This is an accepted version of this page
143-599: Noahidism ( / ˈ n oʊ ə h aɪ d ɪ z ə m / ) or Noachidism ( / ˈ n oʊ ə x aɪ d ɪ z ə m / ) is a monotheistic Jewish religious movement aimed at non-Jews , based upon the Seven Laws of Noah and their traditional interpretations within Orthodox Judaism . According to the Jewish law , non-Jews ( gentiles ) are not obligated to convert to Judaism , but they are required to observe
286-458: A Sed festival , a sort of royal jubilee intended to reinforce the Pharaoh's divine powers of kingship. Traditionally held in the thirtieth year of the Pharaoh's reign, this possibly was a festival in honour of Amenhotep III , who some Egyptologists think had a coregency with his son Amenhotep IV of two to twelve years. Year 5 is believed to mark the beginning of Amenhotep IV's construction of
429-655: A proselyte , is considered the greatest early Jewish philosopher after Solomon. During his early years in Tulunid Egypt, the Fatimid Caliphate ruled Egypt; the leaders of the Tulunids were Ismaili Imams. Their influence upon the Jewish academies of Egypt resonate in the works of Sa'adya. Sa'adya's Emunoth ve-Deoth ("Beliefs and Opinions") was originally called Kitab al-Amanat wal-l'tikadat ("Book of
572-494: A "National Day of Reflection". In 1989 and 1990, they had another reference to the Noahide laws enshrined in a U.S. Presidential proclamation : the "Proclamation 5956", signed by then-President George H. W. Bush . The United States Congress, recalling House Joint Resolution 173 and in celebration of Menachem Mendel Schneerson's 87th birthday, proclaimed 16 April 1989, and 6 April 1990, as "Education Day, U.S.A." In January 2004,
715-939: A Jewish mutakallim (rational theologian), our main source of information is the Kitāb al-Tanbīh by the Muslim historian al-Masʿūdī (d. 956). In his brief survey of Arabic translations of the Bible, al-Masʿūdī states that the Israelites rely for exegesis and translation of the Hebrew books—i.e., the Torah, Prophets, and Psalms, twenty-four books in all, he says—on a number of Israelites whom they praise highly, almost all of whom he has met in person. He mentions Abū ʾl-Kathīr as one of them, and also Saadia ("Saʿīd ibn Yaʿqūb al-Fayyūmī"). Regardless of what we do not know, Saadia traveled to Tiberias (home of
858-566: A broader cultivation of the classic languages and the non-Jewish branches of learning. To Anatoli, all men are formed in the image of God, although the Jews stand under a particular obligation to further the true cognition of God simply by reason of their election, "the Greeks had chosen wisdom as their pursuit; the Romans, power; and the Jews, religiousness" Firstly, Hillel ben Samuel 's importance in
1001-403: A center of philosophical learning as is reflected by the explosion of philosophical inquiry among Jews, Muslims and Christians. According to Sa'adya Gaon, the Jewish community of Balkh (Afghanistan) was divided into two groups: "Jews" and "people that are called Jews"; Hiwi al-Balkhi was a member of the latter. Hiwi is generally considered to be the very first "Jewish" philosopher to subject
1144-541: A component or opposite force of Ahura Mazda. Post-exilic Judaism, after the late 6th century BCE, was the first religion to conceive the notion of a personal monotheistic God within a monist context. The concept of ethical monotheism , which holds that morality stems from God alone and that its laws are unchanging, first occurred in Judaism , but is now a core tenet of most modern monotheistic religions, including Christianity, Islam, Sikhism, and Baháʼí Faith. Also from
1287-545: A court of Babylonian rabbis, whose decision would be binding on both factions. Hillel was certain the verdict would favor Maimonides. Hillel wrote a commentary on the 25 propositions appearing at the beginning of the second part of the Guide of the Perplexed, and three philosophical treatises, which were appended to Tagmulei ha-Nefesh: the first on knowledge and free will; the second on the question of why mortality resulted from
1430-702: A few precedents in the history of Judaism , primarily during Biblical times and the Roman domination of the Mediterranean . In the Hebrew Bible , it is reported that the legal status of ger toshav ( Biblical Hebrew : גר תושב , ger : "foreigner" or "alien" + toshav : "resident", lit. ' resident alien ' ) was granted to those Gentiles (non-Jews) living in the Land of Israel who did not want to convert to Judaism but agreed to observe
1573-400: A fool who believes in everything, but only in that which can be verified by proof...and not to be of the second unthinking category which disbelieves from the start of its inquiry," since "certain things must be accepted by tradition, because they cannot be proven." Scholars continue to debate whether ibn Kaspi was a heretic or one of Judaisms most illustrious scholars. Rabbi Levi ben Gershon
SECTION 10
#17327761395531716-469: A form of imperialism ". In 2005 a "High Council of Bnei Noah ", set up to represent Noahide communities around the world, was endorsed by a group that claimed to be the new Sanhedrin . The High Council of Bnei Noah consists of a group of Noahides who, at the request of the nascent Sanhedrin , gathered in Jerusalem on 10 January 2006 to be recognized as an international Noahide organization for
1859-563: A large segment of Israelis. We call upon the Chief Rabbi to retract his statements and apologize for any offense caused by his comments. Monotheism Monotheism is the belief that one god is the only, or at least the dominant deity . A distinction may be made between exclusive monotheism, in which the one God is a singular existence, and both inclusive and pluriform monotheism, in which multiple gods or godly forms are recognized, but each are postulated as extensions of
2002-578: A monotheistic view. The Naiyanikas have given an argument that such a god can only be one. In the Nyaya Kusumanjali , this is discussed against the proposition of the Mimamsa school that let us assume there were many demigods ( devas ) and sages ( rishis ) in the beginning, who wrote the Vedas and created the world. Nyaya says that: [If they assume such] omniscient beings, those endowed with
2145-500: A new capital, Akhetaten ( Horizon of the Aten ), at the site known today as Amarna . Evidence of this appears on three of the boundary stelae used to mark the boundaries of this new capital. At this time, Amenhotep IV officially changed his name to Akhenaten ( Agreeable to Aten ) as evidence of his new worship. The date given for the event has been estimated to fall around January 2 of that year. In Year 7 of his reign (1346/1344 BCE),
2288-560: A new phase in Jewish scholarship and investigation ( hakirah ); Hai Gaon augments Talmudic scholarship with non-Jewish studies. Hai Gaon was a savant with an exact knowledge of the theological movements of his time so much so that Moses ibn Ezra called him a mutakallim . Hai was competent to argue with followers of Qadariyyah and Mutazilites, sometimes adopting their polemic methods. Through correspondence with Talmudic Academies at Kairouan, Cordoba and Lucena, Hai Gaon passes along his discoveries to Talmudic scholars therein. The teachings of
2431-535: A number of them. His best-known work is his Shelemut ha-Nefesh ("Treatise on the Perfection of the Soul"). Moses began studying philosophy with his father when he was thirteen, later studying with Moses ben David Caslari and Abraham ben David Caslari - both of whom were students of Kalonymus ben Kalonymus . Moses believed that Judaism was a guide to the highest degree of theoretical and moral truth. He believed that
2574-583: A place for non-Jews in the messianic Zionist project ". She characterizes Noahide ideology in the Philippines and elsewhere in the global south as having a "markedly racial dimension" constructed around "an essential categorical difference between Jews and Noahides". David Novak , professor of Jewish theology and ethics at the University of Toronto , has denounced the modern Noahide movement by stating that "If Jews are telling Gentiles what to do, it's
2717-417: A powerful presentation of what the monotheists denounce as Hindu Polytheism. I had never read anything like it. It was a revelation to me that Monotheism was not a religious concept but an imperialist idea. I must confess that I myself had been inclined towards Monotheism till this time. I had never thought that a multiplicity of Gods was the natural and spontaneous expression of an evolved consciousness. Sikhi
2860-568: A strong denunciation of Yosef's sermon: The statement by Chief Rabbi Yosef is shocking and unacceptable. It is unconscionable that the Chief Rabbi, an official representative of the State of Israel, would express such intolerant and ignorant views about Israel's non-Jewish population – including the millions of non-Jewish citizens. As a spiritual leader, Rabbi Yosef should be using his influence to preach tolerance and compassion towards others, regardless of their faith, and not seek to exclude and demean
3003-454: A unitary God is Plato 's Demiurge (divine Craftsman), followed by Aristotle 's unmoved mover , both of which would profoundly influence Jewish and Christian theology. According to contemporary Jewish, Christian and Islamic tradition, monotheism was the original religion of humanity; this original religion is sometimes referred to as "the Adamic religion", or, in the terms of Andrew Lang ,
SECTION 20
#17327761395533146-623: Is a divine figure with attributed supremacy in Vaishnavism. The Rig Veda discusses monotheistic thought, as do the Atharva Veda and Yajur Veda : "Devas are always looking to the supreme abode of Vishnu" ( tad viṣṇoḥ paramaṁ padaṁ sadā paśyanti sṻrayaḥ Rig Veda 1.22.20) "The One Truth, sages know by many names" ( Rig Veda 1 .164.46) "When at first the unborn sprung into being, He won His own dominion beyond which nothing higher has been in existence" ( Atharva Veda 10.7.31) "There
3289-455: Is a monotheistic and a revealed religion . God in Sikhism is called Akal Purakh (which means "The Immortal Being") or Vāhigurū (Wondrous Enlightener). However, other names like Rama , Brahman , Khuda , Allah , etc. are also used to refer to the same God, who is shapeless , timeless , and sightless : niraṅkār , akaal , and alakh . Sikhi presents a unique perspective where God
3432-684: Is a monotheistic faith that arose in the Punjab region of the Indian subcontinent during the 16th and 17th centuries. Sikhs believe in one, timeless, omnipresent, supreme creator. The opening verse of the Guru Granth Sahib , known as the Mul Mantra , signifies this: The word "ੴ" ("Ik ōaṅkār") has two components. The first is ੧, the digit "1" in Gurmukhi signifying the singularity of
3575-571: Is incumbent on all Jews, a commandment in and of itself. Nevertheless, the majority of rabbinic authorities over the centuries have rejected Maimonides' opinion, and the dominant halakhic consensus has always been that Jews are not required to spread the Noahide laws to non-Jews. During the 1860s in Western Europe , the idea of Noahidism as a universal Judaic religion for non-Jews was developed by Elijah Benamozegh , an Italian Sephardic Orthodox rabbi and renowned Jewish Kabbalist . Between
3718-583: Is monotheist as well as pantheist. The Great Spirit , called Wakan Tanka among the Sioux , and Gitche Manitou in Algonquian , is a conception of universal spiritual force, or supreme being prevalent among some Native American and First Nation cultures. According to Lakota activist Russell Means a better translation of Wakan Tanka is the Great Mystery. Indeed, "Wanka Tanka" among
3861-420: Is no other way open. In other words, Nyaya says that the polytheist would have to give elaborate proofs for the existence and origin of his several celestial spirits, none of which would be logical, and that it is more logical to assume one eternal, omniscient god. Many other Hindus, however, view polytheism as far preferable to monotheism. The famous Hindu revitalist leader Ram Swarup , for example, points to
4004-793: Is none like him in his generation," and he sharply attacked the "monetary demands" of the academies. Samuel ben Ali was an anti-Maimonidean operating in Babylon to undermine the works of Maimonides and those of Maimonides' patrons (the Al-Constantini family from North Africa). To illustrate the reach of the Maimonidean Controversy, Samuel ben Ali, the chief opponent of Maimonides in the East, was excommunicated by Daud Ibn Hodaya al Daudi (Exilarch of Mosul). Maimonides' attacks on Samuel ben Ali may not have been entirely altruistic given
4147-628: Is none to compare with Him. There is no parallel to Him, whose glory, verily, is great." ( Yajur Veda 32.3) The number of auspicious qualities of God are countless, with the following six qualities ( bhaga ) being the most important: In the Shaivite tradition, the Shri Rudram ( Sanskrit श्रि रुद्रम्), to which the Chamakam (चमकम्) is added by scriptural tradition, is a Hindu stotra dedicated to Rudra (an epithet of Shiva ), taken from
4290-589: Is often contrasted with " polytheism ", but many scholars prefer other terms such as monolatry, henotheism, or one-god discourse. Quasi-monotheistic claims of the existence of a universal deity date to the Late Bronze Age , with Akhenaten 's Great Hymn to the Aten from the 14th century BCE. In the Iron-Age South Asian Vedic period , a possible inclination towards monotheism emerged. The Rigveda exhibits notions of monism of
4433-475: Is one of the early Latin translators of "the wise men of the nations" (non-Jewish scholars). Defending Maimonides, Hillel addressed a letter to his friend Maestro Gaio asking him to use his influence with the Jews of Rome against Maimonides' opponents (Solomon Petit). He also advanced the bold idea of gathering together Maimonides' defenders and opponents in Alexandria, in order to bring the controversy before
Noahidism - Misplaced Pages Continue
4576-533: Is present ( sarav viāpak ) in all of its creation and does not exist outside of its creation. God must be seen from "the inward eye", or the "heart". Sikhs follow the Aad Guru Granth Sahib and are instructed to meditate on the Naam (Name of God - Vāhigurū ) to progress towards enlightenment, as its rigorous application permits the existence of communication between God and human beings. Sikhism
4719-476: Is underscored by the fact that the title of his eighth gate, Muḥasabat al-Nafs ("Self-Examination"), is reminiscent of the Sufi Abu Abd Allah Ḥarith Ibn-Asad , who has been surnamed El Muḥasib ("the self-examiner"), because—say his biographers—"he was always immersed in introspection" Judah Halevi of Toledo, Spain defended Rabbinic Judaism against Islam, Christianity and Karaite Judaism. He
4862-472: The "Guide for the Perplexed" against attacks of anti-Maimonideans. He knew the works of the Islamic philosophers better than any Jewish scholar of his time, and made many of them available to other Jewish scholars – often without attribution ( Reshit Hokhmah ). Ibn Falaquera did not hesitate to modify Islamic philosophic texts when it suited his purposes. For example, Ibn Falaquera turned Alfarabi's account of
5005-515: The 18th dynasty of the New Kingdom . He raised Aten , once a relatively obscure Egyptian solar deity representing the disk of the sun, to the status of Supreme God in the Egyptian pantheon. To emphasise the change, Aten's name was written in the cartouche form normally reserved for Pharaohs, an innovation of Atenism. This religious reformation appears to coincide with the proclamation of
5148-537: The Brahman , particularly in the comparatively late tenth book , which is dated to the early Iron Age , e.g. in the Nasadiya Sukta . Later, ancient Hindu theology was monist , but was not strictly monotheistic in worship because it still maintained the existence of many gods, who were envisioned as aspects of one supreme God, Brahman. In China, the orthodox faith system held by most dynasties since at least
5291-620: The Brethren of Purity were carried to the West by the Cordovan hadith scholar and alchemist Maslama al-Qurṭubī (died 964), where they would be of central importance to the Jewish philosophers of Islamic Spain . One of the themes emphasized by the Brethren of Purity and adopted by most Spanish Jewish philosophers is the microcosm-macrocosm analogy . From the 10th century on, Spain became
5434-575: The Cairo Geniza , have been published (Davidson, 1915; Schirmann, 1965). Ḥīwī's criticisms are also noted in Abraham ibn Ezra's commentary on the Pentateuch. Sa'adya Gaon denounced Hiwi as an extreme rationalist, a "Mulhidun", or atheist/deviator. Abraham Ibn Daud described HIwi as a sectarian who "denied the Torah, yet used it to formulate a new Torah of his liking". " Saadia Gaon , son of
5577-468: The Enlightenment and Christian views. Many definitions of monotheism are too modern, western, and Christian-centered to account for the diversity and complexity of the ancient sources, which include not only the biblical texts, but also other writings, inscriptions, and material remains that help reconstruct the ancient beliefs and practices of the people of Judah and Israel. The term "monotheism"
5720-554: The Geonim of 10th century Babylonian academies brought rationalist philosophy into Biblical - Talmudic Judaism. The philosophy was generally in competition with Kabbalah . Both schools would become part of classic rabbinic literature , though the decline of scholastic rationalism coincided with historical events which drew Jews to the Kabbalistic approach. For Ashkenazi Jews , emancipation and encounter with secular thought from
5863-584: The Library of Alexandria . Early Jewish converts to Islam brought with them stories from their heritage, known as Isra'iliyyat , which told of the Banu Isra'il , the pious men of ancient Israel. One of the most famous early mystics of Sufism , Hasan of Basra , introduced numerous Isra'iliyyat legends into Islamic scholarship, stories that went on to become representative of Islamic mystical ideas of piety of Sufism. Hai Gaon of Pumbedita Academy begins
Noahidism - Misplaced Pages Continue
6006-766: The Noahide Laws are absorbed into the Mosaic Laws , thereby losing their independence. This unification of the two sets of law during the revelation at Sinai strengthened and confirmed (rather than diminished) the obligation for non-Jews to follow the Noahide Laws. Righteous Gentiles were obliged to follow the Seven Commandments and, by association, the Sinaitic Commandments because the Noahide Laws were now considered subsumed into
6149-510: The Shang dynasty (1766 BCE) until the modern period centered on the worship of Shangdi (literally "Above Sovereign", generally translated as "God") or Heaven as an omnipotent force. However, this faith system was not truly monotheistic since other lesser gods and spirits, which varied with locality, were also worshipped along with Shangdi . Still, later variants such as Mohism (470 BCE–c.391 BCE) approached true monotheism, teaching that
6292-474: The Sura Academy (from which Jewish Kalam emerged many centuries later) was founded by Abba Arika . For the next five centuries, Talmudic academies focused upon reconstituting Judaism and little, if any, philosophic investigation was pursued. Rabbinic Judaism had limited philosophical activity until it was challenged by Islam , Karaite Judaism, and Christianity —with Tanach, Mishnah, and Talmud, there
6435-534: The Third Temple movement who believe that the messianic era shall begin with the establishment of a Jewish theocratic state in Israel , supported by communities of Noahides worldwide: Today, nearly 2,000 Filipinos consider themselves members of the "Children of Noah", a new Judaic faith that is growing into the tens of thousands worldwide as ex-Christians encounter forms of Jewish learning online. Under
6578-684: The United States , United Kingdom , Latin America , Nigeria , the Philippines , and Russia . According to a Noahide source in 2018, there are over 20,000 official Noahides around the world and the country with the greatest number is the Philippines. The theological basis for the seven commandments of the Noahic Covenant is said to be derived interpretatively from demands addressed to Adam and to Noah , who are believed to be
6721-459: The Vedas as being specifically polytheistic, and states that, "only some form of polytheism alone can do justice to this variety and richness." Sita Ram Goel , another 20th-century Hindu historian, wrote: I had an occasion to read the typescript of a book [Ram Swarup] had finished writing in 1973. It was a profound study of Monotheism, the central dogma of both Islam and Christianity, as well as
6864-596: The Yajurveda (TS 4.5, 4.7). Shri Rudram is also known as Sri Rudraprasna , Śatarudrīya , and Rudradhyaya . The text is important in Vedanta where Shiva is equated to the Universal supreme God. The hymn is an early example of enumerating the names of a deity , a tradition developed extensively in the sahasranama literature of Hinduism . The Nyaya school of Hinduism has made several arguments regarding
7007-660: The ethnocentric biases contained in the Noahide laws, whereas some contemporary right-wing Jewish political movements have embraced them. Menachem Mendel Schneerson , the Lubavitcher Rebbe, encouraged his followers on many occasions to preach the Seven Laws of Noah, devoting some of his addresses to the subtleties of this code. Since the 1990s, Orthodox Jewish rabbis from Israel, most notably those affiliated to Chabad-Lubavitch and religious Zionist organizations, including The Temple Institute , have set up
7150-534: The " Urreligion ". Scholars of religion largely abandoned that view in the 19th and 20th centuries in favour of an evolutionary progression from animism via polytheism to monotheism. Austrian anthropologist Wilhelm Schmidt had postulated an Urmonotheismus , "original" or "primitive monotheism" in the 1910s. It was objected that Judaism , Christianity , and Islam had grown up in opposition to polytheism as had Greek philosophical monotheism. More recently, Karen Armstrong and other authors have returned to
7293-490: The 18th century onwards altered how philosophy was viewed. Ashkenazi and Sephardi communities had later more ambivalent interaction with secular culture than in Western Europe. In the varied responses to modernity, Jewish philosophical ideas were developed across the range of emerging religious movements . These developments could be seen as either continuations of or breaks from the canon of rabbinic philosophy of
SECTION 50
#17327761395537436-436: The 6th century BCE, Thales (followed by other Monists, such as Anaximander , Anaximenes , Heraclitus , Parmenides ) proposed that nature can be explained by reference to a single unitary principle that pervades everything. Numerous ancient Greek philosophers, including Xenophanes of Colophon and Antisthenes , believed in a similar polytheistic monism that bore some similarities to monotheism. The first known reference to
7579-530: The Academy of Fez and studied under Rabbi Yehuda Ha-Kohen Ibn Soussan — a student of Isaac Alfasi . Maimonides strove to reconcile Aristotelian philosophy and science with the teachings of Torah. In some ways his position was parallel to that of Averroes ; in reaction to the attacks on Avicennian Aristotelism, Maimonides embraced and defended a stricter Aristotelism without Neoplatonic additions. The principles which inspired all of Maimonides' philosophical activity
7722-468: The Articles of Faith and Doctrines of Dogma"); it was the first systematic presentation and philosophic foundation of the dogmas of Judaism, completed at Sura Academy in 933 CE." Little known is that Saadia traveled to Tiberias in 915CE to study with Abū 'l-Kathīr Yaḥyā ibn Zakariyyāʾ, "a Jewish theologian and Bible translator. He is not mentioned in any Jewish source, and apart from the Andalusian heresiographer and polemicist Ibn Hazm , who mentions him as
7865-592: The Aztec. As an old religion, Hinduism inherits religious concepts spanning monotheism, polytheism , panentheism , pantheism , monism , and atheism among others; and its concept of God is complex and depends upon each individual and the tradition and philosophy followed. Hindu views are broad and range from monism, through pantheism and panentheism (alternatively called monistic theism by some scholars) to monotheism and even atheism. Hinduism cannot be said to be purely polytheistic. Hindu religious leaders have repeatedly stressed that while God's forms are many and
8008-417: The Baghdad Yeshiva and considered the leading philosopher of Iraq. Historians differ over the motive for his conversion to Islam. Some suggest it was a reaction to a social slight inflicted upon him because he was a Jew, while others suggest he was forcibly converted at the edge of a sword (which prompted Maimonides to comment upon Anusim ). Despite his conversion to Islam, his works continued to be studied at
8151-401: The Bahshamiyya Muʿtazila and Qadariyah is as important, if not more so, as the intellectual symbiosis of Judaism and Islam in Islamic Spain. Around 733 CE, Mar Natronai ben Habibai moves to Kairouan , then to Spain, transcribing the Talmud Bavli for the Academy at Kairouan from memory—later taking a copy with him to Spain. Borrowing from the Mutakallamin of Basra , the Karaites were
8294-535: The Duties of the Heart"). Bahya often followed the method of the Arabian encyclopedists known as "the Brethren of Purity " but adopts some of Sufi tenets rather than Ismaili. According to Bahya, the Torah appeals to reason and knowledge as proofs of God's existence. It is therefore a duty incumbent upon every one to make God an object of speculative reason and knowledge, in order to arrive at true faith. Baḥya borrows from Sufism and Jewish Kalam integrating them into Neoplatonism. Proof that Bahya borrowed from Sufism
8437-427: The Egyptian people. Key features of Atenism included a ban on idols and other images of the Aten, with the exception of a rayed solar disc, in which the rays (commonly depicted ending in hands) appear to represent the unseen spirit of Aten. Akhenaten made it however clear that the image of the Aten only represented the god, but that the god transcended creation and so could not be fully understood or represented. Aten
8580-452: The Guide of the Perplexed was being studied in the Muslim philosophical schools of Fez, he left for that town (in 1332) in order to observe their method of study. Ibn Kaspi began writing when he was 17 years old on topics which included logic, linguistics, ethics, theology, biblical exegesis, and super-commentaries to Abraham Ibn Ezra and Maimonides. Philosophic systems he followed were Aristotle's and Averroes'. He defines his aim as "not to be
8723-480: The Hebrew grammarian Abū ʿAlī Judah ben ʿAllān, likewise of Tiberias, who seems to have been a Karaite Jew. However, al-Masūdī unequivocally describes Abu ʾl-Kathīr (as well as his student Saadia) as an ashmaʿthī (Rabbanite). In "Book of the Articles of Faith and Doctrines of Dogma" Saadia declares the rationality of the Jewish religion with the caveat that reason must capitulate wherever it contradicts tradition. Dogma takes precedence over reason. Saadia closely followed
SECTION 60
#17327761395538866-419: The Jewish Baghdad Academy, a well-known academy, into the thirteenth century. He was a follower of Avicenna's teaching, who proposed an explanation of the acceleration of falling bodies by the accumulation of successive increments of power with successive increments of velocity. His writings include Kitāb al-Muʿtabar ("The Book of What Has Been Established by Personal Reflection"); a philosophical commentary on
9009-420: The Kohelet, written in Arabic using Hebrew aleph bet; and the treatise "On the Reason Why the Stars Are Visible at Night and Hidden in Daytime." According to Hibat Allah, Kitāb al-Muʿtabar consists in the main of critical remarks jotted down by him over the years while reading philosophical text, and published at the insistence of his friends, in the form of a philosophical work. Natan'el al-Fayyumi of Yemen,
9152-596: The Lakota was considered a "council of gods" in pre-columbian times, and their religion is not monotheistic. Some researchers have interpreted Aztec philosophy as fundamentally monotheistic or panentheistic. While the populace at large believed in a polytheistic pantheon, Aztec priests and nobles might have come to an interpretation of Teotl as a single universal force with many facets. There has been criticism to this idea, however, most notably that many assertions of this supposed monotheism might actually come from post-Conquistador bias, imposing an Antiquity pagan model onto
9295-482: The Middle Ages, as well as the other historical dialectic aspects of Jewish thought, and resulted in diverse contemporary Jewish attitudes to philosophical methods. Philo attempted to fuse and harmonize Greek and Jewish philosophy through allegory, which he learned from Jewish exegesis and Stoicism . Philo attempted to make his philosophy the means of defending and justifying Jewish religious truths . These truths he regarded as fixed and determinate, and philosophy
9438-442: The Necessary Existence and (3) The Creation of the World"). Jacob Anatoli is generally regarded as a pioneer in the application of the Maimonidean Rationalism to the study of Jewish texts. He was the son-in-law of Samuel ibn Tibbon , translator of Maimonides. Due to these family ties Anatoli was introduced to the philosophy of Maimonides, the study of which was such a great revelation to him that he, in later days, referred to it as
9581-433: The Pentateuch to critical analysis. Hiwi is viewed by some scholars as an intellectually conflicted man torn between Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Gnostic Christianity, and Manichaean thought. Hiwi espoused the belief that miraculous acts, described in the Pentateuch, are simply examples of people using their skills of reasoning to undertake, and perform, seemingly miraculous acts. As examples of this position, he argued that
9724-414: The Seven Laws of Noah and refrain from studying the Torah or performing any Jewish commandment , including resting on the Shabbat ; however, Maimonides also states that if Gentiles want to perform any Jewish commandment besides the Seven Laws of Noah according to the correct halakhic procedure, they are not prevented from doing so. According to Maimonides, teaching non-Jews to follow the Seven Laws of Noah
9867-533: The Seven Laws of Noah to be assured of a place in the World to Come ( Olam Ha-Ba ), the final reward of the righteous. The penalty for violating any of the Noahide laws is discussed in the Talmud , but in practical terms it is subject to the working legal system which is established by the society at large. Those who subscribe to the observance of the Noahic Covenant are referred to as Bnei Noach ( Hebrew : בני נח , "Sons of Noah") or Noahides ( / ˈ n oʊ . ə h aɪ d z / ). The modern Noahide movement
10010-451: The Seven Laws of Noah. The Sebomenoi or God-fearers of the Roman Empire were another ancient example of non-Jews being included within the Jewish community without converting to Judaism. During the Golden Age of Jewish culture in the Iberian Peninsula , the medieval Jewish philosopher and rabbi Moses Maimonides (1135–1204) wrote in the halakhic legal code Mishneh Torah that Gentiles (non-Jews) must perform exclusively
10153-501: The Sinai Laws. This did not alter the distinction between the two sets of people who followed the respective laws. [...] The relationship between the Noahites and the Jews would always be similar to the relationship between a priest and a faithful layman. The obligation to follow the Noahide Laws was incumbent upon the Jews from Adam to the Revelation at Sinai. Virtually all Jewish thinkers who dealt with this issue kept this in mind. The concept of "Righteous Gentiles" ( gerim toshavim ) has
10296-424: The Torah had both a simple, direct meaning accessible to the average reader as well as a deeper, metaphysical meaning accessible to thinkers. Moses rejected the belief in miracles, instead believing they could be explained, and defended man's free will by philosophical arguments. Isaac ben Sheshet Perfet, of Barcelona, studied under Hasdai Crescas and Rabbi Nissim ben Reuben Gerondi. Nissim ben Reuben Gerondi
10439-701: The beginning of his intelligent and true comprehension of the Scriptures, while he frequently alluded to Ibn Tibbon as one of the two masters who had instructed and inspired him. Anatoli wrote the Malmad exhibiting his broad knowledge of classic Jewish exegetes, as well as Plato, Aristotle, Averroes, and the Vulgate, as well as with a large number of Christian institutions, some of which he ventures to criticize, such as celibacy and monastic castigation, as well as certain heretics and he repeatedly appeals to his readers for
10582-401: The capital was moved from Thebes to Akhetaten (near modern Amarna), though construction of the city seems to have continued for two more years. In shifting his court from the traditional ceremonial centres Akhenaten was signalling a dramatic transformation in the focus of religious and political power. The move separated the Pharaoh and his court from the influence of the priesthood and from
10725-471: The community who, being under twenty-five years, shall study the works of the Greeks on natural science and metaphysics." Contemporary Kabbalists, Tosafists and Rationalists continue to engage in lively, sometimes caustic, debate in support of their positions and influence in the Jewish world. At the center of many of these debates are "Guide for the Perplexed", "13 Principles of Faith", "Mishnah Torah", and his commentary on Anusim . Joseph ben Judah of Ceuta
10868-408: The construction of some of the most massive temple complexes in ancient Egypt, including one at Karnak and one at Thebes, close to the old temple of Amun . In Year 9 (1344/1342 BCE), Akhenaten declared a more radical version of his new religion, declaring Aten not merely the supreme god of the Egyptian pantheon, but the only God of Egypt, with himself as the sole intermediary between the Aten and
11011-524: The context of interaction and intellectual investigation of Jewish, Christian and Muslim texts. Maimonides writings almost immediately came under attack from Karaites, Dominican Christians, Tosafists of Provence, Ashkenaz and Al Andalus . Scholars suggest that Maimonides instigated the Maimonidean Controversy when he verbally attacked Samuel ben Ali ("Gaon of Baghdad") as "one whom people accustom from his youth to believe that there
11154-401: The creation of new, distinctly Noahide ritual practices and prayers modeled after Jewish ones. Filipino Noahides are practicing a new faith that also affirms the superiority of Judaism and Jewish biblical right to the Land of Israel , in line with the aims of the growing messianic Third Temple Movement in Jerusalem . Feldman describes Noahidism as a " new world religion " that "carv[es] out
11297-401: The creator. Together the word means: "One Universal creator God". Jewish philosophy Jewish philosophy ( Hebrew : פילוסופיה יהודית ) includes all philosophy carried out by Jews , or in relation to the religion of Judaism . Until modern Haskalah (Jewish Enlightenment) and Jewish emancipation , Jewish philosophy was preoccupied with attempts to reconcile coherent new ideas into
11440-494: The different religions. Some Jews accepted this model of religious pluralism, leading them to view Muhammad as a legitimate prophet, though not Jewish, sent to preach to the Arabs , just as the Hebrew prophets had been sent to deliver their messages to Israel; others refused this notion in entirety. Bahye ben Yosef Ibn Paquda , of Zaragoza, was author of the first Jewish system of ethics Al Hidayah ila Faraid al-hulub , ("Guide to
11583-438: The eminence of Aten as the renewal of the kingship of Ra. Under Akhenaten's successors, Egypt reverted to its traditional religion, and Akhenaten himself came to be reviled as a heretic. Some Egyptian ethical text authors believed in only a single god ruling over the universe. Native American religions may be monotheistic, polytheistic, henotheistic, animistic, or some combination thereof. Cherokee religion , for example,
11726-536: The famous statement of the Bhagavatam" (1.3.28). A viewpoint differing from this theological concept is the concept of Krishna as an avatar of Narayana or Vishnu . It should be however noted that although it is usual to speak of Vishnu as the source of the avataras, this is only one of the names of the God of Vaishnavism , who is also known as Narayana, Vasudeva and Krishna and behind each of those names there
11869-489: The father of Maimonides . Ibn Naghrillah's son, Yosef, provided refuge for two sons of Hezekiah Gaon ; Daud Ibn Chizkiya Gaon Ha-Nasi and Yitzhak Ibn Chizkiya Gaon Ha-Nasi. Though not a philosopher, he did build the infrastructure to allow philosophers to thrive. In 1070 the gaon Isaac ben Moses ibn Sakri of Denia, Spain traveled to the East and acted as rosh yeshivah of the Baghdad Academy. Solomon ibn Gabirol
12012-416: The feet of Abū 'l-Kathīr Yaḥyā ibn Zakariyyāʾ al-Katib al-Tabari (d. 320/932). The latter is also mentioned by Ibn Ḥazm in his K. al-Fiṣlal wa 'l-niḥal, iii, 171, as being, together with Dāwūd ibn Marwān al-Muqammiṣ and Sa'adya himself, one of the mutakallimūn of the Jews. Since al-Muqammiṣ made few references to specifically Jewish issues and very little of his work was translated from Arabic into Hebrew, he
12155-640: The first Jewish group to subject Judaism to Muʿtazila . Rejecting the Talmud and rabbinical tradition, Karaites took liberty to reinterpret the Tanakh . This meant abandoning foundational Jewish belief structures. Some scholars suggest that the major impetus for the formation of Karaism was a reaction to the rapid rise of Shi'i Islam, which recognized Judaism as a fellow monotheistic faith but claimed that it detracted from monotheism by deferring to rabbinic authority. Karaites absorbed certain aspects of Jewish sects such as
12298-401: The first monotheistic religion in history sometime as early as the middle of the second millennium BCE, leaving a lasting influence on other belief systems such as Second Temple Judaism and, through it, on later monotheistic religions. Scholars are conflicted whether Zoroastrianism is best characterized as monotheistic, polytheistic, or henotheistic religion due to the centrality of Ahriman as
12441-624: The followers of Abu Isa (Shi'ism), Maliki (Sunnis) and Yudghanites (Sufis), who were influenced by East-Islamic scholarship yet deferred to the Ash'ari when contemplating the sciences. The spread of Islam throughout the Middle East and North Africa rendered Muslim all that was once Jewish. Greek philosophy, science, medicine and mathematics was absorbed by Jewish scholars living in the Arab world due to Arabic translations of those texts; remnants of
12584-468: The function of lesser gods and ancestral spirits is merely to carry out the will of Shangdi , akin to the angels in Abrahamic religions which in turn counts as only one god. Since the sixth century BCE, Zoroastrians have believed in the supremacy of one God above all: Ahura Mazda as the "Maker of All" and the first being before all others. The prophet Zoroaster is credited with the founding of
12727-536: The god Mukuru . The deceased ancestors of the Himba and Herero are subservient to him, acting as intermediaries. The Igbo people practice a form of monotheism called Odinani . Odinani has monotheistic and panentheistic attributes, having a single God as the source of all things. Although a pantheon of spirits exists, these are lesser spirits prevalent in Odinani expressly serving as elements of Chineke (or Chukwu ),
12870-499: The harmony existing between the fundamental doctrines of Judaism and those of philosophy, and, wherever they seem to contradict one another, to seek a mode of reconciling them". Maimonides wrote The Guide for the Perplexed — his most influential philosophic work. He was a student of his father, Rabbi Maimon ben Yosef (a student of Joseph ibn Migash ) in Cordoba, Spain. When his family fled Spain, for Fez, Maimonides enrolled in
13013-542: The history of medieval Jewish philosophy lies in his attempt to deal, systematically, with the question of the immortality of the soul. Secondly, Hillel played a major role in the controversies of 1289–90 concerning the philosophical works of Maimonides. Thirdly, Hillel was the first devotee of Jewish learning and Philosophy in Italy, bringing a close to a period of relative ignorance of Hakira in Verona (Italy). And finally, Hillel
13156-418: The idea of an evolutionary progression beginning with animism , which developed into polytheism , which developed into henotheism , which developed into monolatry , which developed into true monotheism. The Tikar people of Cameroon have a traditional spirituality that emphasizes the worship of a single god, Nyuy. The Himba people of Namibia practice a form of monotheistic panentheism , and worship
13299-669: The land of Israel. [...] If our hand were firm, if we had the power to rule, then non-Jews must not live in Israel. But, our hand is not firm. [...] Who, otherwise be the servants? Who will be our helpers? This is why we leave them in Israel. Yosef's sermon sparked outrage in Israel and was fiercely criticized by several human rights associations, NGOs and members of the Knesset ; Jonathan Greenblatt , Anti-Defamation League 's CEO and national director, and Carole Nuriel, Anti-Defamation League's Israel Office acting director, issued
13442-492: The learned scribes and exegetes) to learn and he chose Abū 'l-Kathīr Yaḥyā ibn Zakariyyāʾ al-Katib al-Tabariya. The extent of Abū ʾl-Kathīr's influence on Saadia's thought cannot be established, however." Abū ʾl-Kathīr's profession is also unclear. al-Masʿūdī calls him a kātib , which has been variously interpreted as secretary, government official, (biblical) scribe, Masorete, and book copyist. For lack of further information, some scholars have tried to identify Abū ʾl-Kathīr with
13585-458: The means subservient to the shift of Jewish ethics from particularism to universalism, although the arguments that he used to support his universalistic viewpoint were neither original nor unheard in the history of this debate. According to Clémence Boulouque , Carl and Bernice Witten Associate Professor of Jewish and Israel Studies at Columbia University in the City of New York , Benamozegh ignored
13728-480: The modern Noahide movement. These Noahide organizations, led by religious Zionist and Orthodox Jewish rabbis, are aimed at non-Jews to proselytize among them and commit them to follow the Noahide laws. According to Rachel Z. Feldman, American anthropologist and Assistant Professor of Religious Studies at Dartmouth College , many of the Orthodox Jewish rabbis involved in mentoring Noahides are supporters of
13871-503: The most active in Noahide outreach, believing that there is spiritual and societal value for non-Jews in at least simply acknowledging the Noahide laws. In 1982, Chabad-Lubavitch had a reference to the Noahide laws enshrined in a U.S. Presidential proclamation : the "Proclamation 4921", signed by the then-U.S. President Ronald Reagan . The United States Congress , recalling House Joint Resolution 447 and in celebration of Menachem Mendel Schneerson 's 80th birthday, proclaimed 4 April 1982, as
14014-423: The old question of how God's foreknowledge is compatible with human freedom , suggests that what God knows beforehand is all the choices open to each individual. God does not know, however, which choice the individual, in his freedom, will make." Moses ben Joshua composed commentaries on Islamic philosophical works. As an admirer of Averroes, he devoted a great deal of study to his works and wrote commentaries on
14157-533: The oldest surviving witnesses to early Kalām, it begins with epistemological investigations, turns to proofs of the creation of the world and the subsequent existence of a Creator, discusses the unity of the Creator (including the divine attributes), and concludes with theodicy (humanity and revelation) and a refutation of other religions (mostly lost). In 915 CE, Sa'adya Gaon left for Palestine, where, according to al-Masʿūdī (Tanbīh, 113), he perfected his education at
14300-409: The only Jewish philosopher among the predecessors of Maimonides. Overshadowed by Maimonides, ibn Daud's Emunah Ramah , a work to which Maimonides was indebted, received little notice from later philosophers. "True philosophy", according to Ibn Daud, "does not entice us from religion; it tends rather to strengthen and solidify it. Moreover, it is the duty of every thinking Jew to become acquainted with
14443-499: The only non-Jews allowed to live in Israel are obligated to follow the Noahide laws: According to Jewish law, it's forbidden for a non-Jew to live in the Land of Israel – unless he has accepted the seven Noahide laws, [...] If the non-Jew is unwilling to accept these laws, then we can send him to Saudi Arabia , [...] When there will be full, true redemption, we will do this. Yosef further added: [N]on-Jews shouldn't live in
14586-459: The origin of philosophic religion into a discussion of the origin of the "virtuous city". Ibn Falaquera's other works include, but are not limited to Iggeret Hanhagat ha-Guf we ha-Nefesh, a treatise in verse on the control of the body and the soul. Ibn Kaspi was a fierce advocate of Maimonides to such an extent that he left for Egypt in 1314 in order to hear explanations on the Guide of the Perplexed from Maimonides' grandchildren. When he heard that
14729-585: The parting of the Red Sea was a natural phenomenon, and that Moses' claim to greatness lay merely in his ability to calculate the right moment for the crossing. He also emphasized that the Egyptian magicians were able to reproduce several of Moses' "miracles," proving that they could not have been so unique. According to scholars, Hiwi's gravest mistake was having the Pentateuch redacted to reflect his own views - then had those redacted texts, which became popular, distributed to children. Since his views contradicted
14872-468: The position of Maimonides' in-laws in competing Yeshivas. In Western Europe, the controversy was halted by the burning of Maimonides' works by Christian Dominicans in 1232. Avraham son of Rambam , continued fighting for his father's beliefs in the East; desecration of Maimonides' tomb, at Tiberias by Jews, was a profound shock to Jews throughout the Diaspora and caused all to pause and reflect upon what
15015-612: The progenitors of humankind in Judaism , and therefore to be regarded as universal moral laws . The seven commandments of the Noahic Covenant enumerated in the Babylonian Talmud ( Avodah Zarah 8:4, Sanhedrin 56a-b) are: According to the American Roman Catholic priest and dogmatic theologian Bruce R. Barnes, the obligation to follow the Noahic Covenant and its seven commandments
15158-420: The purpose of serving as a bridge between the nascent Sanhedrin and Noahides worldwide. There were ten initial members who flew to Israel and pledged to uphold the Seven Laws of Noah and to conduct themselves under the authority of the Noahide beth din (religious court) of the nascent Sanhedrin. Meir Kahane and Shlomo Carlebach organized one of the first Noahide conferences in the 1980s. In 1990, Kahane
15301-515: The rules of the Muʿtazila school of Abu Ali al-Jubba'i in composing his works. It was Saadia who laid foundations for Jewish rationalist theology which built upon the work of the Muʿtazila, thereby shifting Rabbinic Judaism from mythical explanations of the rabbis to reasoned explanations of the intellect. Saadia advanced the criticisms of Muʿtazila by Ibn al-Rawandi . David ibn Merwan al-Mukkamas
15444-412: The same God. Monotheism is distinguished from henotheism , a religious system in which the believer worships one god without denying that others may worship different gods with equal validity, and monolatrism , the recognition of the existence of many gods but with the consistent worship of only one deity. The term monolatry was perhaps first used by Julius Wellhausen . Monotheism characterizes
15587-549: The same as Narayana . As such, he is therefore regarded as Svayam Bhagavan . When Krishna is recognized to be Svayam Bhagavan , it can be understood that this is the belief of Gaudiya Vaishnavism , the Vallabha Sampradaya , and the Nimbarka Sampradaya , where Krishna is accepted to be the source of all other avatars, and the source of Vishnu himself. This belief is drawn primarily "from
15730-587: The scholars of medieval Christianity. Christian scholars, including Albertus Magnus and Thomas Aquinas , defer to him frequently. Abraham bar Hiyya , of Barcelona and later Arles - Provence , was a student of his father Hiyya al-Daudi and one of the most important figures in the scientific movement which made the Jews of Provence, Spain and Italy the intermediaries between Averroism , Muʿtazila and Christian Europe. He aided this scientific movement by original works, translations and as interpreter for another translator, Plato Tiburtinus . Bar-Hiyya's best student
15873-741: The shrewd maneuvers of Johanan ben Zakai , who saved the Sanhedrin and moved it to Yavne . Philosophical speculation was not a central part of Rabbinic Judaism , although some have seen the Mishnah as a philosophical work. Rabbi Akiva has also been viewed as a philosophical figure. His statements include: After the Bar Kokhba revolt , rabbinic scholars gathered in Tiberias and Safed to re-assemble and re-assess Judaism, its laws, theology, liturgy, beliefs and leadership structure. In 219 CE,
16016-469: The sin of Adam; the third on whether or not the belief in the fallen angels is a true belief. Shem-Tov ibn Falaquera was a Spanish-born philosopher who pursued reconciliation between Jewish dogma and philosophy. Scholars speculate he was a student of Rabbi David Kimhi whose family fled Spain to Narbonne. Ibn Falaquera lived an ascetic live of solitude. Ibn Falaquera's two leading philosophic authorities were Averroes and Maimonides. Ibn Falaquera defended
16159-595: The spiritual leader of the Druze community in Israel , Sheikh Mowafak Tarif , met with a representative of Chabad-Lubavitch to sign a declaration calling on all non-Jews in Israel to observe the Noahide laws; the mayor of the Arab city of Shefa-'Amr (Shfaram) also signed the document. In March 2016, the Sephardic Chief Rabbi of Israel , Yitzhak Yosef , declared during a sermon that Jewish law requires that
16302-687: The supreme being or high god. Waaq is the name of a singular God in the traditional religion of many Cushitic people in the Horn of Africa , denoting an early monotheistic religion. However this religion was mostly replaced with the Abrahamic religions . Some (approximately 3%) of Oromo still follow this traditional monotheistic religion called Waaqeffanna in Oromo . Amenhotep IV initially introduced Atenism in Year 5 of his reign (1348/1346 BCE) during
16445-503: The time. Abraham ibn Daud was a student of Rabbi Baruch ben Yitzhak Ibn Albalia, his maternal uncle. Ibn Daud's philosophical work written in Arabic, Al-'akidah al-Rafiyah ("The Sublime Faith"), has been preserved in Hebrew by the title Emunah Ramah . Ibn Daud did not introduce a new philosophy, but he was the first to introduce a more thorough systematic form derived from Aristotle . Accordingly, Hasdai Crescas mentions Ibn Daud as
16588-408: The tradition of Rabbinic Judaism , thus organizing emergent ideas that are not necessarily Jewish into a uniquely Jewish scholastic framework and world-view. With their acceptance into modern society, Jews with secular educations embraced or developed entirely new philosophies to meet the demands of the world in which they now found themselves. Medieval re-discovery of ancient Greek philosophy among
16731-411: The traditional centres of worship, but his decree had deeper religious significance too—taken in conjunction with his name change, it is possible that the move to Amarna was also meant as a signal of Akhenaten's symbolic death and rebirth. It may also have coincided with the death of his father and the end of the coregency. In addition to constructing a new capital in honor of Aten, Akhenaten also oversaw
16874-466: The traditions of Atenism , Bábism , the Baháʼí Faith , Christianity , Deism , Druzism , Eckankar , Islam , Judaism , Mandaeism , Manichaeism , Rastafari , Samaritanism , Seicho-no-Ie , Sikhism , Tenrikyo , Yazidism , and Zoroastrianism . Elements of monotheistic thought are found in early religions such as ancient Chinese religion , Tengrism , and Yahwism . The word monotheism
17017-507: The tutelage of Orthodox Jewish rabbis , Filipino "Noahides", as they call themselves, study Torah, observe the Sabbath, and passionately support a form of messianic Zionism . Filipino Noahides believe that Jews are a racially superior people , with an innate ability to access divinity. According to their rabbi mentors, they are forbidden from performing Jewish rituals and even reading certain Jewish texts. These restrictions have necessitated
17160-466: The various superhuman faculties of assuming infinitesimal size, and so on, and capable of creating everything, then we reply that the law of parsimony bids us assume only one such, namely Him, the adorable Lord. There can be no confidence in a non-eternal and non-omniscient being, and hence it follows that according to the system which rejects God, the tradition of the Veda is simultaneously overthrown; there
17303-411: The views of both Rabbanite and Karaite scholars, Hiwi was declared a heretic. In this context, however, we can also regard Hiwi, while flawed, as the very first critical biblical commentator; zealous rationalistic views of Hiwi parallel those of Ibn al-Rawandi . Saʿadya Gaon dedicated an entire treatise, written in rhyming Hebrew, to a refutation of Ḥīwī's arguments, two fragments of which, preserved in
17446-427: The ways to communicate with him are many, God is one. The puja of the murti is a way to communicate with the abstract one god ( Brahman ) which creates, sustains and dissolves creation. Rig Veda 1.164.46, Traditions of Gaudiya Vaishnavas, the Nimbarka Sampradaya and followers of Swaminarayan and Vallabha consider Krishna to be the source of all avatars , and the source of Vishnu himself, or to be
17589-473: The years 1920s–1930s, French writer Aimé Pallière [ fr ] adopted the Noahide laws at the suggestion of his teacher Elijah Benamozegh; afterwards, Pallière spread Benamozegh's doctrine in Europe and never formally converted to Judaism. Modern historians argue that Benamozegh's role in the debate on Jewish universalism in the history of Jewish philosophy was focused on the Seven Laws of Noah as
17732-452: Was v . His philosophical works are "Meditation of the Soul", an ethical work written from a rationalistic religious viewpoint, and an apologetic epistle addressed to Judah ben Barzillai . Originally known by his Hebrew name Nethanel Baruch ben Melech al-Balad, Abu'l-Barakāt al-Baghdādī , known as Hibat Allah , was a Jewish philosopher and physicist and father-in-law of Maimonides who converted to Islam in his twilight years - once head of
17875-566: Was Muslim and who was Jew—some "Islamic scholars" were "Jewish scholars" prior to forced conversion to Islam, some Jewish scholars willingly converted to Islam, such as Abdullah ibn Salam , while others later reverted to Judaism, and still others, born and raised as Jews, were ambiguous in their religious beliefs such as ibn al-Rawandi , although they lived according to the customs of their neighbors. Around 700 CE, ʿAmr ibn ʿUbayd Abu ʿUthman al-Basri introduces two streams of thought that influence Jewish, Islamic and Christian scholars: The story of
18018-417: Was a steadfast Rationalist who did not hesitate to refute leading authorities, such as Rashi , Rabbeinu Tam , Moses ben Nahman , and Solomon ben Adret . The pogroms of 1391, against Jews of Spain, forced Isaac to flee to Algiers - where he lived out his life. Isaac's responsa evidence a profound knowledge of the philosophical writings of his time; in one of Responsa No. 118 he explains the difference between
18161-548: Was a student of Moses ibn Ezra whose education came from Isaac ibn Ghiyyat ; trained as a Rationalist, he shed it in favor of Neoplatonism. Like al-Ghazali , Judah Halevi attempted to liberate religion from the bondage of philosophical systems. In particular, in a work written in Arabic Kitab al-Ḥujjah wal-Dalil fi Nuṣr al-Din al-Dhalil , translated by Judah ben Saul ibn Tibbon , by the title Kuzari he elaborates upon his views of Judaism relative to other religions of
18304-816: Was a student of his father Gerson ben Solomon of Arles , who in turn was a student of Shem-Tov ibn Falaquera . Gersonides is best known for his work Milhamot HaShem ("Wars of the Lord"). Milhamot HaShem is modelled after the " Guide for the Perplexed ". Gersonides and his father were avid students of the works of Alexander of Aphrodisias , Aristotle, Empedocles , Galen , Hippocrates , Homer , Plato, Ptolemy , Pythagoras , Themistius , Theophrastus , Ali ibn Abbas al-Magusi , Ali ibn Ridwan , Averroes, Avicenna , Qusta ibn Luqa , Al-Farabi , Al-Fergani, Chonain, Isaac Israeli, Ibn Tufail , Ibn Zuhr , Isaac Alfasi, and Maimonides. Gersonides held that God does not have complete foreknowledge of human acts. "Gersonides, bothered by
18447-488: Was a student of physician, and renowned Christian philosopher, Hana. His close interaction with Hana, and his familial affiliation with Islam gave al-Mukkamas a unique view of religious belief and theology. In 1898 Abraham Harkavy discovered, in Imperial Library of St. Petersburg, fifteen of the twenty chapters of David's philosophical work entitled Ishrun Maḳalat (Twenty Chapters) of which 15 survive. One of
18590-580: Was addressed by Akhenaten in prayers, such as the Great Hymn to the Aten : "O Sole God beside whom there is none". The details of Atenist theology are still unclear. The exclusion of all but one god and the prohibition of idols was a radical departure from Egyptian tradition, but scholars see Akhenaten as a practitioner of monolatry rather than monotheism, as he did not actively deny the existence of other gods; he simply refrained from worshiping any but Aten. Akhenaten associated Aten with Ra and put forward
18733-524: Was author of the earliest known Jewish philosophical work of the Middle Ages , a commentary on the Sefer Yetzirah ; he is regarded as the father of Jewish medieval philosophy. Al-Mukkamas was first to introduce the methods of Kalam into Judaism and the first Jew to mention Aristotle in his writings. He was a proselyte of Rabbinic Judaism (not Karaite Judaism , as some argue); al-Mukkamas
18876-402: Was being done to the fabric of Jewish culture. This compelled many anti-Maimonideans to recant their assertions and realize what cooperation with Christians meant to them, their texts and their communities. Maimonidean controversy flared up again at the beginning of the fourteenth century when Rabbi Shlomo ben Aderet , under influence from Asher ben Jehiel , issued a cherem on "any member of
19019-559: Was born in Málaga then moved to Valencia . Ibn Gabirol was one of the first teachers of Neoplatonism in Europe. His role has been compared to that of Philo. Ibn Gabirol occidentalized Greco-Arabic philosophy and restored it to Europe. The philosophical teachings of Philo and ibn Gabirol were largely ignored by fellow Jews; the parallel may be extended by adding that Philo and ibn Gabirol both exercised considerable influence in secular circles; Philo upon early Christianity and Ibn Gabirol upon
19162-466: Was coined from the Greek μόνος ( monos ) meaning "single" and θεός ( theos ) meaning " god ". The term was coined by Henry More (1614–1687). Monotheism is a complex and nuanced concept. The biblical authors had various ways of understanding God and the divine, shaped by their historical and cultural contexts. The notion of monotheism that is used today was developed much later, influenced by
19305-469: Was founded in the 1990s by Orthodox Jewish rabbis from Israel , mainly tied to Chabad-Lubavitch and religious Zionist organizations, including The Temple Institute . Historically, the Hebrew term Bnei Noach has been applied to all non-Jews as descendants of Noah . However, nowadays it is primarily used to refer specifically to those "Righteous Gentiles" who observe the Seven Laws of Noah. Noahide communities have spread and developed primarily in
19448-593: Was identical those of Abraham Ibn Daud : there can be no contradiction between the truths which God has revealed and the findings of the human intellect in science and philosophy. Maimonides departed from the teachings of Aristotle by suggesting that the world is not eternal, as Aristotle taught, but was created ex nihilo . In "Guide for the Perplexed" (1:17 & 2:11)" Maimonides explains that Israel lost its Mesorah in exile, and with it "we lost our science and philosophy — only to be rejuvenated in Al Andalus within
19591-580: Was incumbent upon the Jewish people as well, and remained effective for them until the Ten Commandments were given to Moses on Mount Sinai : With the giving of the Torah , God chose a people to live by His Commandments. This is a critical moment for those who believe that revelation is the only authentic expression of law. Such individuals think that the Revealed Law predominates and that
19734-688: Was largely forgotten by Jewish tradition. Nonetheless, he had a significant impact on subsequent Jewish philosophical followers of the Kalām, such as Saʿadya Gaon. Samuel ibn Naghrillah , born in Mérida, Spain , lived in Córdoba and was a child prodigy and student of Hanoch ben Moshe. Samuel ibn Naghrillah, Hasdai ibn Shaprut , and Moshe ben Hanoch founded the Lucena Yeshiva that produced such brilliant scholars as Isaac ibn Ghiyyat and Maimon ben Yosef,
19877-571: Was no need for a philosophic framework. From an economic viewpoint, Radhanite trade dominance was being usurped by coordinated Christian and Islamic forced-conversions, and torture, compelling Jewish scholars to understand nascent economic threats. These investigations triggered new ideas and intellectual exchange among Jewish and Islamic scholars in the areas of jurisprudence, mathematics, astronomy, logic and philosophy. Jewish scholars influenced Islamic scholars and Islamic scholars influenced Jewish scholars. Contemporary scholars continue to debate who
20020-743: Was the keynote speaker at the First International Conference of the Descendants of Noah, the first Noahide gathering, in Fort Worth, Texas . After the assassination of Meir Kahane that same year, The Temple Institute , which advocates to rebuild the Third Jewish Temple on the Temple Mount in Jerusalem , started to promote the Noahide laws as well. The Chabad-Lubavitch movement has been one of
20163-602: Was the son of Rabbi Yehuda Ha-Kohen Ibn Soussan and a student of Maimonides for whom the Guide for the Perplexed is written. Yosef traveled from Alexandria to Fustat to study logic, mathematics, and astronomy under Maimonides. Philosophically, Yosef's dissertation, in Arabic, on the problem of "Creation" is suspected to have been written before contact with Maimonides. It is entitled Ma'amar bimehuyav ha-metsiut ve'eykhut sidur ha-devarim mimenu vehidush ha'olam ("A Treatise as to (1) Necessary Existence (2) The Procedure of Things from
20306-465: Was the twelfth-century author of Bustan al-Uqul ("Garden of Intellects"), a Jewish version of Ismaili Shi'i doctrines. Like the Ismailis, Natan'el al-Fayyumi argued that God sent different prophets to various nations of the world, containing legislations suited to the particular temperament of each individual nation. Ismaili doctrine holds that a single universal religious truth lies at the root of
20449-532: Was used as an aid to truth , and a means of arriving at it. To this end Philo chose from philosophical tenets of Greeks, refusing those that did not harmonize with Judaism such as Aristotle's doctrine of the eternity and indestructibility of the world . With the Roman destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE, Second Temple Judaism was in disarray, but Jewish traditions were preserved especially thanks to
#552447