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165-817: Jansenism was a 17th- and 18th-century theological movement within Roman Catholicism , primarily active in France , which arose as an attempt to reconcile the theological concepts of free will and divine grace in response to certain developments in the Catholic Church , but later developing political and philosophical aspects in opposition to royal absolutism . Jansenism is difficult to define, as its proponents usually identified as Roman Catholics. They did, however, possess some characteristic traits, such as using Augustine of Hippo's conception of divine grace. In their interpretation, divine grace not only

330-674: A Doctor of the Church , providing him the supplementary titles of " Doctor magnificus " ("Magnificent Doctor") and " Doctor Marianus " ("Marian Doctor"). Clement XI created a total of 70 cardinals in 15 consistories. Notably, two cardinals of his own creation were Michelangelo dei Conti, who became his immediate successor, Pope Innocent XIII , and Lorenzo Corsini, who later became Pope Clement XII . The pope also nominated eight cardinals " in pectore ", later publishing their names which validated their appointments as cardinals. During his pontificate, Gabriele Filippucci resigned his cardinalate which

495-481: A human nature and a divine nature can co-exist in one person. The study of the inter-relationship of these two natures is one of the preoccupations of the majority tradition. Teachings about Jesus and testimonies about what he accomplished during his three-year public ministry are found throughout the New Testament . Core biblical teachings about the person of Jesus Christ may be summarized that Jesus Christ

660-516: A broader view, the estimation of Marie-José Michel is that the Jansenists occupied an empty space between the ultramontane project of Rome and the construction of Bourbon absolutism. French Jansenism is a creation of Ancien Régime society [...]. Developed from an Augustinian background very firmly anchored in France, it unfolds in parallel with the two great projects of French absolutism and

825-633: A cardinal for ten years previously. Having accepted election after some hesitation, he was ordained a bishop on 30 November 1700 and assumed the pontifical name of "Clement XI". Cardinal protodeacon Benedetto Pamphili crowned him on 8 December 1700 and he took possession of the Basilica of Saint John Lateran on 10 April 1701. Soon after his accession to the pontificate, the War of the Spanish Succession broke out. In 1703 Pope Clement XI ordered

990-439: A conclave was convoked to elect a successor. Albani was regarded as a fine diplomat known for his skills as a peacemaker and so was unanimously elected pope on 23 November 1700. He agreed to the election after three days of consultation. Unusually, from the viewpoint of current practice, his election came within three months after his ordination as a priest and within two months after he celebrated his first Mass, though he had been

1155-450: A declaration condemning the doctrine of Jansen. He recommended the signing of a similar declaration by all the clergy, but the bishops are quite reluctant, so Mazarin's demand remained unfulfilled in the majority of dioceses. The first consequence of this attempt was the scandal involving the Duke of Liancourt ( Roger du Plessis-Liancourt  [ fr ] , Duke of La Roche-Guyon, known as

1320-540: A distinction as to how far the Church could bind the mind of a Roman Catholic. He argued that there is a distinction between matters de jure and de facto : that a Roman Catholic was obliged to accept the Roman Catholic Church's opinion as to a matter of law (i.e., as to a matter of doctrine), but not as to a matter of fact. Arnauld argued that, while he agreed with the doctrine propounded in Cum occasione , he

1485-536: A distinguished family of Albanian origin in central Italy. His mother Elena Mosca (1630–1698) was a high-standing Italian of bergamasque origin, descended from the noble Mosca family of Pesaro . His father Carlo Albani (1623–1684) was a patrician. His mother descended in part from the Staccoli family, who were patricians of Urbino , in part from the Giordani, who were nobles of Pesaro. The original name of

1650-531: A duke and peer', addressed to the Duke of Luyne). He denounced the arbitrariness of the vicar's action and condemned the Jesuits, who were, according to him, adherents to a 'lax morality', in plotting against Augustine's doctrine of grace. Arnauld declared that he assented to the papal condemnation in Cum occasione , but remained silent on whether the condemned propositions could be attributed to Jansen. He openly disputed

1815-809: A famous proclamation of faith among Christians since the 1st century, said, "You are the Christ, the Son of the living God." Most Christians now wait for the Second Coming of Christ when they believe he will fulfill the remaining Messianic prophecies . Christ is the English term for the Greek Χριστός ( Khristós ) meaning " the anointed one ". It is a translation of the Hebrew מָשִׁיחַ ‎ ( Māšîaḥ ), usually transliterated into English as Messiah . The word

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1980-450: A fixed theological doctrine defended by easily identifiable supporters claiming a system of thought, but rather, it represented the variable and diverse developments of part of French and European Roman Catholicism in the early modern period . The heresy of 'Jansenism', as stated by subsequent Roman Catholic doctrine , lies in the denial of the role of free will in the acceptance and use of grace . Jansenism asserts that God's role in

2145-658: A head over the persons of the Godhead and their relationship with one another. Christology was a fundamental concern from the First Council of Nicaea (325) until the Third Council of Constantinople (680). In this time period, the Christological views of various groups within the broader Christian community led to accusations of heresy , and, infrequently, subsequent religious persecution . In some cases,

2310-515: A high degree of perfection, including purification from attachment to venial sin , was necessary before approaching the sacrament. Arnaud presented Jansen's ideas in a more accessible way to the public (e.g., the work was written in the vernacular, whereas Augustinus was written in Latin ). The work was approved by fifteen bishops and archbishops, as well as twenty-one theologians of the Sorbonne and

2475-481: A list of eight propositions taken from the Augustinus that he considered heretical. A few years later, in 1649, the syndic of the Sorbonne, Nicolas Cornet , frustrated by the continued circulation of Augustinus , drew up a list of five propositions from the work and two from De la fréquente communion , then asked the Sorbonne faculty to condemn the propositions. Jansen's name was not explicitly mentioned, but it

2640-402: A means to holiness for sinners, and stating that the only requirement for receiving Communion (apart from baptism ) was that the communicant be free of mortal sin at the time of reception. Antoine Arnauld responded to them in 1643 with De la fréquente communion ('Of frequent communion'), representing the deeply pessimistic theology of Jansenism, and discouraged frequent Communion, arguing that

2805-469: A minimal definition of the movement, removing the particularities to attribute a few common traits to all Jansenists: the subjection of one's whole life to a demanding form of Christianity , which gave a particular view of dogmatic theology , religious history and the Christian world. They harshly criticised developments in the church, but at the same time maintained an unshakeable loyalty to it. Taking

2970-517: A number of individuals: Alexis Falconieri , Bartholomew degli Amidei and Benedict Dellantella, (1 December 1717) and John Francis Régis (24 May 1716). He also beatified the sisters Theresa (20 May 1705) and Sancha (10 May 1705). He canonized Andrew Avellino , Catherine of Bologna , Felix of Cantalice and Pope Pius V on 22 May 1712, Humility on 27 January 1720, Stephen of Obazine in 1701 and Boniface of Lausanne in 1702. Clement XI, on 8 February 1720, named Saint Anselm of Canterbury as

3135-492: A point of reference for all other Christologies. Most of the major branches of Christianity— Catholicism , Eastern Orthodoxy , Anglicanism , Lutheranism , and Reformed —subscribe to the Chalcedonian Christological formulation, while many branches of Eastern Christianity— Syrian Orthodoxy , Assyrian Church , Coptic Orthodoxy , Ethiopian Orthodoxy , and Armenian Apostolicism —reject it. According to

3300-402: A provincial by one of his friends, on the subject of the present disputes at the Sorbonne"), was published secretively and anonymously. Seventeen other Provinciales followed, and on 24 March 1657, Pascal made a contribution to a work entitled Écrits des curés de Paris ("Writings of Parisian priests"), in which the moral laxity of the Jesuits was condemned. In his Provinciales , Pascal denies

3465-533: A reference, but also representing radical views. For some Augustinians, it was only necessary to affirm the omnipotence of God against human freedom, as was over-exalted in Pelagianism , whereas Luther and Calvin saw grace (freely granted or withheld by God) as causing man to be saved. Man's free will was therefore totally denied. To counter the Reformation, the Roman Catholic Church in 1547 reaffirmed in

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3630-477: A sect's unique Christology is its chief distinctive feature, in these cases it is common for the sect to be known by the name given to its Christology. The decisions made at First Council of Nicaea and re-ratified at the First Council of Constantinople , after several decades of ongoing controversy during which the work of Athanasius and the Cappadocian Fathers were influential. The language used

3795-504: A special focus on the thought of Augustine, until they both left Bayonne in 1617. The question of grace was not central to their works at that time. Jansen returned to the University of Leuven, where he completed his doctorate in 1619 and was named professor of exegesis . Jansen and Vergier continued to correspond about Augustine, especially concerning his teachings on grace . Upon the recommendation of King Philip IV of Spain , Jansen

3960-588: A synod of Catholic bishops in northern Albania that discussed promotion of the Council of Trent decrees within Albanian dioceses, stemming conversions among locals to Islam and securing agreement to deny communion to crypto-Catholics who outwardly professed the Muslim faith. Despite initially holding an ambiguous neutrality in world affairs, Clement XI was later forced to name Charles, Archduke of Austria , as

4125-466: A theological centre for the movement and a haven for writers including Vergier, Arnauld, Pascal, Pierre Nicole and Jean Racine . Jansenism developed and gained popularity. In the late 17th century, Jansenists enjoyed a measure of peace under Pope Clement IX (a period known as the 'Clementine Peace'). Nevertheless, Jansenism was opposed by many within the Roman Catholic hierarchy , especially

4290-572: A very proficient Latinist and gained a doctorate in both canon and civil law. He was one of those who frequented the academy of Queen Christina of Sweden . He would serve as a papal prelate under Pope Alexander VIII and was appointed by Pope Innocent XII as the Referendary of the Apostolic Signatura . Throughout this time, he also served as the governor of Rieti , Sabina and Orvieto . Pope Alexander VIII elevated him to

4455-425: A very strong fever that immediately forced him to his bed, with the pope declining a meal that evening. His pulse was exceptionally slow and he even coughed up a thick liquid that was streaked with blood. Unable to sleep that night, his fever abated somewhat. But the following day saw his fever return much more violently, and he had an irregular pulse. The sputum was foamy, once more with blood, indicating that there

4620-637: Is "eternally begotten of the Father", indicating that their divine Father-Son relationship is not tied to an event within time or human history. In Christianity , the doctrine of the Trinity states that God is one being who exists, simultaneously and eternally , as a mutual indwelling of three Persons: the Father, the Son (incarnate as Jesus), and the Holy Spirit (or Holy Ghost). Since earliest Christianity, one's salvation has been very closely related to

4785-478: Is a further concept of infallibility, by suggesting that current biblical text is complete and without error, and that the integrity of biblical text has never been corrupted or degraded. Historians note, or claim, that the doctrine of the Bible's infallibility was adopted hundreds of years after the books of the Bible were written. The authority of the Bible can also be linked to the principle of sola scriptura ,

4950-482: Is a trinity in God's single being, the meaning of which has always been debated. This mysterious "Trinity" has been described as hypostases in the Greek language ( subsistences in Latin ), and "persons" in English. Nonetheless, Christians stress that they only believe in one God. Most Christian churches teach the Trinity, as opposed to Unitarian monotheistic beliefs. Historically, most Christian churches have taught that

5115-435: Is a worldwide religion . Christian theology varies significantly across the main branches of Christian tradition: Catholic , Orthodox and Protestant . Each of those traditions has its own unique approaches to seminaries and ministerial formation. Systematic theology as a discipline of Christian theology formulates an orderly, rational and coherent account of Christian faith and beliefs. Systematic theology draws on

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5280-450: Is called "Father" in a more literal sense, besides being the creator and nurturer of creation, and the provider for his children. The Father is said to be in unique relationship with his only begotten ( monogenes ) son, Jesus Christ , which implies an exclusive and intimate familiarity: "No one knows the Son except the Father, and no one knows the Father except the Son and any one to whom the Son chooses to reveal him." In Christianity, God

5445-570: Is evident in many places, however, the early part of the book of Hebrews addresses the issue in a deliberate, sustained argument, citing the scriptures of the Hebrew Bible as authorities. For example, the author quotes Psalm 45:6 as addressed by the God of Israel to Jesus. The author of Hebrews' description of Jesus as the exact representation of the divine Father has parallels in a passage in Colossians . Pope Clement XI Clement XI

5610-462: Is necessarily long and, once the state of conversion has been reached, the penitent must make the graces he has received bear fruit, preferably by leading a life of retreat. This notion of an -inner conversion is related to the doctrine of contrition in the remission of sins, that is, it was considered necessary to express love for God in order receive the sacraments. In opposition to Vergier, Richelieu in his book Instruction du chrétien ('Instruction of

5775-717: Is often misunderstood to be the surname of Jesus due to the numerous mentions of Jesus Christ in the Christian Bible . The word is in fact used as a title , hence its common reciprocal use Christ Jesus , meaning Jesus the Anointed One or Jesus the Messiah. Followers of Jesus became known as Christians because they believed that Jesus was the Christ, or Messiah, prophesied about in the Old Testament , or Tanakh . The Christological controversies came to

5940-571: Is the creator and preserver of the universe . God is the sole ultimate power in the universe but is distinct from it. The Bible never speaks of God as impersonal. Instead, it refers to him in personal terms – who speaks, sees, hears, acts, and loves. God is understood to have a will and personality and is an all powerful , divine and benevolent being. He is represented in Scripture as being primarily concerned with people and their salvation. Many Reformed theologians distinguish between

6105-564: Is the theology – the systematic study of the divine and religion – of Christian belief and practice. It concentrates primarily upon the texts of the Old Testament and of the New Testament , as well as on Christian tradition . Christian theologians use biblical exegesis , rational analysis and argument. Theologians may undertake the study of Christian theology for a variety of reasons, such as in order to: Christian theology has permeated much of non-ecclesiastical Western culture , especially in pre-modern Europe, although Christianity

6270-665: Is the essence of eternal life . God the Son is the second person of the Trinity in Christian theology. The doctrine of the Trinity identifies Jesus of Nazareth as God the Son, united in essence but distinct in person with regard to God the Father and God the Holy Spirit (the first and third persons of the Trinity). God the Son is co-eternal with God the Father (and the Holy Spirit), both before Creation and after

6435-464: Is the revealing or disclosing, or making something obvious through active or passive communication with God, and can originate directly from God or through an agent, such as an angel . A person recognised as having experienced such contact is often called a prophet . Christianity generally considers the Bible as divinely or supernaturally revealed or inspired. Such revelation does not always require

6600-554: The Parlement , its publication in France was delayed until January 1643. The faculty of the Sorbonne formally accepted the bull in 1644. The opponents of Jansenism wanted Augustinus to be more thoroughly condemned, since the Jesuits especially considered Jansenism to be heretical in the vein of Calvinism . Isaac Habert  [ fr ] , ally of the late Richelieu, who became Bishop of Vabres , published in December 1646

6765-612: The Angel of the Lord spoke to the Patriarchs, revealing God to them, some believe it has always been only through the Spirit of God granting them understanding, that men have been able to perceive later that God himself had visited them. This belief gradually developed into the modern formulation of the Trinity , which is the doctrine that God is a single entity ( Yahweh ), but that there

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6930-405: The Bible as authoritative and as written by human authors under the inspiration of the Holy Spirit . Some Christians believe that the Bible is inerrant (totally without error and free from contradiction, including the historical and scientific parts) or infallible (inerrant on issues of faith and practice but not necessarily on matters of history or science). Some Christians infer that

7095-564: The Father , the Son ( Jesus Christ the Logos ), and the Holy Spirit . The Trinitarian doctrine is considered by most Christians to be a core tenet of their faith. Nontrinitarians typically hold that God, the Father, is supreme; that Jesus, although still divine Lord and Saviour, is the Son of God ; and that the Holy Spirit is a phenomenon akin to God's will on Earth. The holy three are separate, yet

7260-577: The First Vatican Council declaring a definitive end to most of the debates which caused its initial appearance, mainly by declaring the dogma of papal infallibility , which resolved ambiguities regarding the infallibility of papal bulls, and therefore whether they could be accepted or rejected by Roman Catholic clergy and laypeople. "A historical enigma" according to certain historians, "an adaptation to changing circumstances" according to others, Jansenism had an evolution parallel to that of

7425-466: The Holy Office issued a decree condemning Augustinus and forbidding its reading. The decree was powerless in France since the tribunal was unrecognised by the law. On 6 March 1642, Pope Urban VIII followed up with a papal bull entitled In eminenti , which condemned Augustinus because it was published in violation of the order that no works concerning grace should be published without

7590-571: The Holy See wishes any change, I am an obedient son, and I submit to that Church in which I have lived to my dying hour. This is my last wish." Jansen affirmed in Augustinus that since the Fall of man , the human will is capable only of evil without divine help. Only efficacious grace can make him live according to the Spirit rather than the flesh, that is to say, according to the will of God rather than

7755-513: The Incarnation , the relationship of Jesus's nature and person with the nature and person of God, and the salvific work of Jesus. As such, Christology is generally less concerned with the details of Jesus's life (what he did) or teaching than with who or what he is. There have been and are various perspectives by those who claim to be his followers since the church began after his ascension. The controversies ultimately focused on whether and how

7920-1152: The Jesuit Daniele Farlati and Dom Jacopo Coleti . Clement XI made a concerted effort to acquire Christian manuscripts in Syriac from Egypt and other places in the Middle East, greatly expanding the Vatican Library 's collection of Syriac works. Clement XI extended the feast of Our Lady of the Rosary to the Universal Church of the Roman Rite in 1716. Clement XI confirmed the cultus of Ceslas Odrowaz (27 August 1712), Jakov Varingez (29 December 1700), Peregrine Laziosi (11 September 1702), John of Perugia (11 September 1704), Peter of Sassoferrato (11 September 1704), Buonfiglio Monaldi (1 December 1717), Pope Gregory X (8 July 1713) and Humbeline of Jully (1703). He formally beatified

8085-745: The King of Spain , since the imperial army had conquered much of northern Italy and was threatening Rome itself in January 1709. By the Treaty of Utrecht that put an end to the war, the Papal States lost its suzerainty over the Farnese Duchy of Parma and Piacenza in favour of Austria , and lost Comacchio as well, a blow to the prestige of the Papal States. In 1713 Clement XI issued

8250-540: The Notre-Dame de Paris , and by the Feuillant theologian Pierre de Saint-Joseph who published a Defensio sancti Augusti ('Defence of Saint Augustine') in 1643. These first years were not favourable to the Jansenists. The Archbishop of Paris , Jean-François de Gondi , forbade the treatment of grace in publications and formally proscribed Augustinus , but it nevertheless continued to circulate. On 1 August 1642,

8415-545: The Palazzo Muti , as well as donating a summerhouse near the shores of Lake Albano . He also performed the baptism of James' son, the Jacobite Prince of Wales, Charles Edward Stuart . During his reign as a pope the famous Illyricum Sacrum was commissioned, and today it is one of the main sources of the field of Balkan region during Middle Ages , with over 5,000 pages divided in several volumes written by

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8580-592: The Pelagian / Semipelagian position (as taught by the Molinists ), and the third listed the correct Augustinian position (according to the Jansenists). Nevertheless, in 1653, Innocent X sided with the majority and condemned the propositions, promulgating in the form of a papal bull the apostolic constitution Cum occasione . The first four propositions were declared heretical and the fifth false. The bull

8745-530: The Quirinal Palace . He took medication that day but experienced pains in his thorax and had trouble breathing from the cold air in his rooms. The following day, Clement XI celebrated Mass in his private chapel before meeting various prelates which included the Archbishop of Ravenna Geronimo Crispi. However, at around noon, he was suddenly struck with an extraordinary chill which was accompanied by

8910-488: The Solitaires (notably the famous conversation with Louis-Isaac Lemaistre de Sacy on Epictetus and Michel de Montaigne ). Pascal was invited by Arnauld to bring the matter before public opinion. On 23 January 1656, nine days before the first official condemnation of Arnauld, a fictional letter entitled Lettre écrite à un provincial par un de ses amis, sur le sujet des disputes présentes à la Sorbonne ("Letter written to

9075-464: The Son of God through incarnation . The exact phrase "God the Son" is not in the New Testament. Later theological use of this expression reflects what came to be standard interpretation of New Testament references, understood to imply Jesus's divinity, but the distinction of his person from that of the one God he called his Father. As such, the title is associated more with the development of

9240-725: The Universal Prayer and highly recommended it to others. Pope Clement XI had a famous sundial added in the church of Santa Maria degli Angeli e dei Martiri and had an obelisk erected in the Piazza della Rotonda in front of the Pantheon , and a port built on the Tiber River , the beautiful Porto di Ripetta , demolished at the end of the 19th century. He established a committee, overseen by his favourite artists, Carlo Maratta and Carlo Fontana , to commission statuary of

9405-474: The bull Unigenitus in response to the spread of the Jansenist heresy. There followed great upheaval in France , where apart from theological issues, a strong Gallican tendency persisted. The bull, which was produced with the contribution of Gregorio Selleri, a lector at the College of Saint Thomas, the future Pontifical University of Saint Thomas Aquinas Angelicum , condemned Jansenism by extracting and anathematizing as heretical 101 propositions from

9570-435: The communicable attributes (those that human beings can also have) and the incommunicable attributes (those which belong to God alone). Some attributes ascribed to God in Christian theology are: Some Christians believe that the God worshiped by the Hebrew people of the pre-Christian era had always revealed himself as he did through Jesus ; but that this was never obvious until Jesus was born (see John 1 ). Also, though

9735-420: The "traditional" interpretation; Daniel B. Wallace calls the alternative "probably not the best translation." Some modern English versions of the Bible renders theopneustos with "God-breathed" ( NIV ) or "breathed out by God" ( ESV ), avoiding the word inspiration , which has the Latin root inspīrāre - "to blow or breathe into". Christianity generally regards the agreed collections of books known as

9900-403: The 16th-century Protestant Reformation certain reformers proposed different canonical lists of the Old Testament. The texts which appear in the Septuagint but not in the Jewish canon fell out of favor, and eventually disappeared from Protestant canons. Catholic Bibles classify these texts as deuterocanonical books, whereas Protestant contexts label them as the Apocrypha . In Christianity , God

10065-404: The 18th century. Jansenist courtiers were instrumental in persuading Louis XV to launch the Suppression of the Jesuits . The clerics supporting the First French Republic and the Civil Constitution of the Clergy , which declared the Catholic Church in France completely subservient to the State , were also largely Jansenists. However, Jansenism receded and disappeared in the 19th century, with

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10230-462: The 27-book canon of the New Testament that all use). A definitive list did not come from any early ecumenical council . Around 400, Jerome produced the Vulgate , a definitive Latin edition of the Bible, the contents of which, at the insistence of the Bishop of Rome , accorded with the decisions of the earlier synods. This process effectively set the New Testament canon, although examples exist of other canonical lists in use after this time. During

10395-411: The 3rd century, Tertullian claimed that God exists as the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit—the three personae of one and the same substance. To trinitarian Christians God the Father is not at all a separate god from God the Son (of whom Jesus is the incarnation) and the Holy Spirit, the other hypostases (Persons) of the Christian Godhead . According to the Nicene Creed, the Son (Jesus Christ)

10560-426: The Albani was Lazzi (Laçi) which they changed to Albani in memory of their origin. Francesco Albani funded an expedition in Albania to locate the exact settlement of his family's origins. In the final report, the two most probable locations which were presented to him were Laç near Lezhë and Laç near Kukës, both in northern Albania. Albani was educated at the Collegio Romano in Rome from 1660 onwards. He became

10725-449: The Augustinians, which resulted in the Dicastery for the Doctrine of the Faith banning any publications on the problem of grace in 1611. The controversy was then concentrated in Leuven, where the Augustinian (Old) University of Leuven opposed the Jesuits. In 1628, Cornelius Jansen, then a professor at the university, undertook the creation of a theological work aimed at resolving the problem of grace by synthesising Augustine's thought on

10890-398: The Bible cannot both refer to itself as being divinely inspired and also be errant or fallible. For if the Bible were divinely inspired, then the source of inspiration being divine, would not be subject to fallibility or error in that which is produced. For them, the doctrines of the divine inspiration, infallibility, and inerrancy, are inseparably tied together. The idea of biblical integrity

11055-428: The Bible than his Father, had to be a secondary, lesser, and therefore distinct god. For Jews and Muslims , the idea of God as a trinity is heretical – it is considered akin to polytheism . Christians overwhelmingly assert that monotheism is central to the Christian faith, as the very Nicene Creed (among others) which gives the orthodox Christian definition of the Trinity does begin with: "I believe in one God". In

11220-632: The Bible, the second Person of the Trinity, because of his eternal relation to the first Person (God as Father), is the Son of God . He is considered (by Trinitarians) to be coequal with the Father and Holy Spirit. He is all God and all human : the Son of God as to his divine nature, while as to his human nature he is from the lineage of David. The core of Jesus's self-interpretation was his "filial consciousness", his relationship to God as child to parent in some unique sense (see Filioque controversy). His mission on earth proved to be that of enabling people to know God as their Father, which Christians believe

11385-437: The Catholic reformation [the Counter-Reformation]. Its development by part of the French religious and secular elites gives it an immediate audience never reached by the other two systems. It is thus rooted in French mentalities, and it truly survived as long as its two enemies, that is to say until the French Revolution for one, and until the First Vatican Council for the other. Therefore Jansenism cannot be wholly encapsulated as

11550-423: The Chancellor') in 1654. During the 1640s, Vergier's nephew, Martin de Barcos , who was once a theology student under Jansen, wrote several works defending his uncle. Augustinus was first printed in France in 1641, then a second time in 1643, and was read widely in theological circles, including in Spanish Flanders and the Dutch Republic . The debate regarding Augustinianism in France was mainly introduced by

11715-417: The Christian', 1619), along with the Jesuits, supported the thesis of attrition ( imperfect contrition ) that is, for them, the "regret for sins based solely on the fear of hell" is sufficient for one to receive the sacraments. The idea that the Eucharist should be received very infrequently, and that reception required much more than freedom from mortal sin, remained influential until it was finally condemned in

11880-536: The Council of Trent) that disinclined him to Vergier, making him, at least on this point, an ally of the Jesuits. Vergier in his writings insisted on the necessity of a true 'inner conversion' ( perfect contrition ) for the salvation of a Christian; the only way, according to him, to be able to receive the sacraments of penance and the Eucharist . This process of inner conversion, called the practice of 'renewals',

12045-566: The Duke of Liancourt). In January 1655, this ally of the Jansenists (his only granddaughter was a boarder at Port-Royal,) was refused absolution by a vicar of the Saint-Sulpice parish in Paris because of his Jansenist connections. Antoine Arnauld responded to this by publishing two pamphlets, Lettre à une personne de condition ('Letter to a person of status', addressed to Liancourt) and Seconde lettre à un duc et pair ('Second letter to

12210-460: The End (see Eschatology ). So Jesus was always "God the Son", though not revealed as such until he also became the "Son of God" through incarnation . "Son of God" draws attention to his humanity, whereas "God the Son" refers more generally to his divinity, including his pre-incarnate existence. So, in Christian theology, Jesus was always God the Son, though not revealed as such until he also became

12375-475: The Father has a special role in his relationship with the person of the Son, where Jesus is believed to be his Son and his heir. According to the Nicene Creed , the Son (Jesus Christ) is "eternally begotten of the Father", indicating that their divine Father-Son relationship is not tied to an event within time or human history. See Christology . The Bible refers to Christ, called " The Word " as present at

12540-453: The Father's relationship with humanity is as a father to children—in a previously unheard-of sense—and not just as the creator and nurturer of creation, and the provider for his children, his people. Thus, humans, in general, are sometimes called children of God . To Christians, God the Father's relationship with humanity is that of Creator and created beings, and in that respect he is the father of all. The New Testament says, in this sense, that

12705-487: The Jesuits. Although the Jansenists identified themselves merely as rigorous followers of Augustine's teachings, Jesuits coined the term Jansenism to identify their ideas as the heresy of Crypto-Calvinism . Jansenists were also considered enemies of the monarchy, as they were very quickly targeted by royal power, with Louis XIV and his successors intensely persecuting them. The popes likewise demonstrated increasing severity towards them, notably with Clement XI abolishing

12870-638: The North African bishop Augustine of Hippo opposed the British monk Pelagius who maintained that man has, within himself, the strength to will the good and to practice virtue , and thus to carry out salvation; a position that reduces the importance of divine grace. Augustine rejected this and declared that God alone decides to whom he grants or withholds grace, which causes man to be saved. The good or evil actions of man (and thus, his will and his virtue) do not affect this process, since man's free will

13035-425: The Roman Catholic Church until the 19th century, without any incontestable unity to be found in it. The term 'Jansenism' was rejected by those called 'Jansenists', who throughout history consistently proclaimed their unity with the Roman Catholic Church. Abbot Victor Carrière, precursor of contemporary studies of Jansenism, says the following. There is perhaps no question more complicated than that of Jansenism. From

13200-428: The Son and the Holy Spirit are still seen as originating from God the Father. The New Testament does not have the term "Trinity" and nowhere discusses the Trinity as such. Some emphasize, however, that the New Testament does repeatedly speak of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit to "compel a trinitarian understanding of God." The doctrine developed from the biblical language used in New Testament passages such as

13365-510: The Trinity teaches the unity of Father , Son , and Holy Spirit as three persons in one Godhead . The doctrine states that God is the Triune God, existing as three persons , or in the Greek hypostases , but one being. Personhood in the Trinity does not match the common Western understanding of "person" as used in the English language—it does not imply an "individual, self-actualized center of free will and conscious activity." To

13530-696: The Trinity, is a mark of Catholicism , Eastern and Oriental Orthodoxy as well as other prominent Christian sects arising from the Protestant Reformation , such as Anglicanism , Methodism , Lutheranism , Baptist , and Presbyterianism . The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church describes the Trinity as "the central dogma of Christian theology". This doctrine contrasts with Nontrinitarian positions which include Unitarianism , Oneness and Modalism . A small minority of Christians hold non-trinitarian views, largely coming under

13695-675: The University of Leuven, the Baianist Jean du Vergier de Hauranne , later the abbot of Saint-Cyran-en-Brenne . Vergier was Jansen's patron for several years, and got Jansen a position as a tutor in Paris in 1606, after they completed their theological studies. Two years later, he got Jansen a position teaching at the bishop's college in Vergier's hometown of Bayonne . The two studied the Church Fathers together in Bayonne, with

13860-473: The abbey of Port-Royal in 1708 and promulgating the bull Unigenitus in 1713, which further condemned Jansenist teachings. This controversy did not end until Louis Antoine de Noailles , cardinal and archbishop of Paris, who had opposed the bull, signed it in 1728. In this context, Jansenism merged with the Enlightenment in the struggle against the Jesuits, royal absolutism, and ultramontanism during

14025-440: The absolutist France of the 17th and 18th centuries, the fear of a transition from religious opposition to a general opposition justified monarchical repression of Jansenism, and consequently, transformed the movement by giving it a political aspect marked by resistance to power and a defence of the parlements . In the 18th century, a diversity of 'Jansenisms' became more evident. In France, the participation of secular society in

14190-401: The ancients, personhood "was in some sense individual, but always in community as well." Each person is understood as having the one identical essence or nature, not merely similar natures. Since the beginning of the 3rd century the doctrine of the Trinity has been stated as "the one God exists in three Persons and one substance , Father, Son, and Holy Spirit." Trinitarianism, belief in

14355-496: The baptismal formula in Matthew 28:19 and by the end of the 4th century it was widely held in its present form. In many monotheist religions, God is addressed as the father, in part because of his active interest in human affairs, in the way that a father would take an interest in his children who are dependent on him and as a father, he will respond to humanity, his children, acting in their best interests. In Christianity, God

14520-411: The beginning of God's creation., not a creation himself, but equal in the personhood of the Trinity. In Eastern Orthodox theology, God the Father is the "principium" ( beginning ), the "source" or "origin" of both the Son and the Holy Spirit, which gives intuitive emphasis to the threeness of persons; by comparison, Western theology explains the "origin" of all three hypostases or persons as being in

14685-468: The beginning, many of those who were rightly considered to be its legitimate representatives asserted that it does not exist [...]. Moreover, in order to escape the condemnations of the Church, to disarm certain attackers and win new adherents, it has, depending on the circumstances, attenuated or even modified its fundamental theses. Thus, despite the countless works devoted to it, the history of Jansenism in its entirety still remains to be written today, since

14850-812: The cardinalate in 1690 despite his protests and made him the Cardinal-Deacon of Santa Maria in Aquiro but he later opted for the Diaconia of Sant'Adriano al Foro and later, as the Cardinal-Priest, for the titulus of San Silvestro in Capite . He was then ordained to the priesthood in September 1700 and celebrated his first Mass in Rome on 6 October 1700. After the death of Pope Innocent XII in 1700,

15015-695: The chief proponent of Jansenism. By allying with the Protestant princes against the Roman Catholic princes in the Thirty Years' War , Richelieu aroused the suspicion of the devout Jansenists, leading Vergier to openly condemn his foreign policy. For this reason he was imprisoned in the Bastille in May 1638. The debate on the role of contrition and attrition in salvation was also one of the motives of

15180-742: The claim that by scripture alone that the authority of the Bible is more important than the authority of the Church. The content of the Protestant Old Testament is the same as the Hebrew Bible canon , with changes in the division and order of books, but the Catholic Old Testament contains additional texts, known as the deuterocanonical books . Protestants recognize 39 books in their Old Testament canon, while Roman Catholic and Eastern Christians recognize 46 books as canonical. Both Catholics and Protestants use

15345-527: The concept of 'sufficient grace' defended by the Molinists. The clarity of Arnauld's explication ironically prompted his adversaries to ask the College of Sorbonne to examine his last letter. The professors who were responsible for examining the letter were all openly hostile to Augustinianism. They extracted two propositions from the letter which were then condemned. On 31 January 1656, shockingly, Arnauld

15510-556: The concept of a triune God, although the Trinitarian doctrine was not formalized until the 4th century. At that time, the Emperor Constantine convoked the First Council of Nicaea , to which all bishops of the empire were invited to attend. Pope Sylvester I did not attend but sent his legate . The council, among other things, decreed the original Nicene Creed. For most Christians, beliefs about God are enshrined in

15675-479: The contrary by Lafitau. On 14 March, Clement XI took ill while Lafitau was trying to get the pope's nephew to persuade the pope to name the French Chief minister Guillaume Dubois to the cardinalate. However, Clement XI was in a state of delirium and was not responsive to his pleas. On 16 March, Quadragesima Sunday , the pope did not participate in the services, however, celebrated Mass in his private chapel at

15840-568: The demanding spiritual practices he learned from Vergier. He was thus the first of the Solitaires of Port-Royal , and his example would be followed by other pious men wishing to live in isolation. The two convents became major strongholds of Jansenism. Under Angélique Arnauld, later with Vergier's support, Port-Royal-des-Champs developed a series of elementary schools, known as the Petites écoles de Port-Royal ('Little Schools of Port-Royal');

16005-444: The divine nature, which gives intuitive emphasis to the oneness of God's being. Christology is the field of study within Christian theology which is primarily concerned with the nature, person, and works of Jesus Christ , held by Christians to be the Son of God . Christology is concerned with the meeting of the human ( Son of Man ) and divine ( God the Son or Word of God ) in the person of Jesus . Primary considerations include

16170-466: The doctrine of Trinitarianism , which holds that the three persons of God together form a single God. The Trinitarian view emphasizes that God has a will and that God the Son has two wills, divine and human, though these are never in conflict (see Hypostatic union ). However, this point is disputed by Oriental Orthodox Christians, who hold that God the Son has only one will of unified divinity and humanity (see Miaphysitism ). The Christian doctrine of

16335-506: The doctrine of the Trinity than with the Christological debates. There are over 40 places in the New Testament where Jesus is given the title "the Son of God", but scholars don't consider this to be an equivalent expression. "God the Son" is rejected by anti-trinitarians , who view this reversal of the most common term for Christ as a doctrinal perversion and as tending towards tritheism . Matthew cites Jesus as saying, "Blessed are

16500-479: The doctrines of limited atonement and irresistible grace , were extracted from the work and declared heretical by theologians hostile to Jansen. These were condemned in 1653 by Pope Innocent X in the apostolic constitution Cum occasione . Certain defenders of Jansen responded by distinguishing between matters de jure and de facto , arguing that the propositions were indeed heretical ( de jure ), but could not be found in Augustinus ( de facto ), and thus that

16665-587: The early 20th century by Pope Pius X , who endorsed frequent communion, as long as the communicant was free of mortal sin. In 1602, Marie Angélique Arnauld , member of the Arnaulds , a large family of the Parisian nobility , became abbess of Port-Royal-des-Champs , a Cistercian convent in Magny-les-Hameaux . There, she reformed discipline after a conversion experience in 1608. In 1625, most of

16830-677: The effects of such inspiration on others. Besides the direct accounts of written revelation (such as Moses receiving the Ten Commandments inscribed on tablets of stone), the Prophets of the Old Testament frequently claimed that their message was of divine origin by prefacing the revelation using the following phrase: "Thus says the LORD" (for example, 1 Kgs 12:22–24;1 Chr 17:3–4; Jer 35:13; Ezek 2:4; Zech 7:9 ; etc.). The Second Epistle of Peter claims that "no prophecy of Scripture ...

16995-630: The existence of a 'Jansenist party'. According to Augustin Gazier, "for the author of the Little Letters , it was a matter of disabusing an overly credulous public, and of bringing out in all its light the perfect orthodoxy of those whom slander represented as heretics. Pascal did not hesitate to say that so-called 'Jansenism' was a chimera, a crude and abominable invention of the Jesuits, bitter enemies of Saint Augustine and of grace effective in itself." Christian theology Christian theology

17160-515: The faculty could condemn the propositions, the parlement of Paris intervened and forbade the faculty to consider the propositions. The faculty then submitted the propositions to the Assembly of the French clergy in 1650. Consequently, Habert wrote to Pope Innocent X the same year, mentioning five of the initial seven propositions. In his letter, he does not directly mention Jansen, but describes

17325-536: The foundational sacred texts of Christianity, while simultaneously investigating the development of Christian doctrine throughout history, particularly through the ecumenical councils of the early church (such as the First Council of Nicea ) and philosophical evolution. Inherent to a system of theological thought is the development of a method, one which can apply both broadly and particularly. Christian systematic theology will typically explore: Revelation

17490-495: The heading of Unitarianism . Most, if not all, Christians believe that God is spirit, an uncreated, omnipotent , and eternal being, the creator and sustainer of all things, who works the redemption of the world through his Son, Jesus Christ. With this background, belief in the divinity of Christ and the Holy Spirit is expressed as the doctrine of the Trinity , which describes the single divine ousia (substance) existing as three distinct and inseparable hypostases (persons):

17655-479: The heathen. Clement XI died in Rome on 19 March 1721 at 12:45pm and was buried in the pavement of Saint Peter's Basilica rather than in an ornate tomb like those of his predecessors. On March 10, Clement XI had a meeting at about 11:00am with the Bishop of Sisteron Pierre François Lafitau. When the pope met with the bishop, he said that his time was drawing to a close and that he would soon die, despite protests to

17820-410: The idea that the pope had in fact condemned Augustinian doctrine, and that the five propositions were indeed contained in Augustinus . Antoine Arnaud immediately responded, analysing the propositions and trying to show that they were inaccurate summaries of Jansen's views. Cardinal Mazarin , in order to put an end to the hostilities, convoked the bishops in 1654 and then in 1655, demanding them to sign

17985-516: The imprisonment. Vergier was not released until after Richelieu's death in 1642, and he died shortly thereafter, in 1643. From 1640, the Jesuits condemned Vergier's practice of renewals, which, according to them, risked discouraging the faithful and therefore distancing them from the sacraments. The Jesuits encouraged the faithful, whether or not they were struggling with sin, to receive the Eucharist frequently, arguing that Christ instituted it as

18150-547: The infusion of grace cannot be resisted and does not require human assent. The Catechism of the Catholic Church states the Roman Catholic position that "God's free initiative demands man's free response", that is, humans are said to freely assent or refuse God's gift of grace. Jansenism originated from a theological school of thought within the framework of the Counter-Reformation , and appeared in

18315-581: The kingdom between 1595 and 1603, so the Augustinian doctrine had no real opponents. At the beginning of the 17th century, the principal religious movement was the French school of spirituality , mainly represented by the Oratory of Jesus founded in 1611 by Cardinal Pierre de Bérulle , a close friend of Vergier. The movement sought to put into practice a certain form of Augustinianism without focusing on

18480-499: The libel titled Moral Theology of the Jesuits') in 1644. Another Jesuit response was Les Impostures et les ignorances du libelle intitulé: La Théologie Morale des Jésuites ('The impostures and ignorance of the libel titled Moral Theology of the Jesuits') by François Pinthereau, under the pseudonym of "abbé de Boisic", also in 1644. Pinthereau also wrote a critical history of Jansenism, La Naissance du Jansénisme découverte à Monsieur le Chancelier ('The Birth of Jansenism Revealed to

18645-451: The matter. This work, a manuscript of nearly 1,300 pages entitled Augustinus , was almost completed when Jansen died suddenly in an epidemic in 1638. On his deathbed, he committed a manuscript to his chaplain , ordering him to consult with Libert Froidmont , a theology professor at Leuven, and Henricus Calenus , canon at the metropolitan church, and to publish the manuscript if they agreed it should be published, adding , "If, however,

18810-530: The midst of the Counter-Reformation , and owes its name to the Dutch bishop of Ypres , Cornelius Jansen , the author of its foundational text, Augustinus , which was published posthumously in Leuven in 1640. The work was first popularised by Jansen's friend Abbot Jean du Vergier de Hauranne of Saint-Cyran-en-Brenne Abbey , and after Vergier's death in 1643, the movement was led by Antoine Arnauld . Augustinus

18975-579: The most famous product of these schools was the playwright Jean Racine . Through Angélique Arnauld, Vergier had met her brother, Antoine Arnauld , became his protector and brought him to accept Jansen's position in Augustinus . Following Vergier's death in 1643, Antoine Arnauld, then a brilliant lawyer, priest and theologian at the Sorbonne (theological college of the University of Paris ), became

19140-533: The movement revealed a popular and miraculous component involving figurism and the phenomenon of the convulsionnaires . In northern Italy, the influence of the Austrian Enlightenment brought Jansenism closer to modernity . However in the 19th century, Jansenism was primarily a defence of the past and a struggle against modern developments in the Roman Catholic Church. Augustin Gazier, historian of Jansenism and convinced Port-Royalist, attempts

19305-414: The nature of God is a mystery , something that must be revealed by special revelation rather than deduced through general revelation . Christian orthodox traditions (Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, and Protestant) follow this idea, which was codified in 381 and reached its full development through the work of the Cappadocian Fathers . They consider God to be a triune entity, called the Trinity, comprising

19470-530: The nuns moved to Paris , forming the convent of Port-Royal de Paris . In 1634, after coming into contact with the Arnaulds, Vergier became the spiritual advisor of Port-Royal-des-Champs, putting into practice his Augustinian vision of salvation, and also became a good friend of Angélique Arnauld; convincing her of the rightness of Jansen's opinions. In 1637, Antoine Le Maistre , nephew of Angélique Arnaud, retreated to Port-Royal in order to fully immerse himself in

19635-544: The order of his bishop who had forbidden the issue to be discussed. The ensuing controversy involved many Jansenists, in particular Henri Arnauld , bishop of Angers . After the promulgation of the bull, the Jesuits exploited what was for them a victory, and restarted hostilities. In 1654, the Jesuit François Annat published the Chicanes des jansénistes ('Deceits of the Jansenists'), in which he expressed

19800-407: The pains and temptations of a mortal man, yet he did not sin. As fully God, he defeated death and rose to life again. Scripture asserts that Jesus was conceived, by the Holy Spirit, and born of his virgin mother Mary without a human father. The biblical accounts of Jesus's ministry include miracles , preaching, teaching, healing , Death , and resurrection . The apostle Peter, in what has become

19965-580: The papal sacristan Niccolo Agostino degli Abbati Olivieri, Bishop of Porfirio , administered the Extreme Unction . On 19 March, the fever returned violently, and Clement XI slowly lost his ability to speak as his eyes clouded over and his respiration slowly diminished as the pope died just after midday. In his book " Journal of a Soul ", while he was preparing for the Second Vatican Council , Pope John XXIII resolved to pray

20130-535: The peacemakers, for they will be called sons of God (5:9)." The gospels go on to document a great deal of controversy over Jesus being the Son of God, in a unique way. The book of the Acts of the Apostles and the letters of the New Testament, however, record the early teaching of the first Christians– those who believed Jesus to be both the Son of God, the Messiah, a man appointed by God, as well as God himself. This

20295-674: The pope accepted on 7 June 1706. Clement XI also accepted the resignation of Francesco Maria de' Medici from the cardinalate on 19 June 1709. Another important decision of Clement XI was in regard to the Chinese Rites controversy : the Jesuit missionaries were forbidden to take part in honors paid to Confucius or the ancestors of the Emperors of China , which Clement XI identified as "idolatrous and barbaric", and to accommodate Christian language to pagan ideas under plea of conciliating

20460-590: The pope could not bind the conscience of a Roman Catholic regarding matters de facto . The Jansenists attacked Jesuit casuistry as moral laxity, in such works as the Lettres provinciales ('Provincial letters', fictional letters defending the Jansenist cause) by Blaise Pascal , which greatly affected French opinion on the matter. At the same time, the Port-Royal-des-Champs Abbey became

20625-426: The pope to be careful not to condemn Augustinianism too hastily, which they considered to be the official doctrine of the Church on the question of grace. Among these bishops were Henri Arnauld , bishop of Angers and brother of Antoine Arnaud, and Nicolas Choart de Buzenval  [ fr ] , bishop of Beauvais , who would later show fervent support for Port-Royal. At the same time, Antoine Arnaud openly doubted

20790-477: The pope's ability to bind the mind of believers in matters of doctrine ( de jure ) but not in matters of fact ( de facto ). They asked Pope Alexander VII to condemn Arnauld's proposition as heretical. Alexander VII responded, in the apostolic constitution Ad sanctam beati Petri sedem promulgated in 1656, that "We declare and define that the five propositions have been drawn from the book of Jansenius entitled Augustinus , and that they have been condemned in

20955-495: The presence of God or an angel. For instance, in the concept which Catholics call interior locution , supernatural revelation can include just an inner voice heard by the recipient. Thomas Aquinas (1225–1274) first described two types of revelation in Christianity: general revelation and special revelation . The Bible contains many passages in which the authors claim divine inspiration for their message or report

21120-461: The presence of the five propositions in the work of Jansen, introducing the suspicion of manipulation on the part of the opponents of the Jansenists. The prelates also asked Innocent X to appoint a commission similar to the Congregatio de Auxiliis to resolve the situation. Innocent X agreed to the majority's request, (that is, the request of the ninety bishops) but in an attempt to accommodate

21285-444: The prior permission of the Holy See . He also renewed the censures by Pope Pius V , in Ex omnibus afflictionibus in 1567, and by Pope Gregory XIII , of several propositions of Baianism , arguing that they were repeated in Augustinus . In eminenti was, for a time, treated as invalid because of an alleged ambiguity about the date of its publication. Jansenists attempted to prevent

21450-463: The publication of Augustinus , in which emphasis is placed on the Augustinian theory of grace and predestination. The Oratorians and Dominicans welcomed the work, along with a large number of theologians at the Sorbonne , ten of which approved the French editions. But the Jesuits immediately opposed it, who were supported by Cardinal Richelieu , and after his death in 1642, by Isaac Habert  [ fr ] who attacked Jansen in his sermons at

21615-526: The quesiton of grace as the Jansenists would later do. Its emphasis was to bring souls to a state of humility before God through the adoration of Christ as Saviour. Although Bérulle interfered little in the debates on grace, the Oratory and the Jesuits still came into conflict, with Vergier taking part by publishing writings against the 'Molinists'. Moreover, Bérulle, after having been the ally of Cardinal Richelieu , became his enemy when he realised Richelieu

21780-525: The reception of In eminenti , both in Flanders and in France. They alleged that it could not be genuine, since the document attested to be promulgated at Rome on 6 March 1641, whereas the copy sent to Brussels by the nuncio at Cologne was dated in 1642. In reality, the difference was between the Old Style and New Style dates which were both still in use. Thanks to the agitation of the Jansenists in

21945-528: The rejection of Protestantism . In the wake of Renaissance humanism , certain Roman Catholics had a less pessimistic vision of man and sought to establish his place in the process of salvation by relying on Thomistic theology , which appeared to be a reasonable compromise between grace and free will. It is in this context that Aquinas was proclaimed a Doctor of the Church in 1567. Nevertheless, theological conflict increased from 1567, and in Leuven ,

22110-695: The same 27-book New Testament canon. Early Christians used the Septuagint , a Koine Greek translation of the Hebrew scriptures. Christianity subsequently endorsed various additional writings that would become the New Testament. In the 4th century a series of synods , most notably the Synod of Hippo in AD 393, produced a list of texts equal to the 46-book canon of the Old Testament that Catholics use today (and

22275-746: The scriptures have been known by Timothy from "infancy" (verse 15). Others offer an alternative reading for the passage; for example, theologian C. H. Dodd suggests that it "is probably to be rendered" as: "Every inspired scripture is also useful..." A similar translation appears in the New English Bible , in the Revised English Bible , and (as a footnoted alternative) in the New Revised Standard Version . The Latin Vulgate can be so read. Yet others defend

22440-500: The sense of the same Jansenius and we once more condemn them as such." When the censure of the Second letter to a duke and peer and the condemnation of Antoine Arnauld were certain, Blaise Pascal entered the controversy on the side of the Jansenists. He decided to devote himself to religion a little over a year before. His sister Jacqueline Pascal was one of the major figures at Port-Royal, and he himself had numerous dialogues with

22605-431: The sixth session of the Council of Trent the place of free will, without pronouncing on its relationship with grace. Afterwards, the Roman Catholic position was not entirely unified, with the Jesuit priest Diego Laynez defending a position that his detractors described as Pelagian. Indeed, the Jesuits restarted the debate, fearing that excessive Augustinianism would weaken the role of the Church in salvation and compromise

22770-403: The spirit of polemic has prevailed for two centuries. Jansenism was first of all a defence of Augustinian theology in a debate initiated by the Protestant Reformation and the Council of Trent , then a concrete implementation of this Augustinianism. The struggle against ultramontanism and papal authority gave it a Gallican character, which became an essential component of the movement. In

22935-544: The subject of grace. Thomas Aquinas , however, attempted to organise a system of thought around Augustinianism in order to reconcile grace and human freedom. He both affirmed the action of the divine in each action of man, but also the freedom of man. The Scholastics of the 14th and 15th centuries moved away from Augustinianism towards a more optimistic view of human nature. The Reformation broke with Scholasticism, with Martin Luther and John Calvin both taking Augustine as

23100-475: The theologian Michel de Bay (Baius) was condemned by Pope Pius V for his denial of the reality of free will. In response to Baius, the Spanish Jesuit Luis de Molina , then teaching at the University of Évora , defended the existence of 'sufficient' grace, which provides man with the means of salvation, but only enters into him by the assent of his free will. This thesis was violently opposed by

23265-529: The three "Persons"; God the Father , God the Son , and God the Holy Spirit , described as being "of the same substance" ( ὁμοούσιος ). The true nature of an infinite God, however, is commonly described as beyond definition, and the word 'person' is an imperfect expression of the idea. Some critics contend that because of the adoption of a tripartite conception of deity, Christianity is a form of tritheism or polytheism . This concept dates from Arian teachings which claimed that Jesus, having appeared later in

23430-463: The trouble caused in France by the publication of his work. The five propositions were not formally attributed to Jansen. The letter provoked controversy; more than ninety French bishops signed it, but it was immediately countered by thirteen Augustinian prelates , who wrote a letter of refutation to Rome . In this letter, the prelates denounced the five propositions as "composed in ambiguous terms, which could only produce heated arguments", and requested

23595-413: The very idea of family, wherever it appears, derives its name from God the Father, and thus God himself is the model of the family. However, there is a deeper "legal" sense in which Christians believe that they are made participants in the special relationship of Father and Son, through Jesus Christ as his spiritual bride . Christians call themselves adopted children of God. In the New Testament, God

23760-469: The view of the minority, appointed an advisory committee consisting of five cardinals and thirteen consultors to report on the situation. Over the next two years, this commission held 36 meetings including 10 presided by Innocent X. The supporters of Jansenism on the commission drew up a table with three heads: the first listed the Calvinist position (which was condemned as heretical), the second listed

23925-418: The will of man. This grace is irresistible and not granted to all men. Here Jansen agreed with Calvin's theory of predestination . The manuscript was published in 1640, expounding Augustine's system and forming the basis for the subsequent Jansenist controversy. The book consisted of three volumes: In the first decade of the 17th century, Jansen established a fruitful collaboration with one of his classmates at

24090-403: The works of Pasquier Quesnel , declaring them to be identical in substance with propositions already condemned in the writings of Jansenius . The resistance of many French ecclesiastics and the refusal of the French parlements to register the bull led to controversies extending through the greater part of the 18th century. Because the local governments did not officially receive the bull, it

24255-401: The years following the Council of Trent , but drew from debates older than the council. Although Jansenism takes its name from Cornelius Jansen , it is attached to a long tradition of Augustinian thought . Most of the debates contributing to Jansenism concern the relationship between divine grace (which God grants to man) and human freedom in the process of salvation . In the 5th century,

24420-558: Was a patron of the arts and of science. He was also a great benefactor of the Vatican Library ; his interest in archaeology is credited with saving much of Rome's antiquity. He authorized expeditions which succeeded in rediscovering various ancient Christian writings and authorized excavations of the Roman catacombs . Giovanni Francesco Albani was born in 1649 in Urbino to the Albani family ,

24585-530: Was and forever is fully God (divine) and fully human in one sinless person at the same time, and that through the death and resurrection of Jesus , sinful humans can be reconciled to God and thereby are offered salvation and the promise of eternal life via his New Covenant . While there have been theological disputes over the nature of Jesus, Christians believe that Jesus is God incarnate and " true God and true man " (or both fully divine and fully human). Jesus, having become fully human in all respects, suffered

24750-455: Was barred from the Sorbonne, despite sixty professors having come to his defence. This event pushed Arnauld to retreat to Port-Royal, where he devoted himself to writing with a promising young theologian, Pierre Nicole . At the same time, Blaise Pascal undertook to defend him before public opinion, initiating the campaign of the Provinciales . Later that year, the French Assembly of the Bishops voted to condemn Arnauld's distinction regarding

24915-431: Was consecrated as Bishop of Ypres in 1636. It was only after the publication of Augustinus in 1638 that Vergier became the chief proponent of Jansen's theses, initially more out of loyalty to his late friend than out of personal conviction. Until then, grace was not frequently debated among French Roman Catholics; the topic was overshadowed by the devastating French Wars of Religion . The Jesuits were also banished from

25080-421: Was ever produced by the will of man, but men spoke from God as they were carried along by the Holy Spirit" The Second Epistle of Peter also implies that Paul's writings are inspired ( 2 Pet 3:16 ). Many Christians cite a verse in Paul's letter to Timothy, 2 Timothy 3:16–17, as evidence that "all scripture is given by inspiration of God, and is profitable ..." Here St. Paul is referring to the Old Testament, since

25245-400: Was fully divine and also human. What it did not do was make clear how one person could be both divine and human, and how the divine and human were related within that one person. This led to the Christological controversies of the 4th and 5th centuries of the Christian era. The Chalcedonian Creed did not put an end to all Christological debate, but it did clarify the terms used and became

25410-405: Was lost as a result of the original sin of Adam . God acts upon man through efficacious grace , in such a way that he infallibly regenerates him, without destroying his will. Man thus receives an irresistible and dominant desire for the good, which is infused into him by the action of efficacious grace. Medieval theology , dominated by Augustinian thought, left little room for human freedom on

25575-444: Was necessary for salvation , but also negated human free will. As they interpreted it, humans post- Fall were only capable of evil. The Jansenists were also distinguished by their moral rigorism and hostility towards the Jesuits and ultramontanism . From the end of the 17th century, this theological movement gained a political aspect, with the opponents of royal absolutism being largely identified with Jansenism. Jansenism began in

25740-415: Was not bound to accept the pope's determination of fact as to what doctrines were contained in Jansen's work. The Jansenists were therefore content with the notion that Jansen himself was not openly condemned, and further that Augustine's doctrine was still considered orthodox. This displeased the Jesuits and their supporters, who wanted a thoroughgoing condemnation of Jansenism. While the theological problem

25905-412: Was not so much seeking the victory of Roman Catholicism in Europe, but rather seeking "to construct a political synthesis which would ensure the universal supremacy of the French monarchy"; placing himself in alignment with the royal jurists. When Bérulle died in 1629, Richelieu transferred his hostility towards Vergier, mainly due to a theological debate regarding contrition (which had not been settled by

26070-433: Was not, technically, in force in those areas – an example of the interference of states in religious affairs common before the 20th century. Clement XI supported James Francis Edward Stuart , the exiled Stuart Prince of Wales, recognizing him as James III and VIII, and paid for the residence of him and his wife, Princess Maria Clementina Sobieska , Granddaughter of John III Sobieski , King of Poland-Lithuania, in Rome,

26235-422: Was obvious to all that he was being condemned. The cunning cyndic was careful not to give precise statements, as loyalty made it a duty; he did not attribute these propositions to anyone, and if anyone were to pronounce the name of Jansen, he would even say that it was not a question of him, Non agitur de Jansenio , [It is not about Jansen], whereas inwardly, it was Jansen and him alone who was in question. Before

26400-407: Was received favourably in France. Some Jansenists including Antoine Arnaud admitted that the propositions are heretical, but argued that they could not be found in Augustinus . They maintained that Jansen and his Augustinus were orthodox, as they espoused only what Augustine himself taught, and they believed it was impossible that the pope could have condemned Augustine's opinion. Arnauld articulated

26565-399: Was something wrong with his lungs, causing his doctors to realize that his condition would more than likely prove fatal. Clement XI made his confession and the profession of faith before receiving Holy Communion at 8:00pm. James Francis Edward Stuart , the "Pretender", tried to see the dying pope, however he was denied on the grounds of the dangerous state of the pope's condition. That night,

26730-468: Was technically resolved by Rome, hostility between the Jansenists and the Jesuits became increasingly pronounced. Even before the promulgation of Cum occasione , tensions between Jansenists and Jesuits defending Luis de Molina 's thesis, the Molinists , had begun. In August 1649, Antoine Singlin , a priest near Port-Royal, preached on the occasion of the Feast of St. Augustine in Port-Royal. In his sermon , he emphasised efficacious grace , thus violating

26895-435: Was that the one God exists in three persons (Father, Son, and Holy Spirit); in particular it was affirmed that the Son was homoousios (of one substance) with the Father. The Creed of the Nicene Council made statements about the full divinity and full humanity of Jesus, thus preparing the way for discussion about how exactly the divine and human come together in the person of Christ (Christology). Nicaea insisted that Jesus

27060-443: Was the culmination of controversies regarding grace dating back several decades, and coincided with growing hostility of part of the Roman Catholic clergy towards the Jesuits. Jansen claimed to establish Augustine's true position on the subject, as opposed to the Jesuit view, which was said to give too great a role to free will in salvation. Augustinus provoked lively debates, particularly in France, where five propositions, including

27225-583: Was widely distributed except in Jesuit circles. In 1644, Antoine Arnauld published an Apologie pour Jansenius ('Apology for Jansenius'), then a Seconde apologie ('Second apology') in the following year, and finally an Apologie pour M. de Saint-Cyran ('Apology for Saint-Cyran [Vergier]'). Arnauld also replied to Jesuit criticism with Théologie morale des Jésuites ('Moral Theology of the Jesuits'). The Jesuits then designated Nicolas Caussin (former confessor of Louis XIII ) to write Réponse au libelle intitulé La Théologie morale des Jésuites ('Response to

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