Temple names are posthumous titles accorded to monarchs of the Sinosphere for the purpose of ancestor worship . The practice of honoring monarchs with temple names began during the Shang dynasty in China and had since been adopted by other dynastic regimes in the Sinosphere, with the notable exception of Japan. Temple names should not be confused with era names (年號), regnal names (尊號) or posthumous names (謚號).
138-633: The Hongwu Emperor (21 October 1328 – 24 June 1398), also known by his temple name as the Emperor Taizu of Ming , personal name Zhu Yuanzhang , courtesy name Guorui , was the founding emperor of the Ming dynasty , reigning from 1368 to 1398. In the mid-14th century, China was plagued by epidemics, famines, and peasant uprisings during the rule of the Mongol Yuan dynasty . Zhu Yuanzhang, who lost his parents during this tumultuous time,
276-477: A Daoist temple . For more than three months, government forces from three provinces failed to defeat them. It was only when salt-field workers, noted for their fierceness and independence in Hangzhou , were brought in to handle the situation that the bandits were defeated. From that time on the people of the realm regarded the government forces as useless and depended on local leadership for defense, contributing to
414-523: A long running battle lasting over the summer before Chen was defeated and killed after suffering an arrow wound to the head. Zhu then took Han Lin'er, who had been Chen's ward since the death of Liu Futong. In Sichuan, the Red Turban commander, Ming Yuzhen , refused to acknowledge Chen Youliang when he usurped Xu Shouhui. Ming declared his own Red Turban kingdom of Ming Xia . He seemed to have governed competently, having recruited scholars and heeding
552-661: A constant source of trouble until he was defeated in 1387. Naghachu was granted a marquisate and died on 31 August 1388, probably from alcohol abuse. Following the victory, Zhu Yuanzhang ordered mass relocations across China. People from Shanxi were deported into other provinces in northern China including Hebei, Henan and Shandong which had been devastated by plague and famine. Zhu Yuanzhang moved people from Shandong, Guangdong, Hebei, Shanxi and Lake Taihu to settle in his hometown of Fengyang, around 500,000 people in 1367. Guizhou and Yunnan were colonized by soldiers from Anhui, Suzhou and Shanghai from Nanjing numbering 100,000. Sichuan
690-564: A devastating impact on the balance of power in the Yangtze River Basin. This conflict not only gave Zhu a significant advantage over other rivals, but also increased his prestige among his own people. The fighting began when the Han army attacked Nanjing in 1360, but they were quickly defeated by Zhu. In 1361, the war spread to the Han province of Jiangxi, which changed hands multiple times. By the following year, Zhu had gained control of
828-625: A former Yuan official who had surrendered, to the Superintendency of the Office for Hydraulic Works to repair dikes and embankments. In 1360, he established bureaus to tax wine, vinegar, and salt, even though he did not control the primary salt-producing regions to the east. In 1361, he began minting copper coins, and by 1363, 38 million coins were being produced in one year. In 1362, custom offices were set up to collect taxes on traditional and commercial goods. In 1363, Zhang Shicheng attacked
966-578: A group of military and civilian figures, but the civil officials never attained the same level of prestige and influence as the military. In 1367, he granted the title of duke ( gong ) to three of his closest collaborators—generals Xu Da and Chang Yuchun , and official Li Shanchang . After the establishment of the Ming dynasty, he also bestowed ranks and titles upon a wider circle of loyal generals. These military leaders were chosen based on their abilities, but their positions were often inherited by their sons. As
1104-472: A large following with over a thousand vessels under his command. He controlled the prefectures of Jingyuan, Taizhou , and Wenzhou , and practically the entire Zhejiang coast from Ningbo to northern Fujian . He also held de facto control over Ningbo and Shaoxing . He made a living as a pirate until 1356, when he surrendered to the Yuan court and was awarded titles. He helped transport grain for Zhang Shicheng to
1242-552: A monarch should be honored as "祖" ( zǔ ; "progenitor") or "宗" ( zōng ; "ancestor"), a principle was strictly adhered to: "祖" was to be given to accomplished rulers while "宗" was to be assigned to virtuous rulers. However, this principle was effectively abandoned during the Sixteen Kingdoms era with the ubiquitous usage of "祖" by various non- Han regimes. Temple names became widespread from the Tang dynasty onwards. Apart from
1380-508: A monopoly on the sale of salt and tea, and started collecting traditional customs duties in 1362. These measures resulted in an increase in tax revenues, which were crucial for funding successful military campaigns. In the beginning of 1360, Zhu controlled the southwestern part of Jiangsu, all of Anhui south of the Yangtze River, and the inland of Zhejiang. By 1393, these territories had a population of 7.8 million. The domain (known as
1518-444: A plague epidemic, Zhu Yuanzhang's parents and two brothers died. He managed to survive by entering a local Buddhist monastery, which was later closed due to a lack of funds. For the next three years, Zhu wandered as a mendicant monk, becoming familiar with the landscape and people of eastern Henan and northern Anhui. He then returned to the monastery in 1348 and stayed for four years, during which he learned to read, write, and study
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#17327837956731656-404: A police detachment. However his military capabilities far outstripped his station and he became chief of the provincial government within 10 years. He ruled with an iron hand which drove many of his subordinates to defect. When captured by Zhu Yuanzhang in 1368, Chen continued to show belligerence, bellowing at the Ming emperor, "The state is demolished and my family is gone. I shall die; what more
1794-466: A result, the generals became the dominant ruling class, surpassing the bureaucracy in power and influence. The officials had little political autonomy and simply carried out the emperor's orders and requests. This system mirrored the one established during the Yuan dynasty, with the ruling class of Mongols and Semu being replaced by families of distinguished military commanders. These families were often connected through kinship ties with each other and with
1932-548: A sage emperor. On 10 April 1356, Zhu took Nanjing, made it his new capital, and renamed it Yingtian (Response to Heaven). The court of Han Lin'er of the new Song dynasty awarded Zhu with titles and named him the head of Jiangxi. Zhu accepted the titles and Han Lin'er as emperor, legitimizing himself as a representative of a 'revived' Song dynasty and the 'Luminous King' described in White Lotus teachings. A few things set Zhu apart from his rebel counterparts. He did not challenge
2070-420: A small number of relatives who were appointed to important positions. In the unstable political climate, family ties were crucial for ensuring loyalty and reliability. The rivalry between Peng and Zhao escalated into a full-blown conflict. Guo was initially captured, but was later freed by his sons and Zhu, which only increased his reliance on Zhu. After Peng's death in 1353, Zhao emerged as the dominant leader in
2208-553: A villager from the right bank of the Huai River . His difficult upbringing never left his mind, and even as emperor, he held onto the ideal of a self-sufficient village life in peace, a dream that was unattainable in his youth. He made every effort to make this dream a reality for his subjects. The ultimate goal of the Hongwu Emperor's reforms was to achieve political stability for the state. All policies, institutions, and
2346-625: Is either "祖" or "宗": Red Turban Rebellions Yuan dynasty Principality of Liang (Yunnan) (1372– 1382) Northern Red Turban rebels: Song dynasty (1351– 1366) Western Wu (1361– 1367) Southern Red Turban rebels: Tianwan dynasty (1351– 1360) Chen Han dynasty (1360– 1363) Zhou (1354– 1357) Other southern warlords Fujian Muslim rebels (1357– 1366) Toghon Temür Fang Guozhen [REDACTED] Bolad Temür The Red Turban Rebellions ( Chinese : 紅巾起義 ; pinyin : Hóngjīn Qǐyì ) were uprisings against
2484-422: Is there to talk about?" He and his son were executed. At the end of the Yuan, bandits arose in all places. Among the common people volunteer forces were formed to protect village and locality. Those who called themselves commanders of such forces were too numerous to count. The Yuan government granted them official ranks and titles at the drop of a hat. Thereafter some would go off to become bandits; others served
2622-511: The History of Yuan reports, the army flayed an official alive and cut out his stomach. The Red Army was equally merciless toward captured Yuan soldiers: according to contemporary observer Liu Renben, Tianwan troops dealt with these demonized enemies by "placing them in shackles, poking them with knives, binding them with cloth, putting sacks over their heads, and parading them around accompanied by drum-beating and derisive chants". Zhang Shicheng
2760-678: The Gobi Desert in search of Köke Temür. On 23 April, a Ming division caught a part of the Mongol army by the Tuul River and defeated it, causing Köke Temür to avoid combat for the next month. After marching fruitlessly in search of the Mongols, the Ming army was defeated in an engagement on 7 June. Xu Da took the remaining survivors and retreated from Mongolia. In early July, Li Wenzhong encountered another Mongol force under Manzi Kharajang by
2898-565: The Hồ and Later Trần dynasties as exceptions). Numerous individuals who did not rule as monarch during their lifetime were posthumously elevated to the position of monarch by their descendants and honored with temple names. For example, Cao Cao was posthumously honored as an emperor and given the temple name Taizu by Cao Pi of the Cao Wei dynasty . Meanwhile, several individuals who were initially assigned temple names had their titles revoked, as
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#17327837956733036-532: The Merkit Majarday and his son, Toqto'a , also led the way in cultivating Chinese learning by establishing contacts with ethnic Han scholars and hiring them as tutors. Kusala was assassinated by supporters of his half-brother, Tugh Temür (Emperor Wenzong). Tugh Temür died in 1332 and was succeeded by Kusala’s six-year-old child, Rinchinbal (Emperor Ningzong), who died six months later. His older brother, Toghon Temür (Emperor Huizong), became emperor at
3174-469: The Yellow River shifted its course, causing droughts in the Huai River valley. Toqto'a's successor, Berke Bukha, had no answer to the crisis, which was exacerbated by the coastal rebellion of Fang Guozhen, whose fleet interdicted most of the grain shipments headed for the capital. In August 1349, Toqto'a returned to power with the support of the emperor. In April 1351, Toqto'a tried once again to tame
3312-603: The Yuan dynasty between 1351 and 1368, eventually leading to its collapse. Remnants of the Yuan imperial court retreated northwards and is thereafter known as the Northern Yuan in historiography. In the early 1300s, the imperial court of the Mongol -led Yuan dynasty was split between two factions on how best to govern the empire. One faction favored a Mongol-centric policy that favored Mongol and Inner Asian interests while
3450-714: The Zhou dynasty were given posthumous names but not temple names. During the Qin dynasty , the practices both of assigning temple names and posthumous names was abandoned. The Han dynasty reintroduced both titles, although temple names were assigned sporadically and remained more exclusive than posthumous names. It was also during the Han era that other adjectives aside from the four listed above began appearing in temple names. Numerous Han emperors had their temple names removed by Emperor Xian of Han, Liu Xie, in AD 190. Initially, in deciding whether
3588-461: The "Fengyang mafia". In the fall of 1353, Guo gave Zhu an independent commission under the title of guard commander. He expanded south, gaining large numbers of followers and defected soldiers along the way. By the end of the year, Zhu had gained Chuzhou (near the Anhui – Jiangxi border) and remained there until 1355, when he had amassed an army of 30,000. After successfully repelling a Yuan army in
3726-459: The 1340s, the Yuan dynasty had experienced problems. The Yellow River flooded constantly and other natural disasters also occurred. At the same time the Yuan dynasty required considerable military expenditure to maintain its vast empire. Groups or religious sects made an effort to undermine the power of the last Yuan rulers; these religious movements often warned of impending doom. Decline of agriculture, epidemics and cold weather hit China, spurring
3864-481: The 13th century. Although originally Turkic, by the time of the Red Turban Rebellions, Chaghan Temur's lineage more closely aligned with both Mongol and Chinese culture. Chaghan Temur once sat the imperial examinations and sometimes used the surname Li. In the late 1340s, Chaghan Temur built a military force to protect his locality from the rebels. Starting in 1352, he won a string of victories against
4002-536: The Chief Military Commission was in charge of the army. However, under later emperors, the civil administration, which was the core of the government, became primarily focused on supporting the army financially and logistically. Initially, the provinces were under the control of the general, with the civil authorities also reporting to them. However, in the 1370s, the military's influence decreased as ministers were appointed to leadership positions in
4140-616: The Confucian belief that the ruler's moral example was the most important factor. The Hongwu Emperor also prioritized the safety of his people and the loyalty of his subordinates, demonstrating pragmatism and caution in military affairs. He maintained a disciplined army and made efforts to minimize the impact of war on civilians. Although the peak of his political system crumbled in a civil war shortly after his death, other results of his reforms , such as local and regional institutions for Ming state administration and self-government, as well as
4278-416: The Han's territories. Numerous Han prefectural and county commanders surrendered without resistance, and Huguang was pacified by General Xu Da by April 1365. By February 1365, Generals Chang Yuchun and Deng Yu had gained control over central and southern Jiangxi. This annexation of territories provided Zhu with a significant population advantage over its adversaries. The main threats to Zhu at this time were
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4416-738: The Jinhua school, had a clear vision of a unified state governed by a small but efficient bureaucracy. They aimed to eliminate corruption, which was prevalent during the end of the Yuan dynasty. They believed that the state and its laws could be used to improve public morals and customs. While their motives may have differed from the emperor's, they shared a desire to bring about change through a strong state and an active monarch. As an independent ruler, Zhu advocated for moderation in tax collection. However, other rebel leaders and his own generals prioritized military needs and often confiscated grain from peasants to feed their soldiers or prevent it from falling into
4554-605: The Kingdom of Wu since 1363), led by Zhang Shicheng, had comparable power with a larger population but worse organization. Chen Youlang's state of Han had a similar situation. The state of Han , located west of Zhu's territory, included the provinces of Jiangxi and Hubei . Zhang, based in Suzhou , controlled the lower reaches of the Yangtze, from the eastern borders of Zhu's dominions to the sea. While Zhu, Zhang, and Chen divided up
4692-520: The Ming army, from his acquaintances who had already joined the rebels, and became their leader. Thanks to his abilities, he rose to prominence quickly, leading a 700-man squad by the spring of 1353 and becoming Guo's most trusted subordinate. Skilled in both military tactics and political maneuvering, he even married Guo's adopted daughter, surnamed Ma. A strong relationship developed between Lady Ma and Zhu, which would later give her great influence at court as empress. Unlike other leaders of his time, Zhu had
4830-495: The Ming dynasty (Radiant dynasty) in Yingtian . On 15 August 1368, the Ming general Xu Da led an army north from Kaifeng . A defending army was defeated and Tongzhou, an intermediate city on the way to Khanbaliq , was captured on 10 September. The Yuan emperor Toghon Temür fled to Shangdu . Khanbaliq fell to the Ming on 14 September, ending the rule of the Yuan dynasty. The city was renamed Beiping (Pacified North). Shangdu
4968-508: The Ming, the local regime refused to submit. In response, General Fu Youde was ordered to lead an attack from the north in 1371. Simultaneously, Tang He and Liao Yongzhong advanced with a fleet up the Yangtze River. Although they initially faced resistance, they were able to push forward with the help of artillery and the enemy's decision to send part of their defenders north against the second army's successful advance. By September 1371, Sichuan had been conquered. This victory ensured stability in
5106-533: The Ming. In November 1373, Köke Temür tried to take Datong . He suffered a disastrous defeat against Xu Da, who force marched his army through a snowstorm to attack the Mongol forces on 29 November. Köke Temür died in September 1375 at Khara Nokhai, northwest of Karakorum . Li Siqi was a friend of Chaghan Temur who participated in the early military campaigns of the latter against the Red Turbans. By
5244-574: The Mongol warlord Köke Temür in northern China and Zhang Shicheng, who was based in Suzhou. Expansion of the army with former Han troops required a reorganization of the military. Therefore, in 1364, Zhu implemented the Weisuo system, which involved the formation of guards ( wei ) comprising 5,600 soldiers. These guards were further divided into 5 battalions ( qianhusuo ) of 1,120 soldiers each, with 10 companies ( baihusuo ) in each battalion. After 1364,
5382-402: The Red Turbans against the Yuan and in 1354, Gongmin of Goryeo contributed troops to Yuan efforts to suppress the Red Turbans. The invasions caught the unprepared Goryeo forces off guard, causing much destruction, sacking several cities, and briefly occupying Pyongyang (1359) and Kaesong (1360). Although ultimately repelled, the havoc caused by the Red Turbans on Goryeo was substantial. In
5520-496: The Red Turbans and for a time in 1358 and 1359, based his operations in Kaifeng . By the end of the 1350s, Chaghan Temur was the most powerful regional leader under the Mongols' service. Chaghan Temur's rival, Bolad Temür , the commander of Shanxi , refused to aid him. Bolad Temur's efforts to overthrow Chaghan Temur and destroy Köke Temür paralyzed the court until his death in 1365. As a result, Chaghan Temur ignored orders from
5658-530: The Red Turbans did not resonate with Zhu. Instead of trying to establish a new intellectual elite based on the Manichean-Buddhist beliefs of the White Lotus , he chose to collaborate with Confucian intellectuals. This shift in approach transformed him from a leader of a popular sectarian uprising to the leader of a political movement seeking traditional legitimacy. Nevertheless, he still relied on
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5796-484: The Red Turbans. A Red Turban leader, Han Shantong , and his advisor, Liu Futong , successfully recruited from the disgruntled workers, resulting in explosive rebellious activity. Han Shantong was captured and executed, but his wife and son, Han Lin'er , escaped with Liu. Liu established a capital at Yingzhou in modern western Anhui at the Hunan border and proclaimed the establishment of a Red Turban government. Han Lin'er
5934-575: The Song court in Anfeng. Zhu personally led his army to defend them against Zhang and while Liu Futong was killed, Zhu managed to save Han Lin'er, whom he moved to Chuzhou where the Song court continued to exist in safety. In the same year, Zhu won the Battle of Lake Poyang against his rival Chen Youliang , and proceeded to eliminate Zhang Shicheng and Fang Guozhen. He spent most of 1364 and 1365 consolidating
6072-603: The Tuul River and pursued them to the Orkhon River . The Mongols turned to face them and counterattacked with unexpected force, causing the Ming army to take the defensive position. The Ming soldiers slaughtered their livestock and used their corpses as a line of defense. The Mongols withdrew and Li was able to retreat. Feng Sheng successfully cleared the path westward to Dunhuang and retook the Hexi Corridor for
6210-566: The Yangtze River Basin, the rest of southern and central China was largely under the control of "one-province" regimes. Fang Guozhen controlled the eastern Chinese coast, Ming Yuzhen ruled in Sichuan , and the trio of Yuan loyalists ( Chen Youding , He Zhen , and Basalawarmi ) controlled Fujian , Guangdong , and Yunnan . These provincial regimes were unable to threaten the "big three", but were strong in defense. The war between Zhu's Jiangnan and Chen Youliang's Han state from 1360 to 1363 had
6348-608: The Yellow River and Grand Canal through the mass mobilization of rural farmers, leading to the Red Turban Rebellion. After initial rebel victories, the Yuan armies were able to rally and suppress most of the Red Turbans by 1353. In October 1353, Toqto'a personally recovered Xuzhou , forcing the rebels Peng Da and Zhao Junyong to flee to Haozhou. Toqto'a was dismissed in January 1355 due to court intrigue while he
6486-506: The Yuan army. Some special Mongol units were dispatched to strategic locations as needed, but not to police the empire and not on a regular basis. Most of the Mongol garrisons were located to the north around the capital of Khanbaliq . Yuan garrisons had already entered a steep decline by the end of the 13th century and by 1340, repeatedly failed to put down local rebellions. In the 1340s a bandit gang of merely 36 persons in Huashan took over
6624-713: The Yuan capital, Khanbaliq . In 1359, Zhang sent a son to Zhu Yuanzhang as hostage. In 1367, Fang surrendered to Zhu Yuanzhang on favorable terms. Fang stayed in Nanjing until 1374, when he died of natural causes. Zhu Yuanzhang , who would later become the Hongwu Emperor , was born on 21 October 1328 at Zhongli village in Haozhou (modern Fengyang County , Anhui ). He was the youngest surviving child among four sons and two daughters. His parents were tax defaulters who fled from place to place working as tenant farmers. At
6762-403: The Yuan cause but without resolve. Chen Youding and his son, however, died for righteousness. People of the time praised them for that consummation of their principles. He Zhen was an orphan who nonetheless received an education in both brush and sword. He held office in government briefly before leading a local defense corps. He succeeded in recapturing a local prefectural city from bandits and
6900-545: The Yuan's Mongol ethnicity as grounds to resist or reject it. Zhu emphasised that he was not conquering territory from the Yuan dynasty but rather from the rebel warlords. He used this line of argument to attempt to persuade Yuan loyalists to join his cause. Zhu progressively developed his following into a working state. Zhu personally traveled to regions that had been conquered to survey problems and actively recruited scholars and officials, whom he invited to dine with him in his headquarters. In March 1358, he assigned Kang Maocai,
7038-628: The advice of a Confucian official named Liu Zhen, but failed in an attempt to take Yunnan from the Mongols. Ming reigned until he died of illness at the age of 35 in 1366. He was succeeded by his son, Ming Sheng , who surrendered to the Ming dynasty in 1371. Historical records commonly portray the Red Turban Army as dealing with captive Yuan officials and soldiers with considerable violence. In his work on violence in rural China, William T. Rowe writes: The Red Army brutally killed every Yuan official it could lay its hands on: in one instance,
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#17327837956737176-519: The age of 13. He was the last emperor of the Yuan dynasty. By the time Kublai (Emperor Shizu) conquered the Central Plain , the Yuan army was composed mostly of professional Han soldiers who had once been subject to the Jin dynasty prior to its conquest by the Mongols. These soldiers, sometimes under Mongol or Inner Asian command, were garrisoned across the empire and served as the primary body of
7314-419: The age of 16, in 1344, Zhu's father, mother, and oldest brother died in an epidemic accompanied by summer locusts and drought. The surviving family was too poor to care for Zhu and offered him to a local Buddhist monastery as menial labour. Zhu was sent out by the monastery to beg for food. For the next three years Zhu wandered around as a mendicant monk, during which time he came to understand the circumstances of
7452-661: The armed rebellion. The earliest record of an unusual epidemic during the 14th century says that in the year 1331, an epidemic occurred in Hebei and then spread elsewhere, killing 13 million people by 1333. Another epidemic ravaged Fujian and Shandong from 1344 to 1346. The epidemic returned in Shanxi , Hebei, and Jiangsu in 1351–52. Additional epidemics were recorded in various provinces from 1356 to 1360 and "great pestilences" every year from 1356 to 1362. In Shanxi and Hebei, 200,000 people died in 1358. The rebellions themselves were
7590-510: The army was made up of 17 guards consisting of veterans who had previously served before 1363. The older veterans were demobilized, while the others were assigned to the garrison in Nanjing where they worked as military peasants, using their production to provide food for the army. Additional soldiers, who were reliable but had shorter periods of service, were acquired during the conquest of southern Anhui and central Zhejiang. They were stationed in
7728-499: The attacking troops, and the plan was executed with ease due to the attacking army's superiority. The ten-month siege of Suzhou began in December 1366. In January 1367, Han Lin'er drowned in the Yangtze River. As a result, Zhu's state of Wu officially declared its independence. A year later, in 1368, Zhu Yuanzhang proclaimed himself emperor and changed the name of the state. He followed the Mongol tradition of elevating titles and named
7866-539: The basics of Buddhism. In 1352, when the Mongol army burned down the monks' dwellings during the Red Turban Rebellion , Zhu joined one of the rebel divisions. The harsh taxation policies, famine, and catastrophic flooding in the Yellow River basin, caused by inadequate flood control measures, led to widespread opposition to the rule of the Mongol Yuan dynasty. This discontent was further fueled by
8004-423: The border with Zhang's state was fortified on both sides and remained stable until 1366. In Zhejiang , from 1358 to 1359, he controlled four impoverished inland prefectures, while Zhang Shicheng held control over four prosperous northern coastal prefectures, and Fang Guozhen occupied the eastern coast of the province. In the summer of 1359, the Mongol warlord Chaghan Temur expelled Han Lin'er from Kaifeng . Han
8142-468: The capital and seized control of it himself in 1364. Bolad Temur was assassinated in August 1365, after which Köke Temür escorted Ayushiridara back to the capital, where he remained for some time before returning to Henan . Köke Temür went to war with Li Siqi , Zhang Liangbi, Törebeg, and Kong Xing. The latter three being former associates of Bolad. The emperor ordered Köke Temür to ignore them and defend
8280-704: The capital. He succeeded his adoptive father when he died in 1362. Upon his father's death, Köke Temür was tasked with retaking Shandong from the rebels. He besieged the rebel base at Yidu and after several months, brought it down by tunneling under the walls. He captured the assassins of Chaghan Temur, Tian Feng and Wang Shicheng, and sacrificed them to his father's spirit. Meanwhile, due to Bolad Temur's machinations at court to remove crown prince Ayushiridara , Köke Temür remained estranged from court. Bolad Temur and Köke Temür engaged in open warfare in Shanxi , which turned in Köke Temür's favor in 1363. Bolad Temur fled to
8418-497: The captured city of Kaifeng to confirm plans for the campaign. In mid-August, the Ming army resumed its march and reached Dadu (present-day Beijing ) in early September. They defeated the Mongol army outside the city and then occupied it, while the Yuan emperor Toghon Temür fled north to Shangdu . The city was renamed Beiping (Pacified North) by the Chinese. The campaign then continued with an attack on Shanxi . In January 1369,
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#17327837956738556-460: The captured prince Maidilibala to Mongolia. A favorite passage of the Hongwu Emperor from Daode jing ( The Way and Its Power ): Let the state be small and the people few: So that the people... So that the people... Though adjoining states be within sight of one another The Hongwu Emperor's public statements were filled with sympathy for the peasants and a deep distrust of the wealthy landowners and scholars. He often referred to himself as
8694-508: The central and eastern armies were ultimately defeated by the Mongols. These failures in 1372 shattered the Hongwu Emperor's dream of becoming the heir to the entire Yuan Empire, both in China and on the steppe. Furthermore, Japanese piracy increased and rebellions broke out in the provinces of Guangxi , Huguang , Sichuan, and Shaanxi. As a result, the Chinese forces in the north shifted their focus to defense, and two years later, they returned
8832-477: The city. After conquering it, he renamed the city Yingtian, which means "In response to Heaven". In May 1356, Han Lin'er appointed Zhu as the head of Jiangnan Province, one of the five provinces of the Song state. Guo's remaining son was chosen as his deputy. However, Zhu soon accused Guo's son of plotting against him and had him executed. This allowed Zhu to establish clear leadership and he immediately began to build his administration. However, he could not fully trust
8970-401: The concept of country administration from them and implemented it in the territory he controlled, eventually expanding it to the entire country. He gradually defeated rival rebel leaders, with the decisive moment being his victory over Chen Youliang in the Battle of Lake Poyang in 1363. In 1364, he declared himself King of Wu. In 1367, however, he still acknowledged his formal subordination to
9108-406: The conditions laid out, Zhang was supposed to send a million piculs of rice to Khanbaliq every year by sea, but the Yuan capital never received more than 15% of the agreed amount. In 1363, Zhang took control of Hangzhou and declared himself Prince of Wu. Zhang attacked Zhu Yuanzhang but failed to defeat him and in 1364, Zhu also declared himself Prince of Wu. By late autumn of 1365, Zhu had taken
9246-400: The court and moved troops of his own will. Chaghan Temur was assassinated in 1362 by Tian Feng and Wang Shicheng, two former Yuan generals who then fled to join the rebels. Köke Temür , originally named Wang Baobao, was the adopted son and nephew of Chaghan Temur through his sister. Wang Baobao received the name Köke Temür from Toghon Temür in 1361 when he delivered a shipment of grain to
9384-693: The empire "Great Ming" ( Da Ming ; 大明 ; 'Great Radiance'). He also renamed the upcoming "second year of the Wu era" as the "first year of the Hongwu era" ( 洪武 ; 'vastly martial'). In the autumn of 1367, Zhu's troops launched an attack against Fang Guozhen. By December of that year, they had successfully taken control of the entire coast. In November 1367, Hu Mei 's army, along with the fleets of Tang He and Liao Yongzhong, began their journey south. By February 1368, they had easily conquered Fujian, and by April 1368, they had also taken control of Guangdong. In July 1368, with
9522-416: The empire was Nanjing (Southern Capital), which was known as Yingtian until 1368. In the 1360s and 1370s, the capital underwent extensive construction. A workforce of 200,000 individuals surrounded the city with walls that were almost 26 km long, making them the longest in the world at the time. Additionally, an imperial palace and government quarter were built. In 1368, the emperor resided in Kaifeng during
9660-423: The end of 1353, Zhang had taken the city of Gaoyou . In the summer of 1357, Zhu Yuanzhang captured Zhang Shicheng's brother, Shide , and tried to use him to bargain for Zhang's surrender. Shide secretly sent a letter to his brother telling him to surrender to the Yuan instead, then starved himself to death in prison. Zhang accepted titles from the Yuan court later that year but was de facto still independent. Under
9798-516: The end of the 1350s Li had become the dominant local power in Shaanxi . After Chaghan Temur's death, Li refused to acknowledge Köke Temür as Chaghan Temur's successor and went to war with him. Li surrendered to the Ming dynasty on 21 May 1369. Chen Youding was born to an illiterate farmer's family in Fuzhou . Orphaned at an early age, he joined the military in the 1350s and was given charge of
9936-400: The enemy could exploit the potential of the newly conquered territories. However, their offensive was repulsed in the spring of 1365. Before launching a final attack on the enemy's heartland, the Suzhou region, Zhu and his generals decided to first "cut off the wings" of Wu by occupying the territory north of the Yangtze and the Wu part of Zhejiang. Xu Da was appointed as the supreme commander of
10074-477: The eyes of the Yuan dynasty. Guo submitted to Peng, while his four colleagues submitted to Zhao. On 15 April 1352, Zhu Yuanzhang arrived in the city. Despite starting as a rank-and-file fighter, his exceptional leadership, decisiveness, warrior skills, and intelligence quickly gained him significant authority. Not only was Zhu known for his intelligence, but also for his unattractive appearance. He swiftly recruited 24 companions, who would eventually become generals in
10212-737: The final ruler of a dynasty, monarchs who died prematurely, or monarchs who were deposed, most Chinese monarchs were given temple names by their descendants. The practice of honoring rulers with temple names had since been adopted by other dynastic regimes within the East Asian cultural sphere|Sinosphere, including those based on the Korean Peninsula and in Vietnam. Japan, while having adopted both posthumous names and era names from China, did not assign temple names to its monarchs. Most temple names consist of two Chinese characters, unlike
10350-424: The final stage of a long history of Chinese resentment against Mongol rule, expressed at the elite level by reluctance to serve in the government and at the popular level by clandestine sectarian activity. The occasion for the rebellions was the failure of the Yuan regime to cope with widespread famine in the 1340s. By the time those occurred, paradoxically the Yuan ruling elite had largely come to an accommodation with
10488-531: The financial and examination systems , proved to be resilient. The census, land registration and tax system, and the Weisuo military system all endured until the end of the dynasty. His descendants continued to rule over all of China until 1644, and the southern region for an additional seventeen years. Zhu Yuanzhang was born in 1328 in Zhongli ( 鍾離 ) village, located in Haozhou (present-day Fengyang , Anhui ). He
10626-403: The first months of 1355, at which point Guo Zixing had died, Zhu started preparations to attack Nanjing . The siege in mid-August was a failure but Zhu's forces remained stable and took the surrounding countryside. In October, the Red Turbans tried to take Nanjing again, and in the process both of Guo's successors were killed, leaving Zhu Yuanzhang in sole command of his forces. His background
10764-474: The following four-year war, he drove out the Mongol armies loyal to the Yuan dynasty and unified the country. However, his attempt to conquer Mongolia ended in failure. During the thirty-year reign of the Hongwu Emperor, Ming China experienced significant growth and recovered from the effects of prolonged wars. The emperor had a strong understanding of the structure of society and believed in implementing reforms to improve institutions. This approach differed from
10902-479: The former Han territory, with field armies concentrated in Nanchang and Wuchang, and garrisons scattered across Jiangxi and Huguang. The remaining soldiers, mostly former Han soldiers, were joined by some veterans in the field armies sent to fight against the state of Wu under the leadership of Generals Xu Da and Chang Yuchun. After Chen Youliang's defeat, Zhu took on the title of King of Wu ( Wu wang ) starting from
11040-541: The future capital, named Zhongdu ( 中都 ; 'Central Capital'), began with grand plans. The area had been largely abandoned since the famine of the 1340s, so landless families from the south were resettled in Fengyang. However, in 1375, the emperor ultimately abandoned the idea of relocating the capital and the construction was halted. Upon ascending to the throne, the Hongwu Emperor appointed his wife as empress and his eldest son, Zhu Biao, as his heir. He surrounded himself with
11178-515: The future, as well as any changes to his laws. The compilation of the new code, known as the Great Ming Code , began in 1364. This code, which was heavily influenced by Confucian principles, was largely based on the old Tang Code of 653. The initial wording was agreed upon in 1367, and the final version was adopted in 1397. It remained unchanged until the fall of the empire, although additional provisions were later added. The capital of
11316-454: The hands of their enemies. In contrast, Zhu placed great importance on maintaining orderly government and promoting a peaceful life for the inhabitants of his territory. He achieved this by working closely with local elites and understanding the needs of the villagers, having grown up as the son of a poor peasant himself. Zhu's principles also proved beneficial for the economy of the controlled territory. In 1361, he began minting coins, established
11454-489: The imperial family. The administrative structure of the Ming dynasty was modeled after the Yuan model. The civil administration was led by the Central Secretariat , headed by two Grand Councilors who were informally known as Prime Ministers. This Secretariat was responsible for six ministries: Personnel , Revenue , Rites , War , Justice , and (Public) Works . The Censorate oversaw the administration, while
11592-547: The imperial title. In June, Li conquered Yingchang and Ajushiridara fled. However, his empress and son Maidilibala were captured along with more than 50,000 soldiers. The Mongolian ruler continued to flee until reaching Karakorum, where the remnants of Köke's army had also retreated. After successfully defeating the Mongols, the Ming government shifted its focus to the Xia state in Sichuan. Despite maintaining positive relations with
11730-483: The local Yuan commander, Chen Esen, who then surrendered to him. However, in September 1355, during an attempt to conquer Jiqing (present-day Nanjing), Chen Esen betrayed Guo Tianxu. In the ensuing battles, Guo Tianxu, Zhang Tianyu and Chen Esen himself were killed. In March 1356, Zhu once again marched on Jiqing. The new Mongol commander, Chen Zhaoxian ( 陳兆先 ), who was the nephew and successor of Chen Esen, surrendered with 36,000 men. In April 1356, Zhu successfully entered
11868-534: The local leaders in Jiangxi to join his cause and attack Nanjing. However, the Nanchang garrison , led by Deng Yu ( 鄧兪 ), held out until early June 1363. In mid-August, Zhu's army and fleet finally set out from Nanjing with approximately 100,000 soldiers. The two fleets clashed on Lake Poyang on 29 August 1363, engaging in a four-day battle that resulted in the defeat of the Han fleet and the death of Chen Youliang. In 1364–1365, Zhu focused on conquering and absorbing
12006-463: The loyalty of his generals. Until the victory at Lake Poyang in 1363, there were instances of betrayal and defection to the enemy. He was now in command of an army of 100,000 soldiers, which was divided into divisions or wings ( 翼 ; yi ). In Nanjing itself, there were eight divisions and one per prefecture. From 1355 to 1357, he launched attacks against Zhang Shicheng in the direction of Suzhou and successfully occupied southern Jiangxi ; after this,
12144-517: The main Red Turban leader, Han Lin'er , who claimed to be the successor of the Song dynasty . In early 1368, after successfully dominating southern and central China, he chose to rename his state. He decided on the name Da Ming , which translates to "Great Radiance", for his empire. Additionally, he designated Hongwu , meaning "Vastly Martial", as the name of the era and the motto of his reign. In
12282-413: The main army, led by Xu Da, captured Taiyuan , while Köke Temür retreated to Gansu . In the spring of 1369, Ming troops also began to occupy Shaanxi . The province was fully taken by September 1369, but border skirmishes with Köke Temür's troops persisted until 1370. In 1370, the Ming government launched a two-pronged attack on Mongolia. Generals Li Wenzhong and Feng Sheng led an attack from Beijing to
12420-486: The months of June–August and October–November, leading to the city being known as Beijing (Northern Capital). In 1369, the Hongwu Emperor proposed a debate on the relocation of the capital. In August, his suggestion to move the capital to Fengyang (then known as Linhuai), the emperor's hometown in northern Anhui , on the south bank of the Huai River, approximately 100 km north of Nanjing, was approved. Construction of
12558-458: The more elaborate posthumous names. In extremely rare cases, temple names could consist of three characters. The first character is an adjective, chosen to reflect the circumstances of the monarch's reign. The vocabulary may overlap with that of the posthumous names' adjectives; however, for one sovereign, the temple name's adjective character usually does not repeat as one of the many adjective characters in his posthumous name. The last character
12696-519: The native Chinese political tradition. The Red Turbans first appeared in Jiangxi and Hunan in the 1330s. From there they spread throughout half of China within a dozen years, moving clandestinely into provinces affected by natural disasters. Their religious teachings created sects with broad local followings that practiced night gatherings of men and women to burn incense and worship Mile Pusa . Eventually these sects coalesced into two broad movements:
12834-478: The new year (4 February) of 1364, which was the same title used by Zhang Shicheng since October 1363. Despite this, he still acknowledged his subordinate status to emperor Han Lin'er and used the Song era of Longfeng as long as Han was alive. However, he ran his own administration, following the model of the Yuan dynasty. In 1365–67, Zhu conquered the Zhang's state of Wu. Zhang attempted to attack in late 1364, before
12972-468: The next day, destroying the Mongols. Despite his losses, Köke Temür escaped total destruction and remained active in the desert. Meanwhile, Toghon Temür died at Yingchang on 23 May 1370 while his son, Biligtü Khan Ayushiridara , fled further into Mongolia. Ayushiridara's son, Maidarbal, and 5,000 Mongol warriors were captured by the Ming. In 1372, an anti-Mongol army 150,000 strong was assembled under Xu Da, Li Wenzhong, and Feng Sheng. Xu Da marched across
13110-514: The north from the Ming dynasty , but Köke Temür ignored his orders. In February 1368, Köke Temür was dismissed from office, and the other warlords ordered to crush him. Köke Temür won the subsequent battles and remained the strongest warlord in the north. Köke Temür came into conflict with the Ming anyways and was defeated in battle on 26 April. Khanbaliq fell to the Ming on 20 September. The Yuan emperor fled to Köke Temür, who took his remaining forces and retreated into Mongolia. The other warlords in
13248-496: The north, while Xu Da attacked from Xi'an against Köke Temür. In early May 1370, Köke Temür was defeated and fled to Karakorum . The Ming forces captured over 84,000 of his troops and continued to advance westward along the Yellow River. At the same time, Li's forces advanced to Shangdu, where the Yuan emperor Toghon Temür retreated further north to Yingchang and died in May 1370. His twenty-three-year-old son Ayushiridara then assumed
13386-676: The northeast, the Red Turbans invaded Goryeo in 1359 and 1360. It is uncertain what exactly caused the Red Turbans to attack Goryeo but it was most likely due to material considerations. The Red Turbans in Liaodong had proven inferior to the soldiers of Chaghan Temur, who had defeated them in battle, and possibly saw Goryeo as an easier target unprotected by Mongol forces. The Red Turbans were also facing starvation and needed grain and supplies. There may have also been ethnic and political reasons. The Korean communities in Liaodong had refused to join
13524-458: The northwest refused to cooperate with Köke Temür even as they fell one by one to the Ming. On 3 May, Ming forces led by Xu Da found Köke Temür in eastern Gansu . The Mongol forces were more numerous than anticipated so the Ming troops took up a defensive position behind a stream. Köke Temür attacked and outflanked the southwestern wing of the Ming army, very nearly routing them. However the Ming army managed to rally and counterattacked successfully
13662-527: The offensive position against Zhang. Zhang was besieged at Suzhou from 27 December 1366 until 1 October 1367, when its defenses fell. Zhang was captured and sent to Nanjing , where he hanged himself in his cell. Fang Guozhen was from Huangyan district on the coast of central Zhejiang . He was illiterate and his family were shipowners who dealt in coastal trade. In 1348, Fang was accused of dealing with pirates, so he killed his accuser and fled to offshore islands with three brothers and local cohorts. He gained
13800-456: The opposing faction leaned towards a more Han -based "Confucian" governing style. The latter group conducted a coup in 1328 to enthrone Kusala (Emperor Mingzong). Kusala was literate in the Chinese language and made efforts to write Chinese poetry and to produce Chinese calligraphy. He patronized Chinese learning and art with a new academy and office in the inner court. Others at court such as
13938-492: The past legitimacy of the Mongol Yuan dynasty and only noted that by his time, the Mongols no longer possessed it. When enemy military leaders and civilians succumbed to Zhu's forces, he gave them honorable burials and established shrines in their memory. Zhu insisted that he was not a rebel, and he attempted to justify his conquest of the other rebel warlords by claiming that he was a Yuan subject divinely-appointed to restore order by crushing rebels. Most Chinese elites did not view
14076-489: The presence of Taoist and Buddhist secret societies and sects, with the most prominent being the White Lotus society. In 1351, a rebellion known as the Red Turban Rebellion erupted and quickly spread throughout northern China. Despite the initial disorganization of the Mongol troops, they were able to launch a counteroffensive and advance along the Grand Canal . In October 1352, the Mongols captured Xuzhou , causing
14214-504: The process of decentralization. At the same time the Yuan also had to contend with rebellious Jurchens , who revolted in 1343. The Jurchens resented the Mongols for having to supply them with gyrfalcons . Efforts to suppress the Jurchen rebellion failed and by 1348, at least two Jurchen groups no longer obeyed Yuan authority. Their leaders claimed to be descendants of the Jin dynasty. Since
14352-404: The province. In January 1363, Zhang Shicheng's army launched a surprise attack on Anfeng, the residence of Song emperor Han Lin'er, resulting in the death of Liu Futong , the de facto leader of the regime. Despite being formally under the control of the Song government, Zhu offered his army to assist Han Lin'er, who was still highly respected among the troops. As a result, the powerless Han Lin'er
14490-593: The provinces. Regional military commanders were then responsible for managing the affairs of military peasants in the Weisuo system. Temple name Modern academia usually refers to the following rulers by their temple names: Chinese monarchs from the Tang to the Yuan dynasties, Korean rulers of the Goryeo (until AD 1274) and Joseon dynasties, and Vietnamese rulers of the Lý , Trần , and Later Lê dynasties (with
14628-474: The purpose of ancestor worship. The temple name of each monarch was recorded on their respective ancestral tablet placed within the grand temple. Temple names trace their origins to the Shang dynasty of China. In earlier times, temple names were exclusively assigned to competent rulers after their death. The temple name system established during the Shang period utilized only four adjectives: Chinese monarchs of
14766-509: The realm through vigorous government action. One of his efforts in this endeavor was to repair and extend the Grand Canal so that the capital, Khanbaliq , could be securely supplied with grain grown in the Changjiang delta. The project's failure in addition to a slew of natural disasters drew harsh criticism from his detractors, leading to his resignation in June 1344. In the summer of 1344,
14904-548: The rebel Song emperor Han Lin'er appointed Guo's eldest son, Guo Tianxu, as his successor. Guo's brother-in-law, Zhang Tianyu, was chosen as the first deputy of the new commander, with Zhu as the second deputy. In order to cross the Yangtze River, the Hezhou rebels required a fleet, which they acquired in July 1355 when a group of rebels from Chao Lake arrived. They successfully crossed the river that same month. Zhu immediately defeated
15042-405: The rebel commanders Peng Da and Zhao Yunyong to flee south to Haozhou. In Haozhou, the Yuan dynasty's power fell in the spring of 1352. Guo Zixing , Sun Deyai, and three other leaders, with the support of the local elite, organized the army and took control in order to establish order in the city and its surrounding areas. The arrival of Peng and Zhao was seen as a clear connection to the rebels in
15180-518: The rebellion. At the age of 24, Zhu returned to the monastery where he learned to read and studied Buddhist texts. On 16 February 1352, Haozhou was captured by the Red Turbans. The Yuan army retaliated by sending raiders to sack Buddhist monasteries, turning Zhu's home into a battlefield. His temple was burned down in the same month. On 15 April, Zhu joined the Red Turban rebellion under Guo Zixing's command. Zhu married an adopted daughter of Guo who would later become empress . In 1353, two other rebels on
15318-408: The region, leaving Guo and Zhu isolated. Zhao sent Guo to the east and Zhu with a small detachment to the south, hoping to divide them and be able to destroy them. However, contrary to Zhao's expectations, Zhu successfully occupied several counties and bolstered his army to 20,000 soldiers. Guo moved with Zhao's ten thousand men to join him. In the beginning of 1355, Zhu, Guo, and Zhang Shicheng , who
15456-501: The reinforcement of Yang Jing 's army from Huguang, Guangxi province was also occupied. At the same time as the southern campaign, Zhu sent a 250,000-strong army, led by Xu Da and Chang Yuchun, to conquer the North China Plain. By March 1368, both land and naval forces had successfully captured Shandong. In May, Henan was also occupied. A pause was taken for agricultural work, during which the emperor met with his generals in
15594-529: The run from Yuan forces took refuge with Guo, but asserted seniority over him and caused factional conflict within the rebel movement. Guo was captured by one of the rebel leaders and was saved by Zhu upon his return from an expedition. A Yuan siege on Haozhou was also ended when their general, Jia Lu, died. Afterwards, Zhu returned to his village and recruited over 700 men led by 24 of his friends, which included figures such as Xu Da , Chang Yuchun , Tang He , Lan Yu , Mu Ying and Geng Bingwen . They were known as
15732-572: The social and economic structure of society were designed to serve this purpose. The chaos and foreign rule that led to the establishment of a new dynasty only reinforced his determination to maintain order. The emperor was meticulous in his efforts to establish a new society after the fall of the Yuan dynasty. He was a dynamic and innovative legislator, constantly issuing, revising, and modifying laws throughout his reign. However, these frequent changes sometimes sparked protests from officials. The emperor's legislation focused on four main themes. The first
15870-498: The southern (or western) Red Turbans in southern Hubei and the northern (or eastern) Red Turbans based in the Huai River region in Anhui . The Red Turban movement traces its origins to Peng Yingyu, a Buddhist monk , who led an uprising in Yuanzhou (in modern Jiangxi ) in 1338. A rebel leader, Zhou Ziwang, was proclaimed emperor, but he was quickly apprehended by regional authorities and executed. Peng fled northwards and spread
16008-659: The southwestern border for the next ten years, until the pro-Mongol Yunnan was conquered in 1381-1382. In 1372, the emperor launched a massive attack on Mongolia, with Xu Da leading a 150,000-strong army from Shanxi through the Gobi to Karakorum. In the west, Feng Sheng was assigned to conquer the western part of the Gansu Corridor with 50,000 cavalrymen, while Li Wenzhong was tasked with attacking eastern Mongolia and Manchuria with another 50,000 soldiers. Although Feng Sheng's forces were able to successfully complete their mission,
16146-517: The summer of 1351, Peng Yingyu and his principal military follower, Zou Pusheng, found in Xu Shouhui , a cloth peddler, the makings of a Red Turban figurehead. In September, Zou captured the city of Qishui in southern Hubei and enthroned Xu Shouhui as emperor over the Red Turban dynasty of "Tianwan" (Heaven Consummated). The new dynasty expanded southward and briefly held Hanyang , Hankou , and Wuchang before being driven off in 1352. In 1355, Zou
16284-504: The support of his officers who shared his devotion to the teachings of the White Lotus. In 1354, he began working with Li Shanchang , a landowner from Dingyuan County, the first county conquered by Zhu. Li Shanchang was responsible for running the civil administration, and as Zhu conquered more cities, he recruited more scholars to join his cause. After repeated requests from Zhu in 1360, a group of prominent scholars, led by Song Lian and Liu Ji , joined his service. These scholars, known as
16422-546: The teaching of the coming of the Maitreya , the Buddha of wealth and radiance, who would bring an end to suffering. Red Turban influence appeared in many places along the Huai River from 1340 onward. In 1351, a mass mobilization of workers from the farming population, numbering 150,000 in total, for a project to rechannel the Yellow River and to open the Grand Canal in western Shandong saw ripe conditions for recruitment by
16560-514: The territories he conquered. However, Zhu feared the advance of the Yuan troops in the southern direction, all the way to Nanjing. As a result, he proposed cooperation with Chaghan Temur. After Chaghan Temur's army was unable to make progress in Shandong and he was murdered in the summer of 1362, the threat from the Yuan side disappeared. As a result, Zhu rejected the Yuan government's offer of the post of governor of Jiangxi province. The ideology of
16698-613: The territory he absorbed from his victory over Zhang. Zhu continued to use the Song's reign period as his official calendar until Han Lin'er drowned while crossing the Changjiang in January 1367, possibly by design. Calling to overthrow the " barbarians " and restore the "Chinese", Zhu gained popular support. A calendar called that of the Great Ming dynasty , beginning on 20 January 1368, was promulgated. On 12 January 1368, Zhu Yuanzhang proclaimed himself emperor ( Hongwu Emperor ) of
16836-411: The throne, renaming the dynasty to Han . He immediately launched an attack on Nanjing but failed to take it and was forced to return to Wuchang, which he made his capital. Chen attacked Zhu Yuanzhang and was defeated, being ejected from Jiangxi in 1361. Chen made a final attempt at defeating Zhu in 1363, sending a large armada down the Changjiang into Lake Poyang . Chen and Zhu's forces engaged in
16974-499: Was a boatman from the market settlement of Bojuchang (modern Dafeng District ) in northern Jiangsu . He engaged in transportation of illegal salt trade. In 1353, at the age of 32, Zhang killed one of the rich merchants who had cheated him and set fire to the local community. Then with his brothers and a group of 18 followers, Zhang fled and turned to banditry. Within a few weeks Zhang had recruited more than ten thousand followers, whom he led to plunder Taizhou and other nearby cities. By
17112-412: Was a broad desire to restore order and morality in society. The second was the regulation of the bureaucracy, including disciplining followers and managing the government. The third was the removal of corrupt and unreliable officials. Finally, the emperor also sought to resist the natural decline that comes with time. As the patriarch of the family, he aimed to prevent the decay of society and the dynasty in
17250-610: Was forced to survive by begging as an itinerant monk . This difficult upbringing had a profound impact on the future emperor's life. He developed a deep understanding of the struggles faced by ordinary people, while harboring disdain for scholars who only gained knowledge from books. In 1352, he joined one of the rebel divisions. He quickly distinguished himself among the rebels and rose to lead his own army. In 1356, he conquered Nanjing and established it as his capital. He formed his own government, consisting of both generals and Confucian scholars, rejecting Mongol rule over China. He adopted
17388-406: Was genuinely that of the poorest level of the "oppressed masses". His education was rudimentary, and he shared no common ground with the traditional governing stratum. But he was convinced by his early literati assistants that he too, on the model of the founder of the Han dynasty at the end of the third century B.C. (whose origins, although not as humble as Chu's, made him a close model), could become
17526-547: Was later amended to Chengzu by the Jiajing Emperor . There were also instances of individuals ruling as the sovereign of a particular realm but being accorded a temple name by another realm, as was the case for Möngke of the Mongol Empire , who was later honored as Xianzong by Emperor Shizu of the Yuan dynasty . The "temple" in "temple name" (廟號) refers to the grand temples (太廟) built by each dynasty for
17664-501: Was left with only a few hundred soldiers, but as Chaghan Temur focused on conquering Shandong , Han's group was able to survive in Anfeng, a prefectural city in the west of Anhui. After the retreat from Kaifeng, the Song government's power weakened rapidly. Apart from Zhu Yuanzhang's effectively independent Jiangnan, no Song province survived 1362. In 1361, Han Lin'er appointed Zhu as the Duke of Wu ( Wu Guogong ) and recognized his rule in all
17802-484: Was located further east, made the decision to leave the war-torn territories and cross the Yangtze River to the prosperous southern regions that had not yet been affected by the war. However, a dispute arose between Guo and Zhu over the city of Hezhou, situated on the banks of the Yangtze River. Zhu even formed an alliance with Sun Deyai, Guo's old enemy. Before the conflict could escalate, Guo died. Following this,
17940-583: Was made hereditary earl. Basalawarmi , the Prince of Liang, and head of government in Yunnan , committed suicide when the region was conquered by the Ming dynasty in 1382. Yunnan played no major role in the events of the 1350s and 1360s. Naghachu was a Mongol leader captured by Zhu Yuanzhang in 1355. He was released in the hope of creating good will with the Mongols, but he left to create an independent Mongol military establishment in Liaodong . He remained
18078-615: Was proclaimed the "Young Prince of Radiance" hailing from Song dynasty royalty. Han Lin'er was proclaimed emperor of a restored Song dynasty in Bozhou (in western Anhui) on 16 March 1355. On 11 June 1358, Liu Futong set out to capture Kaifeng , which had been the capital of the Song dynasty. The city was only held briefly by the new Song dynasty before a counteroffensive by Chaghan Temur forced them to retreat on 10 September 1359. Han Lin'er's court fled to Anfeng where they remained until Zhang Shicheng sent an army against them in 1363. In
18216-405: Was relocated to Chuzhou , located west of Nanjing on the opposite side of the Yangtze River. However, the army remained stationed in the north until August 1363. The departure of Zhu's main forces to the north presented Chen with an opportunity to turn the tide of the war. He quickly raised an army of 300,000, outnumbering Zhu's remaining forces. Chen's plan was to capture Nanchang and then rally
18354-424: Was rewarded with office in the prefecture. In 1363 he led provincial armies to recapture Guangzhou from pirates. He became head of the provincial government in 1366. When the Ming armies approached in 1368, he readily gave up his position and surrendered. After an interview with Zhu Yuanzhang in Nanjing , he was awarded with honors and posts in the provincial government. He Zhen retired at the age of 65 in 1387 and
18492-404: Was succeeded by Ni Wenjun as military leader. Ni took Hanyang again in 1356 and moved the dynasty's capital there. The next year, Ni attempted to murder Xu and replace him but failed. He was executed and replaced by Chen Youliang . Under Chen, the dynasty's territories rapidly expanded and in less than two years, had taken Chongqing and held all of Sichuan . In 1360, Chen murdered Xu and seized
18630-471: Was successfully campaigning against Zhang Shicheng . After his removal, the offensive against Zhang fell apart, and the Yuan court lost the last vestige of control it held over its own military forces. Chaghan Temur was a fourth generation descendant of a Naiman clan that had settled in Shenqiu on the eastern border of Henan . Chaghan Temur's great-grandfather assisted the Mongol conquest of China in
18768-409: Was taken by the Ming general Chang Yuchun on 20 July 1369, forcing Toghon Temür to flee further north to Karakorum . China proper was once again under ethnic Han rule. Toqto'a was the primary decision maker behind the Yuan throne starting in 1340 after taking power in a coup supported by the emperor Toghon Temür . As chancellor, he supported Confucian forms of government and sought to stabilize
18906-612: Was the case for Emperor Huan , whose temple name, Weizong , was abolished by Emperor Xian of the Eastern Han dynasty . In other cases, numerous individuals were honored with more than one temple name by intentional changes or being accorded different titles by different individuals. For instance, the Yongle Emperor of the Ming dynasty was originally honored as Taizong by the Hongxi Emperor , but his temple name
19044-440: Was the youngest of four sons in a poor peasant family. He was given the name Zhu Chongba ( 朱重八 ) at birth, but later used the name Zhu Xingzong ( 朱興宗 ) in adulthood. After joining the rebels, he went by the name Zhu Yuanzhang. His father, Zhu Wusi , lived in Nanjing but fled to the countryside to avoid tax collectors. His paternal grandfather was a gold miner, and his maternal grandfather was a fortune-teller and seer. In 1344, during
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