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125-677: The First Helvetic Confession ( Latin : Confessio Helvetica prior ), known also as the Second Confession of Basel , was drawn up in Basel in 1536 by Heinrich Bullinger and Leo Jud of Zurich, Kaspar Megander of Bern , Oswald Myconius and Simon Grynaeus of Basel, Martin Bucer and Wolfgang Capito of Strasbourg , with other representatives from Schaffhausen , St Gall , Mühlhausen and Biel . Bucer and Capito in particular aimed to reconcile Reformed and Lutheran doctrine through

250-426: A Christian work. For I am convinced that it is God's will that we should hear and learn what He has done, especially what Christ suffered. But when I hear these things and meditate upon them, I find it impossible not to picture them in my heart. Whether I want to or not, when I hear, of Christ, a human form hanging upon a cross rises up in my heart: just as I see my natural face reflected when I look into water. Now if it

375-520: A booty of 20 million dinars . The attack may have been inspired by the belief that an idol of the goddess Manat had been secretly transferred to the temple. According to the Ghaznavid court-poet Farrukhi Sistani , who claimed to have accompanied Mahmud on his raid, Somnat (as rendered in Persian ) was a garbled version of su-manat referring to the goddess Manat. According to him, as well as

500-486: A campaign of intolerance towards the traditional gods and a new emphasis on a state monolatristic tradition focused on the god Aten , the Sun disk—many temples and monuments were destroyed as a result: In rebellion against the old religion and the powerful priests of Amun , Akhenaten ordered the eradication of all of Egypt's traditional gods. He sent royal officials to chisel out and destroy every reference to Amun and

625-584: A complex ritual choreography set in a richly furnished church interior." For Lutherans, "the Reformation renewed rather than removed the religious image." Lutheran scholar Jeremiah Ohl writes: Zwingli and others for the sake of saving the Word rejected all plastic art; Luther, with an equal concern for the Word, but far more conservative, would have all the arts to be the servants of the Gospel. "I am not of

750-474: A difference between the sign and thing signified of the sacraments, and thus the dependance of the efficacy of the sacraments upon God's faithfulness rather than the minister's ( ex opere operato ). Chapter 21 states that the body of Christ is in heaven, and therefore our worship must be directed towards heaven, although Christ is spiritually present in us, and thus condemns the Eucharistic adoration of

875-526: A faster pace. It is characterised by greater use of prepositions, and word order that is closer to modern Romance languages, for example, while grammatically retaining more or less the same formal rules as Classical Latin. Ultimately, Latin diverged into a distinct written form, where the commonly spoken form was perceived as a separate language, for instance early French or Italian dialects, that could be transcribed differently. It took some time for these to be viewed as wholly different from Latin however. After

1000-731: A favorable hold on the Swiss churches, who had found the First Confession too short and too Lutheran. However, 'the Basel clergy refused to sign the confession, stating that although they found no fault with it, they preferred to stand by their own Basel Confession of 1534.' Due to this near-universal approval in Reformed Switzerland, Frederick presented it to the Diet of Augsburg of 1566 as an authoritative document representing

1125-743: A few in German , Dutch , Norwegian , Danish and Swedish . Latin is still spoken in Vatican City, a city-state situated in Rome that is the seat of the Catholic Church . The works of several hundred ancient authors who wrote in Latin have survived in whole or in part, in substantial works or in fragments to be analyzed in philology . They are in part the subject matter of the field of classics . Their works were published in manuscript form before

1250-399: A few of them survive." In Japan during the early modern age, the spread of Catholicism also involved the repulsion of non-Christian religious structures, including Buddhist temples and Shinto shrines and figures. At times of conflict with rivals or some time after the conversion of several daimyos , Christian converts would often destroy Buddhist and Shinto religious structures. Many of

1375-404: A few. Famous and well regarded writers included Petrarch, Erasmus, Salutati , Celtis , George Buchanan and Thomas More . Non fiction works were long produced in many subjects, including the sciences, law, philosophy, historiography and theology. Famous examples include Isaac Newton 's Principia . Latin was also used as a convenient medium for translations of important works first written in

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1500-459: A hideous triumph in the market-place before all the country, when all the mangled organ pipes, vestments, both copes and surplices, together with the leaden cross which had newly been sawn down from the Green-yard pulpit and the service-books and singing books that could be carried to the fire in the public market-place were heaped together. Protestant Christianity was not uniformly hostile to

1625-519: A later Ghaznavid historian Abu Sa'id Gardezi , the images of the other goddesses were destroyed in Arabia but the one of Manat was secretly sent away to Kathiawar (in modern Gujarat) for safekeeping. Since the idol of Manat was an aniconic image of black stone, it could have been easily confused with a lingam at Somnath. Mahmud is said to have broken the idol and taken away parts of it as loot and placed so that people would walk on it. In his letters to

1750-625: A minister of the gospel in times of distress and trial (cf. Jas. v. 16). The keys of the kingdom of heaven, out of which the Papists forge swords, sceptres, and crowns, are given to all legitimate ministers of the Church in the preaching of the Gospel and the maintenance of discipline (Matt. xvi. 19; John xx. 23; Mark xvi. 15; 2 Cor. v. 18, 19). We condemn the lucrative Popish doctrines of penance and indulgences, and apply to them Peter's word to Simon Magus, Thy money perish with thee . Chapter 16 describes

1875-560: A native language, Medieval Latin was used across Western and Catholic Europe during the Middle Ages as a working and literary language from the 9th century to the Renaissance , which then developed a classicizing form, called Renaissance Latin . This was the basis for Neo-Latin which evolved during the early modern period . In these periods Latin was used productively and generally taught to be written and spoken, at least until

2000-485: A purely Islamic coinage with lettering only. A letter by the Patriarch Germanus , written before 726 to two iconoclast bishops, says that "now whole towns and multitudes of people are in considerable agitation over this matter," but there is little written evidence of the debate. Government-led iconoclasm began with Byzantine Emperor Leo III , who issued a series of edicts between 726 and 730 against

2125-567: A result, the list has variants, as well as alternative names. In addition to the historical phases, Ecclesiastical Latin refers to the styles used by the writers of the Roman Catholic Church from late antiquity onward, as well as by Protestant scholars. The earliest known form of Latin is Old Latin, also called Archaic or Early Latin, which was spoken from the Roman Kingdom , traditionally founded in 753 BC, through

2250-407: A separate language, existing more or less in parallel with the literary or educated Latin, but this is now widely dismissed. The term 'Vulgar Latin' remains difficult to define, referring both to informal speech at any time within the history of Latin, and the kind of informal Latin that had begun to move away from the written language significantly in the post-Imperial period, that led ultimately to

2375-709: A small number of Latin services held in the Anglican church. These include an annual service in Oxford, delivered with a Latin sermon; a relic from the period when Latin was the normal spoken language of the university. In the Western world, many organizations, governments and schools use Latin for their mottos due to its association with formality, tradition, and the roots of Western culture . Canada's motto A mari usque ad mare ("from sea to sea") and most provincial mottos are also in Latin. The Canadian Victoria Cross

2500-429: A sort of informal language academy dedicated to maintaining and perpetuating educated speech. Philological analysis of Archaic Latin works, such as those of Plautus , which contain fragments of everyday speech, gives evidence of an informal register of the language, Vulgar Latin (termed sermo vulgi , "the speech of the masses", by Cicero ). Some linguists, particularly in the nineteenth century, believed this to be

2625-572: A spoken and written language by the scholarship by the Renaissance humanists . Petrarch and others began to change their usage of Latin as they explored the texts of the Classical Latin world. Skills of textual criticism evolved to create much more accurate versions of extant texts through the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, and some important texts were rediscovered. Comprehensive versions of authors' works were published by Isaac Casaubon , Joseph Scaliger and others. Nevertheless, despite

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2750-432: A strictly left-to-right script. During the late republic and into the first years of the empire, from about 75 BC to AD 200, a new Classical Latin arose, a conscious creation of the orators, poets, historians and other literate men, who wrote the great works of classical literature , which were taught in grammar and rhetoric schools. Today's instructional grammars trace their roots to such schools , which served as

2875-581: A strong tradition of forbidding the depiction of figures, especially religious figures, with Sunni Islam forbidding it more than Shia Islam . In the history of Islam , the act of removing idols from the Ka'ba in Mecca has great symbolic and historic importance for all believers. In general, Muslim societies have avoided the depiction of living beings (both animals and humans) within such sacred spaces as mosques and madrasahs . This ban on figural representation

3000-440: A sufficient testimony of being written in the book of life if we live in communion with Christ, and if in true faith He is ours and we are His.' The chapter references Philippians 2:13 , For it is God which worketh in you both to will and to do of his good pleasure. Chapter 11, besides confessing the hypostatic union of Christ's human and divine nature, accepts 'believingly and reverently the communication of properties , which

3125-693: A vernacular, such as those of Descartes . Latin education underwent a process of reform to classicise written and spoken Latin. Schooling remained largely Latin medium until approximately 1700. Until the end of the 17th century, the majority of books and almost all diplomatic documents were written in Latin. Afterwards, most diplomatic documents were written in French (a Romance language ) and later native or other languages. Education methods gradually shifted towards written Latin, and eventually concentrating solely on reading skills. The decline of Latin education took several centuries and proceeded much more slowly than

3250-411: Is Veritas ("truth"). Veritas was the goddess of truth, a daughter of Saturn, and the mother of Virtue. Switzerland has adopted the country's Latin short name Helvetia on coins and stamps, since there is no room to use all of the nation's four official languages . For a similar reason, it adopted the international vehicle and internet code CH , which stands for Confoederatio Helvetica ,

3375-897: Is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages . Latin was originally spoken by the Latins in Latium (now known as Lazio ), the lower Tiber area around Rome , Italy. Through the expansion of the Roman Republic it became the dominant language in the Italian Peninsula and subsequently throughout the Roman Empire . By the late Roman Republic , Old Latin had evolved into standardized Classical Latin . Vulgar Latin refers to

3500-640: Is a reversal of the original phrase Non terrae plus ultra ("No land further beyond", "No further!"). According to legend , this phrase was inscribed as a warning on the Pillars of Hercules , the rocks on both sides of the Strait of Gibraltar and the western end of the known, Mediterranean world. Charles adopted the motto following the discovery of the New World by Columbus, and it also has metaphorical suggestions of taking risks and striving for excellence. In

3625-405: Is called (by iconoclasts) an iconolater ; in a Byzantine context, such a person is called an iconodule or iconophile. Iconoclasm does not generally encompass the destruction of the images of a specific ruler after his or her death or overthrow, a practice better known as damnatio memoriae . While iconoclasm may be carried out by adherents of a different religion , it is more commonly

3750-540: Is deduced from Scripture and employed by the universal ancient Church in explaining and reconciling passages apparently in contradiction.' Chapter 14 describes the Protestant doctrine of penitence . It is sufficient to confess our sins to God in private and in the public service; it is not necessary to confess to a priest, for this is nowhere commanded in the Scriptures; although we may seek counsel and comfort from

3875-552: Is found in any widespread language, the languages of Spain, France, Portugal, and Italy have retained a remarkable unity in phonological forms and developments, bolstered by the stabilising influence of their common Christian (Roman Catholic) culture. It was not until the Muslim conquest of Spain in 711, cutting off communications between the major Romance regions, that the languages began to diverge seriously. The spoken Latin that would later become Romanian diverged somewhat more from

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4000-689: Is modelled after the British Victoria Cross which has the inscription "For Valour". Because Canada is officially bilingual, the Canadian medal has replaced the English inscription with the Latin Pro Valore . Spain's motto Plus ultra , meaning "even further", or figuratively "Further!", is also Latin in origin. It is taken from the personal motto of Charles V , Holy Roman Emperor and King of Spain (as Charles I), and

4125-628: Is not based on the Qur'an , instead, it is based on traditions which are described within the Hadith . The prohibition of figuration has not always been extended to the secular sphere, and a robust tradition of figural representation exists within Muslim art . However, Western authors have tended to perceive "a long, culturally determined, and unchanging tradition of violent iconoclastic acts" within Islamic society . The first act of Muslim iconoclasm dates to

4250-587: Is not sinful for me to have Christ's picture in my heart, why should it be sinful to have it before my eyes? The Ottoman Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent , who had pragmatic reasons to support the Dutch Revolt (the rebels, like himself, were fighting against Spain) also completely approved of their act of "destroying idols," which accorded well with Muslim teachings. A bit later in Dutch history, in 1627

4375-530: Is strange that Aaron could so easily avoid the role of the religious criminal. It is more than probable that these traditions evolved under mutual influence. In this respect, Moses and Akhenaten became, after all, closely related. According to the Hebrew Bible , God instructed the Israelites to "destroy all [the] engraved stones, destroy all [the] molded images, and demolish all [the] high places" of

4500-959: Is taught at many high schools, especially in Europe and the Americas. It is most common in British public schools and grammar schools, the Italian liceo classico and liceo scientifico , the German Humanistisches Gymnasium and the Dutch gymnasium . Occasionally, some media outlets, targeting enthusiasts, broadcast in Latin. Notable examples include Radio Bremen in Germany, YLE radio in Finland (the Nuntii Latini broadcast from 1989 until it

4625-524: Is the sign, regeneration and adoption the reality; in the Supper the bread and wine are signs, communion of the body and blood of the Lord is the spiritual reality'. Finally, Articles XXIV-XXVIII treat of public worship, ceremonies, marriage and schism. The Second Helvetic Confession (Latin: Confessio Helvetica posterior ) was written by Bullinger in 1562 and revised in 1564 as a private exercise. It came to

4750-464: Is the social belief in the importance of the destruction of icons and other images or monuments, most frequently for religious or political reasons. People who engage in or support iconoclasm are called iconoclasts , a term that has come to be figuratively applied to any individual who challenges "cherished beliefs or venerated institutions on the grounds that they are erroneous or pernicious." Conversely, one who reveres or venerates religious images

4875-543: The Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum (CIL). Authors and publishers vary, but the format is about the same: volumes detailing inscriptions with a critical apparatus stating the provenance and relevant information. The reading and interpretation of these inscriptions is the subject matter of the field of epigraphy . About 270,000 inscriptions are known. The Latin influence in English has been significant at all stages of its insular development. In

5000-684: The Anabaptists who maintain that a Christian should not hold a civil office, that the magistrate has no right to punish any one by death , or to make war or to demand an oath.' The chapter further states that ' Wars are only justifiable in self-defence and after all efforts at peace have been exhausted.' The Second Helvetic Confession was adopted by the Reformed Church not only throughout Switzerland but in Scotland (1566), Hungary (1567), France (1571), and Poland (1578). Along with

5125-630: The Caliphate , Mahmud exaggerated the size, wealth and religious significance of the Somnath temple, receiving grandiose titles from the Caliph in return. The wooden structure was replaced by Kumarapala (r. 1143–72), who rebuilt the temple out of stone. Historical records which were compiled by the Muslim historian Maulana Hakim Saiyid Abdul Hai attest to the religious violence which occurred during

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5250-586: The Eastern Association of counties. This covered some of the wealthiest counties in England , which in turn financed a substantial and significant military force. After Earl of Manchester was appointed the commanding officer of these forces, in turn he appointed Smasher Dowsing as Provost Marshal , with a warrant to demolish religious images which were considered to be superstitious or linked with popism. Bishop Joseph Hall of Norwich described

5375-583: The Holy See , the primary language of its public journal , the Acta Apostolicae Sedis , and the working language of the Roman Rota . Vatican City is also home to the world's only automatic teller machine that gives instructions in Latin. In the pontifical universities postgraduate courses of Canon law are taught in Latin, and papers are written in the same language. There are

5500-678: The Mamluk dynasty under Qutb-ud-din Aybak . The first mosque built in Delhi, the " Quwwat al-Islam " was built with demolished parts of 20 Hindu and Jain temples. This pattern of iconoclasm was common during his reign. During the Delhi Sultanate , a Muslim army led by Malik Kafur , a general of Alauddin Khalji , pursued four violent campaigns into south India, between 1309 and 1311, against

5625-574: The Middle Ages , borrowing from Latin occurred from ecclesiastical usage established by Saint Augustine of Canterbury in the 6th century or indirectly after the Norman Conquest , through the Anglo-Norman language . From the 16th to the 18th centuries, English writers cobbled together huge numbers of new words from Latin and Greek words, dubbed " inkhorn terms ", as if they had spilled from a pot of ink. Many of these words were used once by

5750-666: The Roman Catholic mass , 'The Mass—whatever it may have been in ancient times—has been turned from a salutary institution into a vain show and surrounded with various abuses which justify its abolition.' Chapter 24 states that the Sabbath is 'observed in Christian freedom, not with Jewish superstition.' Liturgical feasts in honour of saints are rejected. Fasting and self-denial are encouraged and seen as spiritually profitable so long as they are prompted by humility and not by

5875-576: The Roman Rite of the Catholic Church at the Vatican City . The church continues to adapt concepts from modern languages to Ecclesiastical Latin of the Latin language. Contemporary Latin is more often studied to be read rather than spoken or actively used. Latin has greatly influenced the English language , along with a large number of others, and historically contributed many words to

6000-569: The Romance languages . During the Classical period, informal language was rarely written, so philologists have been left with only individual words and phrases cited by classical authors, inscriptions such as Curse tablets and those found as graffiti . In the Late Latin period, language changes reflecting spoken (non-classical) norms tend to be found in greater quantities in texts. As it

6125-541: The Synod of Elvira appeared to endorse iconoclasm; Canon 36 states, "Pictures are not to be placed in churches, so that they do not become objects of worship and adoration." A possible translation is also: "There shall be no pictures in the church, lest what is worshipped and adored should be depicted on the walls." The date of this canon is disputed. Proscription ceased after the destruction of pagan temples. However, widespread use of Christian iconography only began as Christianity increasingly spread among Gentiles after

6250-412: The Thirty-nine Articles , the Westminster Confession of Faith , the Scots Confession and the Heidelberg Catechism is one the most generally recognized confessions of the Reformed Church . According to Dezső Buzogány, 'the Confession had a vital part in [ Hungarian Reformed ] church life in the 17th and 18th centuries. While the Heidelberg Catechism played a major role in educating the congregation and

6375-510: The Western Roman Empire fell in 476 and Germanic kingdoms took its place, the Germanic people adopted Latin as a language more suitable for legal and other, more formal uses. While the written form of Latin was increasingly standardized into a fixed form, the spoken forms began to diverge more greatly. Currently, the five most widely spoken Romance languages by number of native speakers are Spanish , Portuguese , French , Italian , and Romanian . Despite dialectal variation, which

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6500-494: The legalization of Christianity by Roman Emperor Constantine (c. 312 AD). During the process of Christianisation under Constantine, Christian groups destroyed the images and sculptures expressive of the Roman Empire 's polytheist state religion. Among early church theologians, iconoclastic tendencies were supported by theologians such as Tertullian , Clement of Alexandria , Origen , Lactantius , Justin Martyr , Eusebius and Epiphanius . The period after

6625-453: The moai of Easter Island were toppled during the 18th century in the iconoclasm of civil wars before any European encounter. Other instances of iconoclasm may have occurred throughout Eastern Polynesia during its conversion to Christianity in the 19th century. After the Second Vatican Council in the late 20th century, some Roman Catholic parish churches discarded much of their traditional imagery, art, and architecture. Islam has

6750-499: The original sin of Adam, and God's eternal plan of salvation for fallen man. Articles XI-XIV teach that we are saved by God's grace through Christ through faith alone . Articles XV-XX treat of the Church, its authority and the office of the ministry. Articles XXI-XXIII are distinctly Reformed in sacramentology , regarding baptism and the Lord's supper as 'holy symbols of high mysteries, not mere or empty signs, but significant signs accompanying spiritual realities; in Baptism, water

6875-416: The recent and apparently on-going destruction of historic sites by Saudi Arabian authorities, prompted by the fear they could become the subject of " idolatry ." A recent act of iconoclasm was the 2001 destruction of the giant Buddhas of Bamyan by the then- Taliban government of Afghanistan . The act generated worldwide protests and was not supported by other Muslim governments and organizations. It

7000-441: The veneration of images. The religious conflict created political and economic divisions in Byzantine society; iconoclasm was generally supported by the Eastern, poorer, non-Greek peoples of the Empire who had to frequently deal with raids from the new Muslim Empire. On the other hand, the wealthier Greeks of Constantinople and the peoples of the Balkan and Italian provinces strongly opposed iconoclasm. Peter of Bruys opposed

7125-430: The 8th century, Bengali troops from the Buddhist Pala Empire looted temples of Vishnu , the state deity of Lalitaditya 's kingdom in Kashmir . In the early 9th century, Indian Hindu kings from Kanchipuram and the Pandyan king Srimara Srivallabha looted Buddhist temples in Sri Lanka . In the early 10th century, the Pratihara king Herambapala looted an image from a temple in the Sahi kingdom of Kangra , which

7250-451: The British Crown. The motto is featured on all presently minted coinage and has been featured in most coinage throughout the nation's history. Several states of the United States have Latin mottos , such as: Many military organizations today have Latin mottos, such as: Some law governing bodies in the Philippines have Latin mottos, such as: Some colleges and universities have adopted Latin mottos, for example Harvard University 's motto

7375-468: The Confession. The first draft was written in Latin and the Zurich delegates objected to its Lutheran phraseology. However, Leo Jud's German translation was accepted by all, and after Myconius and Grynaeus had modified the Latin form, both versions were agreed to and adopted on February 26, 1536. Bucer and Capito brought the Confession to Martin Luther as a symbol of Reformed-Lutheran unity, but he ultimately rejected it. The first five articles affirm

7500-486: The English lexicon , particularly after the Christianization of the Anglo-Saxons and the Norman Conquest . Latin and Ancient Greek roots are heavily used in English vocabulary in theology , the sciences , medicine , and law . A number of phases of the language have been recognized, each distinguished by subtle differences in vocabulary, usage, spelling, and syntax. There are no hard and fast rules of classification; different scholars emphasize different features. As

7625-416: The Grinch Stole Christmas! , The Cat in the Hat , and a book of fairy tales, " fabulae mirabiles ", are intended to garner popular interest in the language. Additional resources include phrasebooks and resources for rendering everyday phrases and concepts into Latin, such as Meissner's Latin Phrasebook . Some inscriptions have been published in an internationally agreed, monumental, multivolume series,

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7750-399: The Protestant doctrine of sola scriptura , viewing Holy Scripture as its own interpreter, containing all that is necessary to know for salvation (sufficiency) and supremely authoritative over all other human writings. Article VI treats of the Trinity of persons in one divine essence. Articles VII-X discuss God's creation of man in his image; the most noble of creatures, which fell into sin by

7875-448: The Revelation of St. John, in the books of Moses, and in the book of Joshua. We therefore kindly beg these fanatics to permit us also to paint these pictures on the wall that they may be remembered and better understood, inasmuch as they can harm as little on the walls as in books. Would to God that I could persuade those who can afford it to paint the whole Bible on their houses, inside and outside, so that all might see; this would indeed be

8000-409: The United States the unofficial national motto until 1956 was E pluribus unum meaning "Out of many, one". The motto continues to be featured on the Great Seal . It also appears on the flags and seals of both houses of congress and the flags of the states of Michigan, North Dakota, New York, and Wisconsin. The motto's 13 letters symbolically represent the original Thirteen Colonies which revolted from

8125-447: The University of Kentucky, the University of Oxford and also Princeton University. There are many websites and forums maintained in Latin by enthusiasts. The Latin Misplaced Pages has more than 130,000 articles. Italian , French , Portuguese , Spanish , Romanian , Catalan , Romansh , Sardinian and other Romance languages are direct descendants of Latin. There are also many Latin borrowings in English and Albanian , as well as

8250-559: The approbation of this document in the above-mentioned countries. Bullinger's 1539 polemical treatise against idolatry expressed his belief that Mary's 'sacrosanctum corpus' ('sacrosanct body') had been assumed into heaven by angels: For this reason we believe that the Virgin Mary, Begetter of God, the most pure bed and temple of the Holy Spirit, that is, her most holy body, was carried to heaven by angels. Latin language Latin ( lingua Latina , pronounced [ˈlɪŋɡʷa ɫaˈtiːna] , or Latinum [ɫaˈtiːnʊ̃] )

8375-427: The artist Johannes van der Beeck was arrested and tortured, charged with being a religious non-conformist and a blasphemer , heretic , atheist , and Satanist . The 25 January 1628 judgment from five noted advocates of The Hague pronounced him guilty of "blasphemy against God and avowed atheism, at the same time as leading a frightful and pernicious lifestyle. At the court's order his paintings were burned, and only

8500-537: The author and then forgotten, but some useful ones survived, such as 'imbibe' and 'extrapolate'. Many of the most common polysyllabic English words are of Latin origin through the medium of Old French . Romance words make respectively 59%, 20% and 14% of English, German and Dutch vocabularies. Those figures can rise dramatically when only non-compound and non-derived words are included. Iconoclasm Iconoclasm (from Greek : εἰκών , eikṓn , 'figure, icon' + κλάω , kláō , 'to break')

8625-458: The beginning of Islam, in 630, when the various statues of Arabian deities housed in the Kaaba in Mecca were destroyed. There is a tradition that Muhammad spared a fresco of Mary and Jesus . This act was intended to bring an end to the idolatry which, in the Muslim view, characterized Jahiliyyah . The destruction of the idols of Mecca did not, however, determine the treatment of other religious communities living under Muslim rule after

8750-425: The benefit of those who do not understand Latin. There are also songs written with Latin lyrics . The libretto for the opera-oratorio Oedipus rex by Igor Stravinsky is in Latin. Parts of Carl Orff 's Carmina Burana are written in Latin. Enya has recorded several tracks with Latin lyrics. The continued instruction of Latin is seen by some as a highly valuable component of a liberal arts education. Latin

8875-445: The caliphate. Researchers have discovered evidence that the order was followed, particularly in present-day Jordan , where archaeological evidence shows the removal of images from the mosaic floors of some, although not all, of the churches that stood at this time. But Yazīd's iconoclastic policies were not continued by his successors, and Christian communities of the Levant continued to make icons without significant interruption from

9000-409: The careful work of Petrarch, Politian and others, first the demand for manuscripts, and then the rush to bring works into print, led to the circulation of inaccurate copies for several centuries following. Neo-Latin literature was extensive and prolific, but less well known or understood today. Works covered poetry, prose stories and early novels, occasional pieces and collections of letters, to name

9125-464: The characteristically Reformed doctrine of divine providence , while allowing for secondary causes operating within God's sovereignty; 'we disapprove of the rash words of those who say that our efforts and endeavours are vain.' Chapters 7-9 teach that man consists of two substances: body and soul ( bipartite view ); the latter of which is said to be immortal, 'We condemn those who deny immortality, or affirm

9250-698: The children in matters of faith, the Second Helvetic Confession was significant in the formation and instruction of future clergymen.' The Hungarian Reformed Synod of Buda of 1791 formally rejected the Enlightenment and the Counter-Reformation , as well as the teachings of Christian Wolff , ordering schools to teach the Helvetic Confession as part of the official curriculum. The Second Helvetic Confession

9375-415: The classicised Latin that followed through to the present are often grouped together as Neo-Latin , or New Latin, which have in recent decades become a focus of renewed study , given their importance for the development of European culture, religion and science. The vast majority of written Latin belongs to this period, but its full extent is unknown. The Renaissance reinforced the position of Latin as

9500-465: The country's full Latin name. Some film and television in ancient settings, such as Sebastiane , The Passion of the Christ and Barbarians (2020 TV series) , have been made with dialogue in Latin. Occasionally, Latin dialogue is used because of its association with religion or philosophy, in such film/television series as The Exorcist and Lost (" Jughead "). Subtitles are usually shown for

9625-463: The country, conquering Debal , Sehwan , Nerun , Brahmanadabad, Alor and Multan one after the other in quick succession, and in less than a year and a half, the far-flung Hindu kingdom was crushed ... There was a fearful outbreak of religious bigotry in several places and temples were wantonly desecrated. At Debal, the Nairun and Aror temples were demolished and converted into mosques. Perhaps

9750-503: The decline in written Latin output. Despite having no native speakers, Latin is still used for a variety of purposes in the contemporary world. The largest organisation that retains Latin in official and quasi-official contexts is the Catholic Church . The Catholic Church required that Mass be carried out in Latin until the Second Vatican Council of 1962–1965 , which permitted the use of the vernacular . Latin remains

9875-576: The deity of Christ and the Holy Ghost.' Chapter 4 expresses iconoclasm and condemns images of God or Christ. Chapter 5 rejects the invocation of saints , 'nevertheless we neither despise nor undervalue the saints, but honour them as the members of Christ and the friends of God who have gloriously overcome the flesh and the world; we love them as brethren and hold them up as examples of faith and virtue, desiring to dwell with them eternally in heaven and to rejoice with them in Christ.' Chapter 6 establishes

10000-663: The desire for merit. Chapter 27, in alignment with the regulative principle of worship , states that 'the more of human rites are accumulated in the Church, the more it is drawn away from Christian liberty and from Christ Himself, while the ignorant seek in ceremonies what they should seek in Christ through faith.' Chapter 30 confesses the legitimacy of the civil magistrate as God's appointed servant, 'to preserve peace and public order, to promote and protect religion and good morals [...] to punish offenders against society, such as thieves, murderers, oppressors, blasphemers, and incorrigible heretics (if they are really heretics). [...] We condemn

10125-569: The destruction of divine presence ; in the eyes of the Egyptians, this same effect was attained by the destruction of images. In Egypt, iconoclasm was the most terrible religious crime; in Israel , the most terrible religious crime was idolatry . In this respect Osarseph alias Akhenaten, the iconoclast, and the Golden Calf , the paragon of idolatry, correspond to each other inversely, and it

10250-593: The doctrine of Scripture as the sole infallible authority ( sola scriptura ), regarding it as its own interpreter, and subjecting all other human writings (traditional or Patristic) to the standard of the Bible. Chapter 3 confesses the Trinity of persons in the one divine essence and accepts the Apostles' Creed , condemning 'Jews and Mohammedans and all who blaspheme this holy and adorable Trinity,' and 'all heretics who deny

10375-589: The educated and official world, Latin continued without its natural spoken base. Moreover, this Latin spread into lands that had never spoken Latin, such as the Germanic and Slavic nations. It became useful for international communication between the member states of the Holy Roman Empire and its allies. Without the institutions of the Roman Empire that had supported its uniformity, Medieval Latin

10500-444: The events of 1643 when troops and citizens, encouraged by a Parliamentary ordinance against superstition and idolatry , behaved thus: Lord what work was here! What clattering of glasses! What beating down of walls! What tearing up of monuments! What pulling down of seats! What wresting out of irons and brass from the windows! What defacing of arms! What demolishing of curious stonework! What tooting and piping upon organ pipes! And what

10625-643: The existence of the Holy Spirit and the Trinity . The Latin text described Mary as diva , indicating her rank as a person, who dedicated herself to God. In Chapter 9, the Jesus Christ is said to be conceived by the Holy Spirit and born without the participation of any man. The Second Helvetic Confession accepted the 'Ever Virgin' notion from John Calvin , which spread throughout much of Europe with

10750-453: The expansion of the caliphate . Most Christians under Muslim rule, for example, continued to produce icons and to decorate their churches as they wished. A major exception to this pattern of tolerance in early Islamic history was the "Edict of Yazīd", issued by the Umayyad caliph Yazīd II in 722–723. This edict ordered the destruction of crosses and Christian images within the territory of

10875-714: The indigenous Canaanite population as soon as they entered the Promised Land . In Judaism , King Hezekiah purged Solomon's Temple in Jerusalem and all figures were also destroyed in the Land of Israel , including the Nehushtan , as recorded in the Second Book of Kings . His reforms were reversed in the reign of his son Manasseh . Scattered expressions of opposition to the use of images have been reported:

11000-411: The international Reformed faith. According to W. A. Curtis, 'In theological ability and in doctrinal interest few Confessions can bear comparison with it [...] it would be difficult to conceive of a theological manifesto, or compendium of doctrine, more attractive in form and matter, more lucid, effective, and shrewd, more loyal to Scripture, or more instinct with common sense.' Chapters 1 and 2 treat of

11125-703: The invention of printing and are now published in carefully annotated printed editions, such as the Loeb Classical Library , published by Harvard University Press , or the Oxford Classical Texts , published by Oxford University Press . Latin translations of modern literature such as: The Hobbit , Treasure Island , Robinson Crusoe , Paddington Bear , Winnie the Pooh , The Adventures of Tintin , Asterix , Harry Potter , Le Petit Prince , Max and Moritz , How

11250-704: The language of the Roman Rite . The Tridentine Mass (also known as the Extraordinary Form or Traditional Latin Mass) is celebrated in Latin. Although the Mass of Paul VI (also known as the Ordinary Form or the Novus Ordo) is usually celebrated in the local vernacular language, it can be and often is said in Latin, in part or in whole, especially at multilingual gatherings. It is the official language of

11375-440: The large areas where it had come to be natively spoken. However, even after the fall of Western Rome , Latin remained the common language of international communication , science, scholarship and academia in Europe until well into the early 19th century, by which time modern languages had supplanted it in common academic and political usage. Late Latin is the literary language from the 3rd century AD onward. No longer spoken as

11500-467: The late seventeenth century, when spoken skills began to erode. It then became increasingly taught only to be read. Latin grammar is highly fusional , with classes of inflections for case , number , person , gender , tense , mood , voice , and aspect . The Latin alphabet is directly derived from the Etruscan and Greek alphabets . Latin remains the official language of the Holy See and

11625-431: The later part of the Roman Republic , up to 75 BC, i.e. before the age of Classical Latin . It is attested both in inscriptions and in some of the earliest extant Latin literary works, such as the comedies of Plautus and Terence . The Latin alphabet was devised from the Etruscan alphabet . The writing later changed from what was initially either a right-to-left or a boustrophedon script to what ultimately became

11750-421: The less prestigious colloquial registers , attested in inscriptions and some literary works such as those of the comic playwrights Plautus and Terence and the author Petronius . While often called a "dead language", Latin did not undergo language death . By the 6th to 9th centuries, natural language change eventually resulted in Latin as a vernacular language evolving into distinct Romance languages in

11875-507: The manufacture of graven (sculpted) images of God. As a result, individuals attacked statues and images, most famously in the beeldenstorm across the Low Countries in 1566. The belief of iconoclasm caused havoc throughout Europe . In 1523, specifically due to the Swiss reformer Huldrych Zwingli , a vast number of his followers viewed themselves as being involved in a spiritual community that in matters of faith should obey neither

12000-600: The mental picturing of Christ when reading the Scriptures was similar in character to artistic renderings of Christ. In contrast to the Lutherans who favoured certain types of sacred art in their churches and homes, the Reformed (Calvinist) leaders, in particular Andreas Karlstadt , Huldrych Zwingli and John Calvin , encouraged the removal of religious images by invoking the Decalogue's prohibition of idolatry and

12125-645: The most notorious episode of iconoclasm in India was Mahmud of Ghazni 's attack on the Somnath Temple from across the Thar Desert . The temple was first raided in 725, when Junayad, the governor of Sind , sent his armies to destroy it. In 1024, during the reign of Bhima I , the prominent Turkic-Muslim ruler Mahmud of Ghazni raided Gujarat, plundering the Somnath Temple and breaking its jyotirlinga despite pleas by Brahmins not to break it. He took away

12250-547: The motives for the destruction. During the Tuareg rebellion of 2012 , the radical Islamist militia Ansar Dine destroyed various Sufi shrines from the 15th and 16th centuries in the city of Timbuktu , Mali . In 2016, the International Criminal Court (ICC) sentenced Ahmad al-Faqi al-Mahdi , a former member of Ansar Dine, to nine years in prison for this destruction of cultural world heritage. This

12375-532: The names of other deities on tombs, temple walls, and cartouches to instill in the people that the Aten was the one true god. Public references to Akhenaten were destroyed soon after his death. Comparing the ancient Egyptians with the Israelites , Jan Assmann writes: For Egypt, the greatest horror was the destruction or abduction of the cult images. In the eyes of the Israelites, the erection of images meant

12500-485: The nature of faith as no mere opinion or persuasion, but rather a free gift of God and the source of good works. Chapter 17 explicitly espouses the doctrine of the Church invisible , 'The Church may be called invisible , not that the men composing it are invisible, but because they are known only to God, while we are often mistaken in our judgment: those who separate from that true Church cannot live before God. [...] As there

12625-652: The neighbouring Eastern Orthodox " in the Baltic region. The Seventeen Provinces (now the Netherlands, Belgium, and parts of Northern France) were disrupted by widespread Calvinist iconoclasm in the summer of 1566. During the Reformation in England , which started during the reign of Anglican monarch Henry VIII , and was urged on by reformers such as Hugh Latimer and Thomas Cranmer , limited official action

12750-474: The notice of Elector Palatine Frederick III , who had it translated into German and published. The Confession was attractive to some Reformed leaders as a corrective to what they saw as the overly Lutheran statements of the Strasbourg Consensus . An attempt was made in early 1566 to have all the churches of Switzerland sign the Second Helvetic Confession as a common statement of faith. It gained

12875-424: The opinion" said [Luther], "that through the Gospel all the arts should be banished and driven away, as some zealots want to make us believe; but I wish to see them all, especially music, in the service of Him Who gave and created them." Again he says: "I have myself heard those who oppose pictures, read from my German Bible.... But this contains many pictures of God, of the angels, of men, and of animals, especially in

13000-466: The other varieties, as it was largely separated from the unifying influences in the western part of the Empire. Spoken Latin began to diverge into distinct languages by the 9th century at the latest, when the earliest extant Romance writings begin to appear. They were, throughout the period, confined to everyday speech, as Medieval Latin was used for writing. For many Italians using Latin, though, there

13125-577: The reign of Byzantine Emperor Justinian (527–565) evidently saw a huge increase in the use of images, both in volume and quality, and a gathering aniconic reaction. One notable change within the Byzantine Empire came in 695, when Justinian II 's government added a full-face image of Christ on the obverse of imperial gold coins. The change caused the Caliph Abd al-Malik to stop his earlier adoption of Byzantine coin types. He started

13250-732: The religious context, iconoclasm can refer to movements for widespread destruction in symbols of an ideology or cause, such as the destruction of monarchist symbols during the French Revolution . In the Bronze Age , the most significant episode of iconoclasm occurred in Egypt during the Amarna Period , when Akhenaten , based in his new capital of Akhetaten , instituted a significant shift in Egyptian artistic styles alongside

13375-541: The result of sectarian disputes between factions of the same religion. The term originates from the Byzantine Iconoclasm , the struggles between proponents and opponents of religious icons in the Byzantine Empire from 726 to 842 AD. Degrees of iconoclasm vary greatly among religions and their branches, but are strongest in religions which oppose idolatry , including the Abrahamic religions . Outside of

13500-521: The sixth century to the ninth. Al-Maqrīzī , writing in the 15th century, attributes the missing nose on the Great Sphinx of Giza to iconoclasm by Muhammad Sa'im al-Dahr , a Sufi Muslim in the mid-1300s. He was reportedly outraged by local Muslims making offerings to the Great Sphinx in the hope of controlling the flood cycle, and he was later executed for vandalism. However, whether this

13625-642: The sleep of the soul, or teach that it is a part of God.' The creation of man by God as upright is detailed, along with the original sin and the total depravity for all of humanity which it entails. Only those who are regenerate are considered free from, 'being moved by the Spirit of God to do of themselves what they do', although the unregenerate remain wilful slaves to unrighteousness. Chapter 10 on predestination has been interpreted as 'moderate Calvinism' or Augustinianism, and emphasises Christians' assurance of predestination through communion with Christ, 'We shall have

13750-408: The two sacraments as 'sacred rites instituted by God as signs and seals of His promises [cf. Romans 4:11 ] for the strengthening of our faith, and as pledges on our part of our consecration to Him.' Of the five 'Popish' innovations, confirmation and extreme unction are dismissed while repentance, ordination and marriage are said to be divine institutions rather than sacraments. The chapter makes

13875-644: The usage of religious images, the Strigolniki were also possibly iconoclastic. Claudius of Turin was the bishop of Turin from 817 until his death. He is most noted for teaching iconoclasm. The first iconoclastic wave happened in Wittenberg in the early 1520s under reformers Thomas Müntzer and Andreas Karlstadt , in the absence of Martin Luther , who then, concealed under the pen-name of 'Junker Jörg', intervened to calm things down. Luther argued that

14000-497: The use of religious images. Martin Luther taught the "importance of images as tools for instruction and aids to devotion," stating: "If it is not a sin but good to have the image of Christ in my heart, why should it be a sin to have it in my eyes?" Lutheran churches retained ornate church interiors with a prominent crucifix , reflecting their high view of the real presence of Christ in Eucharist . As such, "Lutheran worship became

14125-812: The visible Church nor lay authorities. According to Peter George Wallace "Zwingli's attack on images, at the first debate, triggered iconoclastic incidents in Zürich and the villages under civic jurisdiction that the reformer was unwilling to condone." Due to this action of protest against authority, "Zwingli responded with a carefully reasoned treatise that men could not live in society without laws and constraint". Significant iconoclastic riots took place in Basel (in 1529), Zürich (1523), Copenhagen (1530), Münster (1534), Geneva (1535), Augsburg (1537), Scotland (1559), Rouen (1560), and Saintes and La Rochelle (1562). Calvinist iconoclasm in Europe "provoked reactive riots by Lutheran mobs" in Germany and "antagonized

14250-467: Was actually the cause of the missing nose has been debated by historians. Mark Lehner , having performed an archaeological study, concluded that it was broken with instruments at an earlier unknown time between the 3rd and 10th centuries. Certain conquering Muslim armies have used local temples or houses of worship as mosques. An example is Hagia Sophia in Istanbul (formerly Constantinople ), which

14375-689: Was also included in the United Presbyterian Church in the U.S.A. 's Book of Confessions, in 1967, and remains in the Book of Confessions adopted by the Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.) . Mary is mentioned several times in the Second Helvetic Confession, which expounds Bullinger's mariology . Chapter 3 quotes the angel's message to the Virgin Mary, The Holy Ghost shall come upon thee ( Luke 1:35 ), as an indication of

14500-610: Was converted into a mosque in 1453. Most icons were desecrated and the rest were covered with plaster. In 1934 the government of Turkey decided to convert the Hagia Sophia into a museum and the restoration of the mosaics was undertaken by the American Byzantine Institute beginning in 1932. Certain Muslim denominations continue to pursue iconoclastic agendas. There has been much controversy within Islam over

14625-413: Was free to develop on its own, there is no reason to suppose that the speech was uniform either diachronically or geographically. On the contrary, Romanised European populations developed their own dialects of the language, which eventually led to the differentiation of Romance languages . Late Latin is a kind of written Latin used in the 3rd to 6th centuries. This began to diverge from Classical forms at

14750-602: Was later looted by the Pratihara king Yashovarman. Records from the campaign recorded in the Chach Nama record the destruction of temples during the early 8th century when the Umayyad governor of Damascus , al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf , mobilized an expedition of 6000 cavalry under Muhammad bin Qasim in 712. Historian Upendra Thakur records the persecution of Hindus and Buddhists : Muhammad triumphantly marched into

14875-496: Was much more liberal in its linguistic cohesion: for example, in classical Latin sum and eram are used as auxiliary verbs in the perfect and pluperfect passive, which are compound tenses. Medieval Latin might use fui and fueram instead. Furthermore, the meanings of many words were changed and new words were introduced, often under influence from the vernacular. Identifiable individual styles of classically incorrect Latin prevail. Renaissance Latin, 1300 to 1500, and

15000-441: Was no complete separation between Italian and Latin, even into the beginning of the Renaissance . Petrarch for example saw Latin as a literary version of the spoken language. Medieval Latin is the written Latin in use during that portion of the post-classical period when no corresponding Latin vernacular existed, that is from around 700 to 1500 AD. The spoken language had developed into the various Romance languages; however, in

15125-489: Was no salvation out of the ark of Noah, so there is no certain salvation out of Christ, who exhibits Himself to the elect in the Church for their nourishment.' Chapter 18 espouses presbyterian polity in claiming that the offices of presbyter and bishop were one in the Apostolic Church. Ministers are expected to be learned although 'innocent simplicity may be more useful than haughty learning.' Chapter 19 defines

15250-482: Was shut down in June 2019), and Vatican Radio & Television, all of which broadcast news segments and other material in Latin. A variety of organisations, as well as informal Latin 'circuli' ('circles'), have been founded in more recent times to support the use of spoken Latin. Moreover, a number of university classics departments have begun incorporating communicative pedagogies in their Latin courses. These include

15375-558: Was taken against religious images in churches in the late 1530s. Henry's young son, Edward VI , came to the throne in 1547 and, under Cranmer's guidance, issued injunctions for Religious Reforms in the same year and in 1550, an Act of Parliament "for the abolition and putting away of divers books and images." During the English Civil War , the Parliamentarians reorganised the administration of East Anglia into

15500-881: Was the first time that the ICC convicted a person for such a crime. The Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant carried out iconoclastic attacks such as the destruction of Shia mosques and shrines. Notable incidents include blowing up the Mosque of the Prophet Yunus ( Jonah ) and destroying the Shrine to Seth in Mosul . In early Medieval India , there were numerous recorded instances of temple desecration mostly by Indian Muslim kings against rival Indian Hindu kingdoms , which involved conflicts between Hindus, Buddhists, and Jains. In

15625-632: Was widely perceived in the Western media as a result of the Muslim prohibition against figural decoration. Such an account overlooks "the coexistence between the Buddhas and the Muslim population that marveled at them for over a millennium" before their destruction. According to art historian F. B. Flood, analysis of the Taliban's statements regarding the Buddhas suggest that their destruction was motivated more by political than by theological concerns. Taliban spokesmen have given many different explanations of

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