delivered to Turks by Emperor Gong with his soldiers under pressure from Muqan Qaghan . In the same year, Muqan annihilated the Rouran. All the Rouran handed over to the Turks, reportedly with the exception of children less than sixteen, were brutally killed. On 29 November 586 Yujiulü Furen (郁久闾伏仁), an official of Sui and

4998-403: The Rouran and displaced the Yuezhi in Bactria , forcing them to migrate further south. Despite the conflict between the Hephthalites and Rouran, the Hephthalites borrowed much from their eastern overlords, in particular the title of " Khan " which was first used by the Rouran as a title for their rulers. The Rouran were considered vassals ( chen ) by Tuoba Wei . By 506 they were considered

5100-407: The Rouran defeated the Tiele. In 551, Bumin of the Ashina Göktürks quelled a Tiele revolt for the Rouran and asked for a Rouran princess for his service. The Rouran refused and in response Bumin declared independence. Bumin entered a marriage alliance with Western Wei , a successor state of Northern Wei, and attacked the Rouran in 552. The Rouran, now at the peak of their might, were defeated by

5202-417: The Rouran entered a perpetual conflict with Northern Wei , beginning with a Wei offensive that drove the Rouran from the Ordos region . The Rouran expanded westward and defeated the neighboring Tiele people and expanded their territory over the Silk Roads , even vassalizing the Hephthalites which remained so until the beginning of the 5th century. The Hepthalites migrated southeast due to pressure from

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5304-456: The Rouran language to be an extinct non- Altaic language that is not related to any modern-day language (i.e., a language isolate ) and is hence unrelated to Mongolic . Vovin (2004) notes that Old Turkic had borrowed some words from an unknown non-Altaic language that may have been Rouran. In 2018 Vovin changed his opinion after new evidence was found through the analysis of the Brāhmī Bugut and Khüis Tolgoi inscriptions and suggests that

5406-464: The Rouran later adopted the Chinese written language for diplomatic relations, and under Anagui, started to write internal records. According to the same source, there were also many literate people among the Rouran by that time. Kradin notes that the level of literacy "based on the knowledge of written Chinese" was rather high, and that it didn't affect only the elite and the immigrants, but also some cattle-breeders were able to use Chinese ideograms. In

5508-399: The Rouran then fled west across the steppes and became the Avars, though many other scholars contest this claim. New genetic data seem to answer that question, says Walter Pohl, a historian at the University of Vienna. "We have a very clear indication that they must have come from the core of the Rouran Empire. They were the neighbors of the Chinese." "Genetically speaking, the elite Avars have

5610-401: The Rouran were descended specifically from Donghu's Xianbei lineage, i.e. from Xianbei who remained in the eastern Eurasian Steppe after most Xianbei had migrated south and settled in Northern China . Genetic testings on Rourans' remains suggested Donghu-Xianbei paternal genetic contribution to Rourans. The founder of the Rouran Khaganate, Yujiulu Shelun , was descended from Mugulü ,

5712-553: The Rouran were of Xiongnu origin" and Rourans' descendants, namely Da Shiwei (aka Tatars), contained Turkic elements, besides Mongolic Xianbei . Even so, the Xiongnu's language is still unknown and Chinese historians routinely ascribed Xiongnu origins to various nomadic groups, yet such ascriptions do not necessarily indicate the subjects' exact origins: for examples, Xiongnu ancestry was ascribed to Turkic-speaking Göktürks and Tiele as well as Para-Mongolic-speaking Kumo Xi and Khitans . Kwok Kin Poon additionally proposes that

5814-484: The Rouran's status as the subjects of the Tuoba . Before being used as an ethnonym, Rouran had originally been the byname of chief Cheluhui (車鹿會), possibly denoting his status "as a Wei servitor". Primary Chinese-language sources Songshu and Liangshu connected Rouran to the earlier Xiongnu (of unknown ethnolinguistic affiliation) while Weishu traced the Rouran's origins back to the Donghu, generally agreed to be Proto-Mongols . Xu proposed that "the main body of

5916-428: The Rouran. However, no trace of it has been found so far; its location is unknown, and debated among historians. In 461, Lü Pi , Duke of Hedong, a Northern Wei general and Grand chancellor of royal Rouran descent, died in Northern Wei. The Rouran and the Hephthalites had a falling out and problems within their confederation were encouraged by Chinese agents. In 508, the Tiele defeated the Rouran in battle. In 516,

6018-402: The Tang court to the Yenisei Kirghiz Qaghan explained that "the peoples of the northwest" had requested Tang Taizong to become the "Heavenly Qaghan". The Tang dynasty Chinese emperors were recognized as khagans of the Turks at least from 665 to 705; moreover, two appeal letters from the Turkic hybrid rulers, Ashina Qutluγ Ton Tardu in 727, the Yabgu of Tokharistan , and Yina Tudun Qule in 741,

6120-457: The Turks. After a defeat at Huaihuang (in present-day Zhangjiakou , Hebei ) the last great khan Anagui, realizing he had been defeated, took his own life. Bumin declared himself Illig Khagan of the Turkic Khaganate after conquering Otuken ; Bumin died soon after and his son Issik Qaghan succeeded him. Issik continued attacking the Rouran, their khaganate now fallen into decay, but died a year later in 553. In 555, Turks invaded and occupied

6222-537: The attested Soghdian words xwt'w ‘ruler’ (< * hva-tāvya- ) and xwt'yn ‘wife of the ruler’ (< * hva-tāvyani )". The title was first seen in a speech between 283 and 289, when the Xianbei chief Tuyuhun tried to escape from his younger stepbrother Murong Hui , and began his route from the Liaodong Peninsula to the areas of Ordos Desert . In the speech one of Murong's generals, Yinalou, addressed him as kehan ( Chinese : 可寒 , later Chinese : 可汗 ); some sources suggests that Tuyuhun might also have used

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6324-431: The best known Bulgar khans were: Khan Kubrat , founder of Great Bulgaria ; Khan Asparukh , founder of Danubian Bulgaria (today's Bulgaria ); Khan Tervel , who defeated the Arab invaders in 718 Siege of Constantinople (718) , thus stopped the Arab invasion in Southeast Europe; Khan Krum , "the Fearsome". "Khan" was the official title of the ruler until 864 AD, when Knyaz Boris (known also as Tsar Boris I ) adopted

6426-515: The courts Hindu retainers was Rai . In Swat , a Pakistani Frontier State, it was the title of the secular elite, who together with the Mullahs (Muslim clerics), proceeded to elect a new Amir-i-Shariyat in 1914. It seems unclear whether the series of titles known from the Bengal sultanate are merely honorific or perhaps relate to a military hierarchy. Like many titles, the meaning of the term has also extended southwards into South Asian countries, and Central Asian nations, where it has become

6528-411: The death of the Genghis Khan, his sons became khans in different dominions (ulus) and the title apparently became unsuitable for the supreme ruler of the empire, needing a more exalted one. Being under Uighur cultural influence, Mongols adopted the title of khagan starting with Ögedei Khan in 1229. Emperors of the Ming dynasty also used the term Xan to denote brave warriors and rulers. The title Khan

6630-440: The desperate resistances, military disasters, and massacres. The remainder of the Rouran fled into China, were absorbed into the border guards, and disappeared forever as an entity. The last khagan fled to the court of the Western Wei, but at the demand of the Göktürks, Western Wei executed him and the nobles who accompanied him. The Avars were pursued west by the Gokturks as most-wanted fugitives and accused of unlawfully usurping

6732-478: The dynasty was mainly structured in eight classes, each being granted an honorary rank title, the fourth of which was Khan, or in this context synonymously Amir, granted to commanders of armed forces, provincial tribal leaders; in descending order. In neighboring Ottoman Turkey and subsequently the Republic of Turkey, the term Khanum was and is still written as Hanım in Turkish / Ottoman Turkish language. The Ottoman title of Hanımefendi (lit translated; lady of

6834-497: The east, a fact which has been corroborated through DNA studies of Avar individuals buried in the Pannonian Basin which have shown that they were primarily East Asian. Their pretensions to empire despite their relatively small numbers indicate descendance from a previously hegemonic power in the Far East. The first embassy of the Avars to Justinian I in 557 corresponds directly to the fall of the Rouran Khaganate in 555. The Rouran Khaganate had fallen not through gradual decline but through

6936-440: The expedition, it is probable that it was unsuccessful. Kradin notes that, possibly strained after the battle with Wei, the Rourans were not able to prevent the Uighur chief Abuzhiluo from heading "a 100 thousand tents" west, in a series of events that led to the overthrowing and killing of Doulun Khan . Two armies were sent in pursuit of the rebels, one led by Doulun, the other by Nagai, his uncle. The Rouran emerged victorious. In

7038-510: The genetic origins of the Avar elite as originating from the Mongolian plains. Other theories instead link the origins of the Pannonian Avars to peoples such as the Uar . An imperial confederation, the Rouran Khaganate was based on the "distant exploitation of agrarian societies", although according to Nikolay Kradin the Rouran had a feudal system, or "nomadic feudalism". The Rouran controlled trade routes, and raided and subjugated oases and outposts such as Gaochang . They are said to have shown

7140-419: The glory of Solomon). Ottoman rulers, after the 14th century, used only two titles "shah" and "khan" until end of the empire. Sultans like Mehmed the Conqueror and Suleiman the Magnificent used the title "Khagan of the two seas". Yazıcıoğlu Ali, in early 15th century, traced Osman 's genealogy to Oghuz Khagan , the mythical ancestors of Western Turks, through his senior grandson of his senior son, so giving

7242-399: The imperial title of Khagan and also the prestigious name of the Avars. Contemporary sources indicate the Avars were not native to the Western Steppe but came to the region after a long wandering. Nor were they native to Central Asia to the south of which lay the Hephthalite Empire which has on and off been identified with the Avars by certain scholars. Instead the Avars' origins were further to

7344-411: The inscriptions of three consecutive Bulgarian rulers, namely Krum , Omurtag and Malamir (a grandfather, son and grandson). Starting from the compound, non-ruler titles that were attested among Bulgarian noble class such as kavkhan (vicekhan), tarkhan , and boritarkhan , scholars derive the title khan or kan for the early Bulgarian leader – if there was a vicekhan ( kavkhan ) there was probably

7446-428: The khans were bestowed with additional titles at their enthronement. After 464, starting with Yucheng Khan they started to use epoch names, in imitation of the Chinese. The Rouran dignitaries of the ruling elite also adopted nicknames referring to their deeds, similar to the titles the Chinese bestowed posthumously. Kradin notes that this practice is analogous with that of later Mongolian chiefs. There appears to have been

7548-545: The king of Tashkent , addressing Emperor Xuanzong of Tang as Tian Kehan during the Umayyad expansion. The name "Chinese khagan" ( Khāqān-i Chīn , "Khagan of China") referring to the ruler of China (i.e. Emperor of China ) as a symbol of power appeared in medieval Turco-Persian literature works like the great 11th-century epic poem Shahnameh , which were circulated widely in Persia , Central Asia , and Xinjiang . During

7650-642: The master ), is also a derivative of this. The titles Khan and Khan Bahadur (from the Altaic root baghatur ), related to the Turkic batyr or batur and Mongolian baatar ("brave, hero"); were also bestowed in feudal India by the Mughals , who although Muslims were of Turkic origin upon Muslims and awarded this title to Hindus generals in army particularly in Gaud or Bengal region during Muslim rulers, and later by

7752-512: The most famous rulers known as Khan : the Mongol imperial dynasty of Genghis Khan (his name was Temüjin, Genghis Khan a never fully understood unique title), and his successors, especially grandson Kublai Khan : the former founded the Mongol Empire and the latter founded the Yuan Dynasty in China . The ruling descendants of the main branch of Genghis Khan's dynasty are referred to as

7854-462: The original behind Turkic qaɣan ~ xaɣan . According to Vovin (2007, 2010) the term comes from qaγan (meaning " emperor " or "supreme ruler") and was later borrowed and used in several languages, especially in Turkic and Mongolic. Turkic and Mongolic (or Para-Mongolic ) origin has been suggested by a number of scholars including Ramstedt , Shiratori, Pulleyblank, Sinor and Doerfer , and

7956-466: The remains of a Rouran male buried at the Khermen Tal site in Mongolia. He was found to be a carrier of the paternal haplogroup C2b1a1b and the maternal haplogroup D4b1a2a1 . Haplogroup C2b1a1b has also been detected among the Xianbei . Several genetic studies have shown that early Pannonian Avar elites carried a large amount of East Asian ancestry, and some have suggested this as evidence for

8058-512: The same title to the son of Iaroslav, grand prince Sviatoslav II of Kiev (1073–1076). Khan (title) Khan ( / x ɑː n / ) is a historic Turkic and Mongolic title originating among nomadic tribes in the Central and Eastern Eurasian Steppe to refer to a king. It first appears among the Rouran and then the Göktürks as a variant of khagan (sovereign, emperor) and implied

8160-420: The signs of "both an early state and a chiefdom". The Rouran have been credited as "a band of steppe robbers", because they adopted a strategy of raids and extortion of Northern China. The Khaganate was an aggressive militarized society, a "military-hierarchical polity established to solve the exclusively foreign-policy problems of requisitioning surplus products from neighbouring nations and states." Róurán 柔然

8262-483: The term is disputed and unknown, possibly a loanword from the Rouran language . A Turkic and Para-Mongolic origin has been suggested by a number of scholars including Ramstedt , Shiratori, Sinor and Doerfer , and was reportedly first used by the Xianbei . Dybo (2007) suggests that the ultimate etymological root of Khagan/Khan comes from the Middle Iranian * hva-kama- 'self-ruler, emperor', following

8364-569: The title Khan ( Han in Manchu ); for example, Nurhaci was called Genggiyen Han. Rulers of the Göktürks , Avars and Khazars used the higher title Kaghan, as rulers of distinct nations. In imperial Persia , Khan (female form Khanum in Persia) was the title of a nobleman, higher than Beg (or bey ) and usually used after the given name. At the Qajar court , precedence for those not belonging to

8466-703: The title Khan was also common in some of the polities of the various – generally Islamic – peoples in the territories of the Mongol Golden Horde and its successor states, which, like the Mongols in general, were commonly called Ta(r)tars by Europeans and Russians, and were all eventually subdued by Muscovia which became the Russian Empire . The most important of these states were: Further east, in Xinjiang flank: The higher, rather imperial title Khaqan (" Khan of Khans ") applies to probably

8568-602: The title after settling at Qinghai Lake in the 3rd century. The Rouran Khaganate (330–555) was the first people to use the titles Khagan and Khan for their emperors, replacing the Chanyu of the Xiongnu , whom Grousset and others assume to be Turkic . The Rourans were stated to be descendants of the Donghu people , who in turn are assumed to be proto-Mongols , Mongolic-speaking , or a "non-Altaic" group. The Avar Khaganate (567–804), who may have included Rouran elements after

8670-522: The title are common Turkish names in Turkey . The common western rendering as Great Khan (or Grand Khan ), notably in the case of the Mongol Empire , is a translation of Yekhe Khagan ( Great Emperor or Их Хаан ). The term is of unknown origin and possibly a loanword from the Rouran language . Canadian sinologist Edwin G. Pulleyblank (1962) first suggested that a Xiongnu title, transcribed as 護于 ( Old Chinese : * hʷaʔ-hʷaʰ ) might have been

8772-683: The title of khagatun for her outstanding service. Between 525 and 527, Rouran was employed by Northern Wei in the suppression of rebellions in their territory, with the Rourans then plundering the local population. The Rouran Khaganate arranged for one of their princesses, Khagan Yujiulü Anagui 's daughter Princess Ruru , to be married to the Han Chinese ruler Gao Huan of the Eastern Wei . The Rourans were involved many times in royal intermarriage (also known as Heqin in China), with

8874-633: The titles in the official full style of the Great Sultan (and later Caliph) of the Ottoman Empire , reflecting the historical legitimation of the dynasty's rule as political successor to various conquered (often Islamised) states. (The title began: Sultan Hân N.N., Padishah , Hünkar , Sovereign of the House of Osman, Sultan of Sultans , Khan of Khans, Commander of the Faithful and Successor of

8976-514: The tradition of Chinese bibliophily", and adopted a staff of bodyguards , or chamberlains . Hyun Jin Kim notes a similar use of bodyguards performing the same function in the contemporary Hunnic Empire to the west. Kim also compared the "rudimentary bureaucratic organisation" of the Rourans to that of the Huns, as well as their "hierarchical, stratified structure of government". Anagui's chief advisor

9078-561: The ultimate origin of the title, but Vovin says: "Thus, it seems to be quite likely that the ultimate source of both qaγan and qan can be traced back to Xiong-nu and Yeniseian". Dybo (2007) suggests that the ultimate etymological root of Khagan comes from the Middle Iranian * hva-kama- ‘self-ruler, emperor’, following the view of Benveniste 1966. Savelyev and Jeong 2020 note that both the etymological root for Khagan and its female equivalent Khatun may be derived from Eastern Iranian languages , specifically from "Early Saka * hvatuñ , cf.

9180-405: The view of Benveniste 1966. Savelyev and Jeong 2020 note that both the etymological root for Khagan/Khan and its female equivalent " khatun " may be derived from Eastern Iranian languages , specifically from "Early Saka * hvatuñ , cf. the attested Soghdian words xwt'w 'ruler' (< * hva-tāvya- ) and xwt'yn 'wife of the ruler' (< * hva-tāvyani )". "Khan" is first encountered as a title in

9282-462: The war against the Uighurs, Doulan fought well, but his uncle Nagai won all the battles against the Uighurs. Thus, the soldiers thought that Heaven didn't favor Doulan anymore, and that he should be deposed in favor of Nagai. The latter declined. Nonetheless, the subjects killed Doulan and murdered his next of kin, installing Nagai on the throne. In 518, Nagai married the sorceress Diwan, conferring her

9384-474: The words "Khaan" and "Khan" have different meanings, while English language usually does not differentiate between them. The title is also used as a generic term for a king or emperor (as эзэн хаан , ezen khaan ), as in " Испанийн хаан Хуан Карлос " ( Ispaniin khaan Khuan Karlos , "king/khaan of Spain Juan Carlos"). The early khagans of the Mongol Empire were: The title became associated with

9486-576: Was a tribal confederation and later state founded by a people of Proto-Mongolic Donghu origin. The Rouran supreme rulers used the title of khagan , a popular title borrowed from the Xianbei . The Rouran Khaganate lasted from the late 4th century until the middle 6th century with territories that covered all of modern day Mongolia and Inner Mongolia , as well as parts of Manchuria in Northeast China , Eastern Siberia , Xinjiang , and Kazakhstan . The Hephthalites were vassals of

9588-483: Was a "derogatory pun" on Rouran (柔然), proposes that the ethnonym Rouran (柔然) is indeed derived from the name Ruru (茹茹) or Ruirui (芮芮) of a "tribal father". Mongolian Sinologist Sükhbaatar suggests Nirun Нирун as the modern Mongolian term for the Rouran , as Нирун resembles reconstructed Chinese forms beginning with * ń - or * ŋ -. Rashid-al-Din Hamadani recorded Niru'un and Dürlükin as two divisions of

9690-783: Was also the title of the rulers of various break-away states and principalities later in Persia , e.g. 1747–1808 Khanate of Ardabil (in northwestern Iran east of Sarab and west of the southwest corner of the Caspian Sea-Mazandaran and Gorgan provinces), 1747–1813 Khanate of Khoy (northwestern Iran, north of Lake Urmia, between Tabriz and Lake Van), 1747–1829 Khanate of Maku (in extreme northwestern Iran, northwest of Khoy, and 60 miles south of Yerevan, Armenia), 1747–1790s Khanate of Sarab (northwestern Iran east of Tabriz), 1747 – c.1800 Khanate of Tabriz (capital of Iranian Azerbaijan). There were various small khanates in and near Transcaucasia and Ciscaucasia established by

9792-492: Was not proclaimed ruler of the Mongol Empire by the Kurultai . Originally khans headed only relatively minor tribal entities, generally in or near the vast Mongolian and North Chinese steppe, the scene of an almost endless procession of nomadic people riding out into the history of the neighbouring sedentary regions. Some managed to establish principalities of some importance for a while, as their military might repeatedly proved

9894-555: Was reportedly defeated by rival nomads in 552. In 567, diplomats from the Eastern Roman Empire reported the arrival of a new group from the east on the shores of the Caspian Sea. The newcomers called themselves the Avars, and claimed to be related to a far-off people known as the Rouran. However, it's unlikely that Rouran would have migrated to Europe in any sufficient strength to establish themselves there, due to

9996-509: Was reportedly first used by the Xianbei , as recorded in Book of Song . While Sinor believes qaγan or qapγan is an intensification of qan just as qap-qara is an intensification of qara "black", in Turkic (with the eventual loss of the p ), Shiratori rejects a Turkic etymology, instead supporting a Mongolic origin for both qan and the female form qatun . According to Vovin, the word *qa-qan "great-qan" ( *qa- for "great" or "supreme")

10098-670: Was still used by the emperors of the Yuan dynasty (1271–1368), who also took on the title of the Emperor of China . After the fall of the Yuan dynasty, the title continued to be used by monarchs of the Northern Yuan dynasty . Thus, the Yuan is sometimes referred to as the Empire of the Great Khan , coexisting with the other independent Mongol-ruled khanates in the west, including the Chagatai Khanate and Golden Horde . Only

10200-701: Was the Chinese Shunyu Tan, whose role is comparable to that of Yelü Chucai with the Mongols and Zhonghang Yue with the Xiongnu (or Huns). Recent archeological finds in Mongolia (the Urd Ulaan Uneet Burial and Khukh Nuur Burial) suggest that the Mongolic Rouran tribes had sophisticated, wooden frame saddles and iron stirrups by at least the fourth and fifth centuries AD. Radiocarbon dating of related items date them to between

10302-529: Was the title of an army general high noble rank who ruling a province, and in Mughal India it was a high noble rank restricted to courtiers. After the downfall of the Mughals it was used promiscuously and became a surname . Khan and its female forms occur in many personal names, generally without any nobiliary of political relevance, although it remains a common part of noble names as well. The origin of

10404-617: Was used to designate the greatest rulers of the Jurchens , who, later when known as the Manchus , founded the Qing dynasty . Once more, there would be numerous khanates in the steppe in and around Central Asia, often more of a people than a territorial state, e.g.: While most Afghan principalities were styled emirate, there was a khanate of ethnic Uzbeks in Badakhshan since 1697. Khan

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