159-635: Rebel victory [REDACTED] Somali Democratic Republic Battles The Somali Rebellion was the start of the Somali Civil War that began in the 1970s and resulted in the collapse of the Somali Democratic Republic in 1991. The rebellion effectively began in 1978 following a failed coup d’état and President Siad Barre began using his special forces , the "Red Berets" ( Duub Cas ), to attack clan-based dissident groups opposed to his regime. Backed by Ethiopia,
318-406: A popular referendum , was ratified popularly by the people of Somalia under Italian trusteeship, Most of the people from the former Somaliland Protectorate did not participate in the referendum, although only a small number of Somalilanders who participated the referendum voted against the new constitution , which was first drafted in 1960. In 1967, Muhammad Haji Ibrahim Egal became Prime Minister,
477-464: A "clan deal". By mid-2008, President Yusuf had lost all the support he had accumulated in the international community. His primary backer, Ethiopia, had also become tired of the TFG president only offering military answers to serious political issues. On 14 December 2008, Ahmed announced that he had dismissed Hussein and his government, citing corruption, inefficiency, treason and failure to bring peace to
636-588: A British protectorate was declared over part of Somalia, on the African coast opposite South Yemen. Initially, this region was under the control of the Indian Office, and so administered as part of the Indian Empire; in 1898 it was transferred to control by London. In 1889, the protectorate and later colony of Italian Somalia was officially established by Italy through various treaties signed with
795-571: A Hawiye-owned store- armed men from many factions rushed to the scene, and soon, the forces of the United Somali Congress were battling with government forces in Mogadishu. The USC claimed to hold "99% of Mogadishu" by 31 December, saying that fighting was ongoing around the palace and the airport, and claimed to control the capital on January 1, but this was denied by government officials, who claimed that they were still controlling
954-601: A Somali who had campaigned for a 'yes' vote in the referendum of 1976, eventually became Djibouti's first president (1977–1999). On 1 July 1960, five days after the former British Somaliland protectorate obtained independence as the State of Somaliland, the territory united with the Trust Territory of Somaliland to form the Somali Republic , albeit within boundaries drawn up by Italy and Britain. A government
1113-673: A change in the balance of power away from his own Marehan subclan towards the Ogaden subclan. This resulted in Barre dismissing several military officers who were of Ogaden lineage. The friction escalated when Barre purged the minister of defense, Aden Gabiyo, from office, who was of the Ogaden subclan. In May 1989, this culminated into a revolt by Ogaden soldiers stationed in Kismaayo , the formation of an anti-Barre military faction formed of Ogaden clansmen called SPM ( Somali Patriotic Movement ) and
1272-758: A close. In August 2001, a general congress representing all major clans in Puntland elected Abdullahi Yusuf's political rival, Jama Ali Jama , as the new president. Jama's close ties to the Mogadishu-based Transitional National Government alarmed Ethiopia, which opposed the TNG and was determined to remove it. Yusuf refused to accept the election results, leading to violent clashes with Jama in Garowe . By December 2001, Ethiopian troops intervened in support of Yusuf. Yusuf had used
1431-566: A conference in Baidoa where they all agreed that the vote of confidence in support of Hussein's government never took place. Ismail Ali Nur, who spoke on behalf of the dissenting lawmakers, indicated that Somalia's constitution requires a parliament quorum of no less than 139 MPs present for votes, but that "only 95 MPs" showed up as opposed to the 143 members of parliament claimed by Speaker Adan "Madobe" Mohamed . Nur urged people to "watch video footage recorded from that session." On 24 December,
1590-421: A decision openly opposed by a significant portion of the government. Due to a lack of funding and human resources, an arms embargo that made it difficult to re-establish a national security force, and general indifference on the part of the international community, President Ahmed also found himself obliged to deploy thousands of troops from Puntland to Mogadishu to sustain the battle against insurgent elements in
1749-672: A deliberate assassination. On 10 October 2004, in a session held by the Transitional Federal Parliamentin the neighbouring Kenyan capital of Nairobi, Ahmed was elected as President of the Transitional Federal Government (TFG), an interim federal administrative body that he had helped establish earlier in the year. He received 189 votes from the TFG Parliament, while the closest contender being, former Somali Ambassador to
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#17327942276941908-627: A governmental agency. He later commanded the Somali National Army's (SNA) southern front in the Ogaden War against neighboring Ethiopia , with assistance from 60th division commandant Col. Abdullahi Ahmed Irro , as well as frontline deputies Col. Abdulkadir Berked of Begedi of Afgio and Col. Ahmed Ilgir of Burtinle serving as his deputies. Ahmed was assigned to lead the Negheille offensive in 1977, which extended from Bali in
2067-518: A hospital in Nairobi for treatment of what his spokesman described as bronchitis , and on 4 January 2008, he collapsed in Baidoa and was taken to Ethiopia for treatment. Two days later, Ahmed was rushed to London for tests. He returned to Mogadishu on 16 February 2008; rebels promptly fired mortars at the presidential compound, reportedly wounding at least five people. During June 2008, a faction of
2226-534: A large scale. By 1989 torture and killing became the order of the day in Mogadishu. The Red Berets killed 450 Muslims demonstrating against the arrest of their spiritual leaders. More than 2,000 were seriously injured. The next day, forty-seven people, mainly from the Isaaq clan, were taken to Jasiira Beach west of the city and summarily executed. The July mass killings prompted a shift in United States policy as
2385-468: A lucrative foreign commerce with ships sailing to and from Arabia, India, Venetia , Persia, Egypt, Portugal, and as far away as China. Vasco da Gama , who passed by Mogadishu in the 15th century, noted that it was a large city with houses several storeys high and large palaces in its centre, in addition to many mosques with cylindrical minarets. The Harla , an early Hamitic group of tall stature who inhabited parts of Somalia, Tchertcher and other areas in
2544-562: A number of chiefs and sultans; Sultan Yusuf Ali Kenadid first sent a request to Italy in late December 1888 to make his Sultanate of Hobyo an Italian protectorate before later signing a treaty in 1889. The Dervish movement successfully repulsed the British Empire four times and forced it to retreat to the coastal region. The Darawiish defeated the Italian, British, Abyssinian colonial powers on numerous occasions, most notably,
2703-485: A position to which he was appointed by Shermarke. Egal would later become the President of the autonomous Somaliland region in northwestern Somalia. On the 15th of October, while president Abdirashid Ali Sharmarke was touring drought-stricken Las Anood, his personal bodyguard shot and killed him. Former Secretary of State Henry Kissinger concluded that the bodyguard was acting of his own accord. Six days later, on
2862-553: A prominent port city and the commercial capital of the northeastern part of the country. He later served as a co-chairman of the National Salvation Council of Somalia, established in 1997. Abdullahi Yusuf led Somalia's autonomous Puntland region from 1998-2004. The region was largely peaceful under Yusuf's rule except from mid-2001 to mid-2002, when he was deposed over widespread objections to his attempt to lengthen his term of office. In 2000, Yusuf opposed
3021-601: A protectorate of Britain until 1960. To the extent that Italy held the territory by UN mandate, the trusteeship provisions gave the Somalis the opportunity to gain experience in Western political education and self-government. These were advantages that British Somaliland, which was to be incorporated into the new Somali state, did not have. Although in the 1950s British colonial officials attempted, through various administrative development efforts, to make up for past neglect,
3180-608: A shaken Siad Barre dropped the charges against the accused. As the city celebrated victory, Siad Barre, conceding defeat for the first time in twenty years, retreated into his bunker at the military barracks near the airport. The most shocking and gruesome revenge Siad Barre took against the Hawiye , in particular the Hawadle sub-clan was the massacre he ordered in January 1991, just before he escaped Mogadishu for his clan strongholds in
3339-463: A “final solution” to Somalia's “Isaaq problem”. A United Nations investigation concluded that the Barre regime's killing of Isaaq civilians was a genocide, and that the crime of genocide was "conceived, planned and perpetrated by the Somali government against the Isaaq people". The Hawiye moved quickly to occupy the south portion of Somalia. The capital of Mogadishu is located in the territory of
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#17327942276943498-783: Is a member of the United Nations , the Arab League , African Union , Non-Aligned Movement , East African Community , and the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation . Somalia was likely one of the first lands to be settled by early humans due to its location. Hunter-gatherers who would later migrate out of Africa likely settled here before their migrations. During the Stone Age, the Doian and Hargeisan cultures flourished here. The oldest evidence of burial customs in
3657-614: Is believed to have been domesticated in the Horn region sometime between the 2nd and 3rd millennium BCE. From there, it spread to Egypt and the Maghreb . During the classical period, the Barbara city-states of Mosylon , Opone , Mundus , Isis , Malao , Avalites , Essina , Nikon and Sarapion developed a lucrative trade network, connecting with merchants from Ptolemaic Egypt , Ancient Greece , Phoenicia , Parthian Persia , Saba ,
3816-414: Is fired, we will bombard it, regardless of whoever is there.” Due to a lack of funding and human resources, an arms embargo that made it difficult to re-establish a national security force, and general indifference on the part of the international community, President Ahmed also found himself obliged to deploy thousands of troops from Puntland to Mogadishu to sustain the battle against insurgent elements in
3975-563: The Abgaal and Murusade subclans of Hawiye. Since the independence era, the Hawiye tribe had occupied important administrative positions in the bureaucracy and in the top army command. However, in the late 1980s disaffection with the regime set in among the Hawiye, who felt increasingly marginalized by the Siad Barre regime. A number of Hawiye elites had joined the earlier SODAF , SSDF and
4134-901: The Adal Sultanate was governed by local Somali dynasties and its realm encompassed the geographical area between the Bab el Mandeb and Cape Guardafui. It was thus flanked to the south by the Ajuran Empire and to the west by the Abyssinian Empire . Throughout the Middle Ages, Arab immigrants arrived in Somaliland, a historical experience which would later lead to the legendary stories about Muslim sheikhs such as Daarood and Ishaaq bin Ahmed (the purported ancestors of
4293-637: The Alliance for the Re-liberation of Somalia and the TFG signed a ceasefire agreement after months of talks in Djibouti . The agreement was met with resistance from elements within the TFG, chiefly President Yusuf. In the second half of 2008, Ahmed had been at loggerheads with then Prime Minister Nur Hassan Hussein over a proposed new cabinet, the latter of which Ahmed characterized as nothing more than
4452-721: The BBC that the alliance of warlords were not fighting on behalf of the government, and threatened to fire them. Indeed, members of the government who were part of the warring Alliance for the Restoration of Peace and Counter-Terrorism (ARPCT) were sacked. Others left the government in disaffection following the victories of the Islamic Courts Union. After the start of the new phase of the War in Somalia on 21 December 2006,
4611-654: The Darod and Isaaq clans, respectively) travelling from Arabia to Somalia and marrying into the local Dir clan. In 1332, the Zeila-based King of Adal was slain in a military campaign aimed at halting Abyssinian emperor Amda Seyon I 's march toward the city. When the last Sultan of Ifat, Sa'ad ad-Din II , was also killed by Emperor Dawit I in Zeila in 1410, his children escaped to Yemen, before returning in 1415. In
4770-627: The Federal Government of Somalia was formed and a period of reconstruction began in Mogadishu, despite al-Shabaab frequently carrying out attacks there . Somalia is among the least developed countries in the world, as evidenced by its ranking in metrics such as GDP per capita , Human Development Index , and the Fragile States Index . It has maintained an informal economy mainly based on livestock, remittances from Somalis working abroad , and telecommunications. It
4929-670: The Federal Republic of Somalia , is the easternmost country in continental Africa . The country is located in the Horn of Africa and is bordered by Ethiopia to the west, Djibouti to the northwest, Kenya to the southwest, the Gulf of Aden to the north, and the Indian Ocean to the east. Somalia has the longest coastline on Africa's mainland. Somalia has an estimated population of 18.1 million, of which 2.7 million live in
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5088-810: The Guled dynasty , the Habr Yunis Sultanate led by the Ainanshe dynasty , the Sultanate of the Geledi (Gobroon dynasty), the Majeerteen Sultanate (Migiurtinia), and the Sultanate of Hobyo (Obbia). They continued the tradition of castle-building and seaborne trade established by previous Somali empires. Sultan Yusuf Mahamud Ibrahim , the third Sultan of the House of Gobroon, started
5247-519: The Hiran and Mudug region. The offensives initially aimed for Galkayo in the north-east, and Beledweyne in central Somalia. According to Gérard Prunier , "The plan was to cut Somalia into two by driving the troops all the way to the ocean, but the plan backfired." In spite of losses taken four years earlier during 1978 from the Ethiopian-Cuban counter offensive during the Ogaden War ,
5406-601: The Islamic Courts Union during 2006. By the end of the Ethiopian military occupation in December 2008, much of the country had fallen to the insurgency and Yusuf was threatened with international sanctions over his refusal to support national reconciliation. The TFG parliament moved to impeach Yusuf after accusing him of being a dictator . On 24 December 2008, he resigned from the presidency, leading to
5565-845: The Nabataean Kingdom , and the Roman Empire . They used the ancient Somali maritime vessel known as the beden to transport their cargo. After the Roman conquest of the Nabataean Empire and the Roman naval presence at Aden to curb piracy, Arab and Somali merchants agreed with the Romans to bar Indian ships from trading in the free port cities of the Arabian peninsula to protect the interests of Somali and Arab merchants in
5724-473: The Ogaden War broke out after Barre's government used a plea for national unity to justify an aggressive incorporation of the predominantly Somali-inhabited Ogaden region of Ethiopia into a Pan-Somali Greater Somalia , along with the rich agricultural lands of south-eastern Ethiopia, infrastructure, and strategically important areas as far north as Djibouti. In the first week of the conflict, Somali armed forces took southern and central Ogaden and for most of
5883-604: The Organisation of African Unity (OAU), the predecessor of the African Union (AU). In July 1976, Barre's SRC disbanded itself and established in its place the Somali Revolutionary Socialist Party (SRSP), a one-party government based on scientific socialism and Islamic tenets. The SRSP was an attempt to reconcile the official state ideology with the official state religion by adapting Marxist precepts to local circumstances. Emphasis
6042-725: The Portuguese India blockade ( and later the Omani interference), used the Somali ports of Merca and Barawa (which were out of the two powers' direct jurisdiction) to conduct their trade in safety and without interference. In the early modern period, successor states to the Adal Sultanate and Ajuran Sultanate began to flourish in Somalia. These included the Hiraab Imamate , the Isaaq Sultanate led by
6201-409: The Potsdam Conference , the United Nations granted Italy trusteeship of Italian Somaliland as the Trust Territory of Somaliland , on the condition first proposed by the Somali Youth League (SYL) and other nascent Somali political organizations, such as Hizbia Digil Mirifle Somali (HDMS) and the Somali National League (SNL)—that Somalia achieve independence within ten years. British Somaliland remained
6360-406: The SNM movements before converging to form their own branch in the very late 80s, the United Somali Congress . Taisier M. Ali states that Barre assuaged the Majeerteen, and targeted other groups like the Hawiye . According to Ali, "with funds and clan appeals, he [Barre] was able to entice the bulk of SSDF fighters to return from Ethiopia and participate in his genocidal wars against the Isaaq in
6519-405: The Somali National Army , participating in the 1964 Border War and Ogaden War against Ethiopia. After Somalia's defeat in the Ogaden War in 1978, he led a failed coup against President Siad Barre , marking the start of the Somali rebellion . Following the coup's failure, Yusuf established the Somali Salvation Democratic Front in Ethiopia and began fighting alongside Ethiopian forces against
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6678-477: The Somali National University in Mogadishu . He later moved abroad to pursue Military Studies . Ahmed was married to Hawa Abdi Samatar . The couple had two sons and two daughters in addition to six grandchildren. Ahmed joined the colonial forces of the Trust Territory of Somaliland in 1950. In 1954, he was included in the first batch of Somali military personnel that was taken to Italy for Officer training. The batch included Aidid, Samatar, and Gabeyre. He
6837-462: The Somali Patriotic Movement (SPM), together with the non-violent political oppositions of the Somali Democratic Movement (SDM), the Somali Democratic Alliance (SDA) and the Somali Manifesto Group (SMG). As the moral authority of Barre's government was gradually eroded, many Somalis became disillusioned with life under military rule. By the mid-1980s, resistance movements supported by Ethiopia's communist Derg administration had sprung up across
6996-459: The Wargaade Wall , are evidence of an old civilization that once thrived in the Somali peninsula. This civilization enjoyed a trading relationship with ancient Egypt and Mycenaean Greece since the second millennium BCE, supporting the hypothesis that Somalia or adjacent regions were the location of the ancient Land of Punt . The Puntites native to the region traded myrrh , spices, gold, ebony, short-horned cattle, ivory and frankincense with
7155-470: The Warsaw Pact armies and their allies. He received additional military training in Italy. Between 1965 and 1968, he served as Somalia's military attaché to Moscow. On 15 October 1969, while paying a visit to the northern town of Las Anod , Somalia's then President Abdirashid Ali Shermarke was shot dead by one of his own bodyguards. His assassination was quickly followed by a military coup d'état on 21 October 1969 (the day after his funeral), in which
7314-434: The defection of Ogaden colonel Omar Jess. In early December 1990, the United Somali Congress held positions about 30 km northeast of the capital. Widespread violence was reported in Mogadishu, even before the main assault into the city, as a large portion of Mogadishu's population was armed during the period. On 29 December 1990, some of Barre's armed men, organized into gangs for looting, seized large amounts of money from
7473-437: The "tallest and handsomest of all men". The Macrobians were warrior herders and seafarers. According to Herodotus' account, the Persian Emperor Cambyses II , upon his conquest of Egypt in 525 BC, sent ambassadors to Macrobia, bringing luxury gifts for the Macrobian king to entice his submission. The Macrobian ruler, who was elected based on his stature and beauty, replied instead with a challenge for his Persian counterpart in
7632-449: The ' War on Terror ' to justify the operation and claimed Jama supported Al-Itihaad Al-Islamiya . In January 2002, Ethiopia intervened again, accusing Jama of harboring members of Al-Itihaad—a claim Jama denied. During May 2002, Yusuf defeated Jama and reasserted his control over Puntland. Fighting broke out against between forces loyal to Yusuf and Jama during January 2003. During this period Abdullahi Yusuf's forces were responsible for
7791-441: The 1903 victory at Cagaarweyne commanded by Suleiman Aden Galaydh , forcing the British Empire to retreat to the coastal region in the early 1900s. The Dervishes were finally defeated in 1920 by British airpower. The dawn of fascism in the early 1920s heralded a change of strategy for Italy, as the north-eastern sultanates were soon to be forced within the boundaries of La Grande Somalia (" Greater Somalia ") according to
7950-501: The 21st of October, General Siad led a military coup and successfully overthrew the parliamentary government. Modern political analysts assert that the coup was motivated by corruption in the parliamentary government. The bodyguard was tried, tortured and executed by the Supreme Revolutionary Council . He came from the same clan background as the President who he killed. Alongside Barre, the Supreme Revolutionary Council (SRC) that assumed power after President Sharmarke's assassination
8109-500: The Abyssinian empire. This 16th-century campaign is historically known as the Conquest of Abyssinia ( Futuh al-Habash ). During the war, Imam Ahmad pioneered the use of cannons supplied by the Ottoman Empire, which he imported through Zeila and deployed against Abyssinian forces and their Portuguese allies led by Cristóvão da Gama . During the Ajuran Sultanate period, the city-states and republics of Merca , Mogadishu , Barawa , Hobyo and their respective ports flourished and had
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#17327942276948268-471: The Barre regime successfully split the SSDF and most its members surrendered to the government following an amnesty and payment offer. By 1983 the bulk of the SSDF had rejoined the regime. Irritated by this development, the Ethiopian government put the head of the SSDF Abdullahi Yusuf in jail, where he remained until the Fall of the Derg regime in 1991. During SSDF internal fighting during 1983 and 1984, Ethiopian security forces entered their camps and arrested
8427-404: The British. A British force, including troops from several African countries, launched the campaign in January 1941 from Kenya to liberate British Somaliland and Italian-occupied Ethiopia and conquer Italian Somaliland. By February most of Italian Somaliland was captured and, in March, British Somaliland was retaken from the sea. The forces of the British Empire operating in Somaliland comprised
8586-405: The East African coast. In Somaliland , the Isaaq Sultanate was established in 1750. The Isaaq Sultanate was a Somali kingdom that ruled parts of the Horn of Africa during the 18th and 19th centuries. It spanned the territories of the Isaaq clan, descendants of the Banu Hashim clan, in modern-day Somaliland and Ethiopia . The sultanate was governed by the Rer Guled branch established by
8745-520: The Egyptians, Phoenicians, Babylonians, Indians, Chinese and Romans through their commercial ports. An Egyptian expedition sent to Punt by the 18th dynasty Queen Hatshepsut is recorded on the temple reliefs at Deir el-Bahari , during the reign of the Puntite King Parahu and Queen Ati. In the classical era , the Macrobians , who may have been ancestral to Somalis, established a powerful kingdom that ruled large parts of modern Somalia. They were reputed for their longevity and wealth, and were said to be
8904-582: The Ethiopian government's claims of sovereignty over several Somali-inhabited areas that the SSDF had managed to seize control of from Barre's forces, Ahmed was detained by the local Ethiopian authorities in 1985. Mire was elected as the SSDF's new chairman the following year. Ahmed would remain imprisoned until his release in 1990, following the demise of Ethiopia's then-ruling Derg . Ahmed subsequently returned to Somalia. In 1992, he marshalled forces to successfully expel an Islamist extremist group linked to Al-Itihaad al-Islamiya that had taken over Bosaso ,
9063-458: The Ethiopian government. The harsh reprisals , widespread bombing and burning of villages by Barre regime followed every time there was an attack by SNM believed to be hiding in Ethiopia. The regime violence in the north and northwest was disproportionate, affected many communities, particularly Isaaq. The number of civilian deaths in this massacre is estimated to be between 50,000 and 100,000 according to various sources, whilst local reports estimate
9222-402: The Horn of Africa comes from cemeteries in Somalia dating back to the 4th millennium BCE. The stone implements from the Jalelo site in the north were also characterized in 1909 as important artifacts demonstrating the archaeological universality during the Paleolithic between the East and the West. According to linguists, the first Afroasiatic -speaking populations arrived in the region during
9381-403: The Horn, also erected various tumuli . These masons are believed to have been ancestral to ethnic Somalis. In the 16th century, Duarte Barbosa noted that many ships from the Kingdom of Cambaya in modern-day India sailed to Mogadishu with cloth and spices, for which they in return received gold, wax and ivory. Barbosa also highlighted the abundance of meat, wheat, barley, horses, and fruit on
9540-435: The ICU fragment into various rebel factions, including the hardline group al-Shabaab , which waged a protracted conflict against Ethiopian forces. al-Shabaab soon began asserting territorial control for the first time, and by late 2008 the insurgency had driven the Ethiopian army out of much of Somalia. In 2009, a new TFG government was established. By mid-2012, al-Shabaab lost most of its territories during fighting against
9699-436: The Isaaq Sultanate for centuries starting from the 13th century. The last Tolje'lo ruler Garad Dhuh Barar ( Somali : Dhuux Baraar ) was overthrown by a coalition of Isaaq clans. The once strong Tolje'lo clan were scattered and took refuge amongst the Habr Awal with whom they still mostly live. In the late 19th century, after the Berlin Conference of 1884, European powers began the Scramble for Africa . In that year,
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#17327942276949858-426: The Middle Ages, several powerful Somali empires dominated the regional trade, including the Ajuran Sultanate , Adal Sultanate , and the Sultanate of the Geledi . In the late 19th century, Somali sultanates were colonized by the Italian and British Empires, who merged all of these tribal territories into two colonies : Italian Somaliland and British Somaliland . In 1960, the two territories united to form
10017-500: The Red Beret, killed over 2000 Majeerteen clan members. The Umar Mahmud sub-lineage of Majeerteen particularly became the victims of this violence. Although this violence was in response to the Majeerteen-based SSDF, Barre on the other hand began to target the entire clan. Each subsequent attack by the SSDF resulted in collective punishment against the wider Majeerteen. This included sieges and blockades against Majeerteen-inhabited areas, closure of schools, closure of health-facilities, and
10176-404: The Roman and Greek world; the Romans and Greeks believed the source to have been the Somali peninsula. The collusive agreement among Somali and Arab traders inflated the price of Indian and Chinese cinnamon in North Africa, the Near East, and Europe, and made the cinnamon trade a very profitable revenue generator, especially for the Somali merchants. Islam was introduced to the area early on by
10335-460: The Somali Transitional National Government (TNG) formed in 2000. During the Puntland crisis (2001–2003) he had a violent power struggle against Jama Ali Jama over regional leadership. Yusuf attempted to extend his term after it expired, sparking a political crisis and the election of a new Puntland president, which Yusuf rejected. In May 2002, with Ethiopian military assistance, Yusuf ousted Jama after accusing him of ties to terrorism . During
10494-407: The Somali Army seized power without encountering armed opposition – essentially a bloodless takeover. The putsch was spearheaded by Major General Mohamed Siad Barre , who at the time commanded the army. For refusing to support Barre's seizure of power, Ahmed was imprisoned for several years by the new military regime. In 1975, Ahmed was released from prison and appointed by Barre as the director of
10653-421: The Somali army had regrouped and the invasion led to a large increase in volunteers joining the army. The Ethiopian/SSDF attack had played out to Barres advantage, as his declining regime found a significant upsurge in support. The Ethiopian and SSDF forces never reached their objectives of Galkayo and Beledweyne , but were instead halted to a stalemate at border towns of Balanbale and Galdogob . During 1982,
10812-417: The Somali army. During the 1982 Ethiopian-Somali War , he led SSDF forces. Frustrated by the operation's failure and the SSDF's surrender to the Somali government, the Ethiopians jailed Yusuf until the Derg regime collapsed in 1991. After his release, Yusuf returned to his home region and helped establish the Puntland government in 1998. He later joined an Ethiopian-backed coalition of warlords opposing
10971-469: The Somali coast in exchange for grain and wood. Trading relations were established with Malacca in the 15th century, with cloth, ambergris and porcelain being the main commodities of the trade. Giraffes, zebras and incense were exported to the Ming Empire of China, which established Somali merchants as leaders in the commerce between East Asia and the Horn. Hindu merchants from Surat and Southeast African merchants from Pate , seeking to bypass both
11130-400: The Somalis in 1884 and 1886) and the Somali Region to Ethiopia, based on a treaty they signed in 1897 in which the British ceded Somali territory to the Ethiopian Emperor Menelik in exchange for his help against possible advances by the French. Britain included the conditional provision that the Somali residents would retain their autonomy, but Ethiopia immediately claimed sovereignty over
11289-510: The Speaker of the Parliament Sharif Hassan Sheikh Aden helped to relocate the Transitional Federal Institutions (TFIs) from Nairobi to the Somali cities of Jowhar and Baidoa , where the TFG resided until the government eventually took control of Mogadishu . The majority of Somali society, including much of the newly formed Transitional Federal Government , deeply opposed any foreign military intervention on Somali soil. An African Union fact finding mission to Somalia in 2005 found that
11448-472: The TFG and African Union troops . That same year, al-Shabaab pledged allegiance to Al-Qaeda . The insurgents still control much of central and southern Somalia, and wield influence in government-controlled areas, with the town of Jilib acting as the de facto capital for the insurgents. A new provisional constitution was passed in August 2012, reforming Somalia as a federation . The same month,
11607-526: The TFG and oppose the Ethiopian military's presence in Somalia. Throughout 2007 and 2008, Al-Shabaab scored military victories, seizing control of key towns and ports in both central and southern Somalia. At the end of 2008, the group had captured Baidoa but not Mogadishu. By January 2009, Al-Shabaab and other militias had managed to force the Ethiopian troops to withdraw from the country, leaving behind an under-equipped African Union peacekeeping force to assist
11766-426: The TFG parliament moved to impeach President Abdullahi Yusuf, accusing him of being a dictator and an obstacle to peace. On 29 December 2008, Abdullahi Yusuf Ahmed announced before a united parliament in Baidoa his resignation as President of Somalia. In his speech, which was broadcast on national radio, Ahmed expressed regret at failing to end the country's 17-year conflict. Yusuf stated that he had lost control of
11925-602: The TFG, with the help of Ethiopian forces, wrested control of the southern part of the country and the capital, Mogadishu, from the hands of the Islamic Courts Union. By 28 December, the Transitional Federal Government had captured Mogadishu as the ICU forces fled. On 8 January 2007, as the Battle of Ras Kamboni raged, TFG President Ahmed entered Mogadishu for the first time since being elected to office. It
12084-481: The Transitional Federal Government's troops. On 17 September 2006, a suicide car bomber smashed his vehicle into Ahmed's convoy outside the National Parliament in Baidoa . The attack killed four of Ahmed's bodyguards as well as Ahmed's brother. Six attackers were also slain in the subsequent gun battle. Ahmed underwent a liver transplant in the 1990s. In early December 2007, he was admitted to
12243-726: The United Kingdom founded the Somali National Movement (SNM( in London. Initially, the aim of the various groups that merged to create the SNM was not to create an armed liberation front, but rather these groups formed as a direct response to the harsh policies enacted by the Barre regime against the Isaaq people. By 1982 the SNM transferred their headquarters to Dire Dawa in Ethiopia , as both Somalia and Ethiopia at
12402-493: The United States Abdullahi Ahmed Addou , got 79 votes in the third round of voting. The then incumbent President of Somalia, Abdiqasim Salad Hassan , peacefully withdrew his candidature. Ahmed was sworn in a few days later on 14 October 2004. The Ethiopian government heavily backed the presidency of Abdullahi Yusuf and the formation of the Transitional Federal Government (TFG) in 2004 on
12561-404: The United States began to distance itself from Siad Barre. With the loss of United States support, the regime grew more desperate. An anti-Siad Barre demonstration on July 6, 1990, at a soccer match in the main stadium deteriorated into a riot, causing Siad Barre's bodyguard to panic and open fire on the demonstrators. At least sixty-five people were killed. A week later, while the city reeled from
12720-712: The United States enabled it to build the largest army in Africa. A new constitution was promulgated in 1979 under which elections for a People's Assembly were held. However, Barre's Somali Revolutionary Socialist Party politburo continued to rule. In October 1980, the SRSP was disbanded, and the Supreme Revolutionary Council was re-established in its place. By that time, Barre's government had become increasingly unpopular. Many Somalis had become disillusioned with life under military dictatorship. The regime
12879-571: The WSLF, the SSDF was used to attack WSLF camps within Somalia. In response to rising dissent, the Somali government violently suppressed opposition movements and clans perceived to be a threat with the military and elite security forces. The government initiated a harsh policies with the aim of depriving the rebels of political and social support. Whenever the SSDF launched attacks, the regime retaliated by rounding up hundreds of Majerteen officers and purging
13038-613: The aid of Ethiopia's communist Derg regime. By 1978, the Somali troops were ultimately pushed out of the Ogaden. This shift in support by the Soviet Union motivated the Barre government to seek allies elsewhere. It eventually settled on the Soviets' Cold War arch-rival, the United States , which had been courting the Somali government for some time. Somalia's initial friendship with the Soviet Union and later partnership with
13197-399: The area. This prompted an unsuccessful bid by Britain in 1956 to buy back the Somali lands it had turned over. Britain also granted administration of the almost exclusively Somali-inhabited Northern Frontier District (NFD) to Kenyan nationalists. This was despite a plebiscite in which, according to a British colonial commission, almost all of the territory's ethnic Somalis favored joining
13356-417: The assassination of civic leaders in Puntland, most notably Sultan Hurre during August 2002. Surre was a major opponent of Yusuf of extrajudicially executed by the security forces belonging to him. Yusuf's government accused Hurre of "association with extremist elements" and targeted him for arrest. While they had claimed his death was accidental, a journalist who had witnessed Surre's death described seeing
13515-545: The border to Hartasheikh in Ethiopia as refugees, creating the world's largest refugee camp then (1988), with another 400,000 being internally displaced. A policy letter written by Barre's son-in-law and viceroy in the north General Mohammed Said Hersi Morgan known as The Morgan Report formed the basis of the Barre regime's retaliation against the Isaaq following a successful SNM attack on Hargeisa and Burao. The policy letter provided “implemented and recommended measures” for
13674-461: The capital and largest city, Mogadishu . Around 85% of its residents are ethnic Somalis and the official languages of the country are Somali and Arabic , though the former is the primary language. Somalia has historic and religious ties to the Arab world . As such the people in Somalia are Muslims , the majority of them Sunni . In antiquity, Somalia was an important commercial center. During
13833-411: The city, while also claiming that fighting was restricted in size. Mohamed Hawadle Madar was quoted to have said that the rebels had been beaten back from an assault into Wardigley district , where the palace is located. The rebels claimed to have captured the cities' radio station, Radio Mogadishu , by January 2, but a government broadcast from the station disproved this; by this time, the government
13992-495: The civil service. The Ethiopian army intended to us the Somali Salvation Democratic Front to overthrow Barre and install a friendly regime. The guerrillas were trained by Ethiopian officers and during the 1982 invasion of Somalia, SSDF forces were directly integrated into much larger Ethiopian army units. In late June 1982, 15,000 Ethiopian army troops and thousands of SSDF rebels invaded Somalia in
14151-546: The coastal markets, which generated enormous wealth for the merchants. Mogadishu, the center of a thriving textile industry known as toob benadir (specialized for the markets in Egypt, among other places ), together with Merca and Barawa, also served as a transit stop for Swahili merchants from Mombasa and Malindi and for the gold trade from Kilwa . Jewish merchants from the Hormuz brought their Indian textile and fruit to
14310-558: The conflict he was responsible for ordering the assassinations of civic leaders in Puntland such as Sultan Hurre . In 2004, Yusuf became president of the Transitional Federal Government (TFG). He received Ethiopia's backing and approval, in exchange for dropping Somalia's long-standing claim to the Ogaden region. Despite widespread opposition within the TFG and without cabinet or parliamentary approval, Yusuf controversially requested Ethiopian troops to support his administration against
14469-611: The country declared its independence as the Republic of Somaliland in May 1991. Although de facto independent and relatively stable compared to the tumultuous south, it has not been recognized by any foreign government. Abdullahi Yusuf Ahmed President of Somalia,President of Puntland Government(Puntland) Government(Somalia) others Abdullahi Yusuf Ahmed ( Somali : Cabdulaahi Yuusuf Axmed , Arabic : عبدالله يوسف أحمد ; 15 December 1934 – 23 March 2012)
14628-463: The country to Islamist insurgents, and blamed the international community for its failure to support the government. He further announced said that the speaker of parliament, Aden "Madobe" Mohamed, would succeed him in office per the Transitional Federal Government's Charter . While it was suggested that Ahmed's resignation added chaos to the country's political landscape as Ethiopia withdrew its troops, some diplomats opined that it might have improved
14787-419: The country. Barre responded by ordering punitive measures against those he perceived as locally supporting the guerrillas, especially in the northern regions. The clampdown included bombing of cities, with the northwestern administrative centre of Hargeisa , a Somali National Movement (SNM) stronghold, among the targeted areas in 1988. The clampdown initiated by Barre 's government extended its reach beyond
14946-412: The country. However, his government was beset by internal disagreements and contentions with other stakeholders in Somalia. For example, he was at loggerheads with some warlords and government members over where the administration should be based. The President and Prime Minister opposed a move to Mogadishu, citing security reasons. Consequently, Ahmed along with his Prime Minister Ali Mohammed Ghedi and
15105-498: The coup, harsh reprisals were carried out by the government on the Majeerteen clan. In Ethiopia, Abdullahi Yusuf setup base for a new rebel organization called the Somali Salvation Democratic Front (SSDF) which he led and soon after began fighting with Ethiopian forces against the Somali army. The SSDF possessed little autonomy over Ethiopian security forces, as it was 'created, organized, trained and financed by Ethiopia'. With
15264-705: The deep south of Somalia. It is estimated that over 6,000 individuals died in the massacre of Beledweyne , including women and children. This was a major turning point for the USC and further fueled the need to overthrow Siad Barre's regime - eventually proving successful as he was overthrown in late January. This incident in Beledweyne was the major cause for clan tensions as Siad Barre's militias mainly consisted of Marehan , Ogaden and Majeerteen militias, led by General Morgan ( Majeerteen ) - who had caused many civilian deaths towards Isaaq's (SNM) by sending bombers to attack
15423-588: The destruction of subsistence facilities such as water reservoirs and cattle. Each action by the Barre government, strengthened Majeerteen resolve against his regime. The Red Berets systematically smashed the small reservoirs in the area around Galkayo so as to deny water to the Umar Mahamuud Majeerteen sub-clans and their herds. In May and June 1979, more than 2,000 Umar Mahamuud, the Majeerteen sub-clan of Colonel Ahmad, died of thirst in
15582-728: The dissolution of his government. After he resigned he was given political asylum in Yemen. Yusuf died in the United Arab Emirates on 23 March 2012. Abdullahi Yusuf was born on 15 December 1934 in Galkayo , situated in the north-central Mudug region of Somalia . The city was at the time part of Italian Somaliland . His family hailed from the Omar Mahmoud sub clan of the larger Majeerteen Harti Darod clan. For his post-secondary education, Ahmed studied law at
15741-400: The earliest known depictions of a hunter on horseback. The rock art is dated to 1,000 to 3,000 BCE. Additionally, between the towns of Las Khorey and El Ayo in northern Somalia lies Karinhegane , the site of numerous cave paintings, which collectively have been estimated to be around 2,500 years old. Ancient pyramidical structures, mausoleums , ruined cities and stone walls, such as
15900-531: The early 15th century, Adal's capital was moved further inland to the town of Dakkar , where Sabr ad-Din II , the eldest son of Sa'ad ad-Din II, established a new base after his return from Yemen. Adal's headquarters were again relocated the following century, this time southward to Harar . From this new capital, Adal organised an effective army led by Imam Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi (Ahmad "Gurey" or "Gran"; both meaning "the left-handed") and his closest top general Garad Hirabu "Emir Of The Somalis that invaded
16059-402: The economy. A thriving black market existed in the centre of the city as banks experienced shortages of local currency for exchange. Harsh exchange control regulations were introduced to prevent export of foreign currency. Although no travel restrictions were placed on foreigners, photographing many locations was banned. During daytime in Mogadishu, the appearance of any government military force
16218-526: The ensuing Neolithic period from the family's proposed urheimat ("original homeland") in the Nile Valley , or the Near East . The Laas Geel complex on the outskirts of Hargeisa in northwestern Somalia dates back approximately 5,000 years, and has rock art depicting both wild animals and decorated cows. Other cave paintings are found in the northern Dhambalin region, which feature one of
16377-576: The first Muslims of Mecca fleeing prosecution during the first Hejira with Masjid al-Qiblatayn in Zeila being built before the Qiblah towards Mecca . It is one of the oldest mosques in Africa. In the late 9th century, Al-Yaqubi wrote that Muslims were living along the northern Somali seaboard. He also mentioned that the Adal Kingdom had its capital in the city. According to Leo Africanus ,
16536-595: The first attempt to restore a central state when the Transitional National Government (TNG) was created that year at a conference of elders. Due to opposition from the country's many warlords, including Yusuf, the TNG's authority withered within months. He was a member of an Ethiopian-backed coalition of warlords that succeeded in undermining the TNG. In 2001 the Puntland crisis began as Abdullahi Yusuf's term as Puntland president came to
16695-619: The first sultan, Sultan Guled Abdi , of the Eidagale clan. According to oral tradition, prior to the Guled dynasty the Isaaq clan-family were ruled by a dynasty of the Tolje'lo branch starting from, descendants of Ahmed nicknamed Tol Je'lo, the eldest son of Sheikh Ishaaq 's Harari wife. There were eight Tolje'lo rulers in total, starting with Boqor Harun ( Somali : Boqor Haaruun ) who ruled
16854-520: The form of an unstrung bow: if the Persians could manage to draw it, they would have the right to invade his country; but until then, they should thank the gods that the Macrobians never decided to invade their empire. The Macrobians were a regional power reputed for their advanced architecture and gold wealth, which was so plentiful that they shackled their prisoners in golden chains. The camel
17013-676: The formation of the SSDF in Ethiopia, the era of armed opposition against the Barre regime had begun. During October 1980, President Siad declared a state of emergency and reinstated the Supreme Revolutionary Council (SRC). With Ethiopian assistance, the SSDF began to launch guerilla attacks across the border on Somali army bases and civilian targets. The Ethiopians began using the SSDF to help hunt down Western Somali Liberation Front (WSLF) fighters. During major Ethiopian military operations in 1980 that aimed to crush
17172-734: The golden age of the Gobroon Dynasty. His army came out victorious during the Bardheere Jihad, which restored stability in the region and revitalized the East African ivory trade . He also had cordial relations and received gifts from the rulers of neighbouring and distant kingdoms such as the Omani, Witu and Yemeni Sultans. Sultan Ibrahim's son Ahmed Yusuf succeeded him as one of the most important figures in 19th-century East Africa, receiving tribute from Omani governors and creating alliances with important Muslim families on
17331-405: The government. During the late 1980s other rebel organizations proliferated throughout the country. When Barre was injured in an automobile accident on May 23, 1986, rivals within his own government and from opposition groups became bolder. The final years of President Siad Barre's rule were marked by growing armed conflict across Somalia. In the north, the SNM was active, while the SSDF operated in
17490-428: The grounds that Yusuf would give up Somalia's long standing claim to the Ogaden. Before becoming president of the TFG during 2004, Abdullahi Yusuf was a member of an Ethiopian-backed coalition of warlords that had undermined a previous attempt at restoring a government in Somalia when the Transitional National Government (TNG) formed in 2000. I.M. Lewis observes that with significant Ethiopian support, Abdullahi Yusuf
17649-518: The hundreds of thousands headed for Somalia, and were bombed and strafed during the exodus by the Ethiopian military. This placed immense strain on the Somali Democratic Republic's (SDR) frail economy, forcing the government to increasingly rely on foreign aid to function. Thousands of pastoral Somalis were also driven from the region, bringing much of their livestock, which led to disastrous ecological impacts as Somalia's limited grazing land became overburdened. The first serious postwar challenge to
17808-535: The impact of what came to be called the Stadia Corna Affair, Siad Barre sentenced to death 46 prominent members of the Manifesto Group, a body of 114 notables who had signed a petition in May calling for elections and improved human rights. During the show trial that resulted in the death sentences, demonstrators surrounded the court and activity in the city came to a virtual halt. On July 13,
17967-477: The independent Somali Republic under a civilian government. Siad Barre of the Supreme Revolutionary Council (SRC) seized power in 1969 and established the Somali Democratic Republic , brutally attempting to squash the Somaliland War of Independence in the north of the country. The SRC collapsed in 1991 with the onset of the Somali Civil War . The Transitional National Government of Somalia (TNG)
18126-479: The initial bombings in the north to encompass various regions across the country. This reproduction of aggressive strategies aimed at stifling descent and retaining authority over the populace was a hallmark of the government's repressive actions in the South. One of the most notable instances occurred in 1991, when Barre's regime initiated a ruthless arial assault that led to the deaths of numerous innocent individuals in
18285-702: The last government defenses at the Mogadishu Airport and the Presidential Palace and ousted Siad Barre, ending his 21-year rule. It was rumored that he had fled in a tank. The rebels announced their victory on the formerly government-operated radio station. In 1991, the Somali National Movement declared the northwestern portion of the country independent. Although internationally recognised as an autonomous region of Somalia, Somaliland , as with neighboring Puntland , has remained relatively peaceful. Somalia Somalia , officially
18444-472: The literacy rate. The Somali Democratic Republic achieved a literacy rate of 70%, one of the highest in Africa at the time. In addition to a nationalization program of industry and land, the new regime's foreign policy placed an emphasis on Somalia's traditional and religious links with the Arab world , eventually joining the Arab League in February, 1974. That same year, Barre also served as chairman of
18603-569: The lucrative commerce between the Red and Mediterranean Seas. However, Indian merchants continued to trade in the port cities of the Somali peninsula, which was free from Roman interference. For centuries, Indian merchants brought large quantities of cinnamon to Somalia and Arabia from Ceylon and the Spice Islands . The source of the cinnamon and other spices is said to have been the best-kept secret of Arab and Somali merchants in their trade with
18762-525: The newly appointed Prime Minister Guled announced his resignation, citing that he did not wish to be "seen as a stumbling block to the peace process which is going well now." Following Guled's resignation, Abdirashid Sed, who was close to President Ahmed, said that Ahmed would announce his resignation and retirement from politics at a special session of Parliament on 29 December. According to Sed, Ahmed made this decision "because he does not want to be seen as an obstacle to peace in Somalia". In December 2008,
18921-499: The newly formed Somali Republic. A referendum was held in neighbouring Djibouti (then known as French Somaliland ) in 1958, on the eve of Somalia's independence in 1960, to decide whether or not to join the Somali Republic or to remain with France. The referendum turned out in favour of a continued association with France, largely due to a combined yes vote by the sizable Afar ethnic group and resident Europeans. There
19080-402: The north and later against the Hawiye in the South, including Mogadisho". According to Mohamed Haji Ingiriis, the vicious atrocities during the reign of Barre were not an isolated event nor unusual in Somalia's history. Barre also targeted the Hawiye. Faced with saboteurs by day and sniper fire by night, Siad Barre ordered remaining units of the badly demoralized Red Berets to kill civilians on
19239-577: The northeast. The United Somali Congress (USC) gained ground in the central regions, and in the south, the Somali Patriotic Movement (SPM) led efforts against the regime. Despite their resistance, these opposition fronts failed to offer a unified or viable political alternative after the central government fell. As Barre's regime weakened in its last two years, government institutions collapsed, and clan cohesion disintegrated. The state went bankrupt as taxes went unpaid and foreign aid
19398-654: The northern cities, including Hargeisa ( Somalia 's second largest city). In response to mutinies by Hawiye soldiers in October 1989, the Red Berets began attacking Hawiye civilians. According to history professor Robert F. Baumann in his book 'My Clan Against The World: US And Coalition Forces In Somalia, 1992-1994', this shift of antagonism towards the Hawiye was a major military blunder since Barre's stronghold happened to be in Mogadishu, whose environs are majority Hawiye. These actions by Barre sealed his fate, as by 1990
19557-405: The overwhelming majority of Somalis rejected troops from neighboring states entering the country. Despite significant opposition within the TFG parliament, President Yusuf made the widely unpopular decision to invite Ethiopian troops to prop up his administration. As an institution, the TFG did not consent to or approve of the Ethiopian military intervention. No parliamentary approval was given for
19716-575: The people who had helped plot the coup were summarily executed, but Ahmed and several other colonels managed to escape abroad. Later that year, in adjacent Ethiopia , Ahmed and Hassan Ali Mire formed a rebel movement called the Somali Salvation Front, with Ahmed serving as chairman. The organization was subsequently renamed the Somali Salvation Democratic Front (SSDF) in 1979. It was the first of several opposition groups dedicated to ousting Barre's regime by force. After opposing
19875-530: The plan of Fascist Italy. With the arrival of Governor Cesare Maria De Vecchi on 15 December 1923, things began to change for that part of Somaliland known as Italian Somaliland . The last piece of land acquired by Italy in Somalia was Oltre Giuba , present-day Jubaland region, in 1925. The Italians began local infrastructure projects, including the construction of hospitals, farms and schools. Fascist Italy , under Benito Mussolini , attacked Abyssinia (Ethiopia) in 1935, with an aim to colonize it. The invasion
20034-602: The predominantly Hawiye USC ( United Somali Congress ) military group had beset the capital of Mogadishu. The bulk of the Darood clan refugees who fled the Ethiopia-Somalia war were of the Ogaden subclan. Barre's hostility towards the Ogaden was in part derived from the huge influx of their clan members in the aftermath of war with Ethiopia, which resulted in a swelling of their numbers. This surge in their population resulted in what he viewed as an undue influence, with
20193-519: The prospects of striking a deal with the more moderate Islamist insurgents. After his exile from Somali politics, Ahmed was initially reported to have flown out of Baidoa back to his native Puntland in the northeast. He then arrived in Sana'a , the capital of Yemen , on 20 January 2009, along with his wife and 17 family members and guards. On 21 January, Al Arabiya reported that Ahmed was granted political asylum in Yemen, where he resided. Yusuf spent
20352-553: The protectorate stagnated in political administrative development. The disparity between the two territories in economic development and political experience would later cause serious difficulties integrating the two parts. Meanwhile, in 1948, under pressure from their World War II allies and to the dismay of the Somalis, the British returned the Haud (an important Somali grazing area that was presumably protected by British treaties with
20511-407: The rebels central committee members. After the rebels had no longer become useful to Mengistu , he had members of the organization killed, imprisoned or dispersed. The SSDF did not recover as an organization until relations with Ethiopia normalized during the tenure of Meles Zenawi . In April 1981, a group of Isaaq businesspeople, students, former civil servants and former politicians who lived in
20670-658: The regime came during an attempted coup in April 1978 . The officers were primarily from the Majeerteen clan, and many of the coup plotters fled to Ethiopia after the Somali government had put down the insurrection. During the Ogaden War, Colonel Abdullahi Yusuf had served as a commander in the Somali National Army . After the war he deserted the army, and helped lead the failed 1978 coup attempt following which he had immediately fled to Ethiopia. In response to
20829-474: The remainder of his life in the United Arab Emirates . In 2011, Ahmed released his memoirs , titled Struggle and Conspiracy: A Memoir ( Halgan iyo Hagardaamo: Taariikh Nololeed ). He began a promotional European tour for the book late in the year and in early 2012. On 23 March 2012, relatives and Radio Mogadishu announced that Abdullahi Yusuf Ahmed had died at age 77 from complications due to pneumonia . He had been receiving treatment for several weeks at
20988-476: The southern part of the country. Financial support for this effort was provided by the autonomous region's government. This left little revenue for Puntland's own security forces and civil service employees, leaving the territory vulnerable to piracy and terrorist attacks. Following this defeat, the Islamic Courts Union splintered into several different factions. Some of the more radical elements, including Al-Shabaab , regrouped to continue their insurgency against
21147-486: The southern part of the country. Financial support for this effort was provided by the autonomous region's government. This left little revenue for Puntland's own security forces and civil service employees, leaving the territory vulnerable to piracy and terrorist attacks. In May 2006, the Second Battle of Mogadishu started and CNN reported that there were interim government forces in action. However, Ahmed told
21306-420: The southwest to the town of Negheille. For his efforts, Ahmed was again decorated for courage, but would remain a Colonel throughout his military career. In 1978, together with a group of officials mainly from his own Majeerteen ( Darod ) clan, Ahmed participated in an abortive attempt to overthrow Barre's dictatorial administration. The military coup d'état was originally planned for 12 April. However, it
21465-479: The sunset of the Somali Civil War . The defeat of the Somali military at the hands of Cuban/Ethiopian forces during the Ogaden War of 1977-78 brought to the surface opposition elements within the armed forces. Another significant consequence of the war was the massive influx of refugees from the Ogaden into Somalia, estimated at over a million. At the end of 1978 the first major outflow of refugees numbering in
21624-478: The three divisions of South African, West African, and East African troops. They were assisted by Somali forces led by Abdulahi Hassan with Somalis of the Isaaq , Dhulbahante , and Warsangali clans prominently participating. The number of Italian Somalis began to decline after World War II, with fewer than 10,000 remaining in 1960. Following World War II, Britain retained control of both British Somaliland and Italian Somaliland as protectorates. In 1945, during
21783-479: The time offered safe havens of operation for resistance groups against each other. From there the SNM successfully launched a guerrilla war against the Barre regime through incursions and hit and run operations on army positions in the northern Isaaq territories before returning to Ethiopia. One of Barre's earliest forms of collective punishment targeting non-combatant clans was against the Majeerteen in 1979. Between May and June 1979, his presidential Guard, called
21942-414: The total civilian deaths to be upwards of 200,000 Isaaq civilians. The government attack included the levelling and complete destruction of the second and third largest cities in Somalia, Hargeisa (which was 90 per cent destroyed) and Burao (70 per cent destroyed) respectively through a campaign of aerial bombardment, and had caused 400,000 Somalis (primarily of the Isaaq clan) to flee their land and cross
22101-436: The town of Beledwene , situated in southern Somalia. The cruelty and magnitude of this atrocity highlighted the degree to which the government was prepared to go to quash any sort of opposition or resistance, displaying a blatant disregard for human rights and the worth of human life. Another notable instance of Barre 's repressive policies occurred in the city of Baidoa , which earned the nickname 'the city of death' due to
22260-503: The tragic events that unfolded there during the famine and civil war . Hundreds of thousands of individuals lost their lives as a consequence of governmental strategies specifically aimed at the Rahanweyn community residing in these areas. During 1990, in the capital city of Mogadishu, the residents were prohibited from gathering publicly in groups greater than three or four. Fuel shortages, inflation, and currency devaluation impacted
22419-428: The two earliest rebel factions, the Somali Salvation Democratic Front (SSDF) and the Somali National Movement (SNM) began attacks during the against government forces during the early 1980s. The SSDF assaults culminated in a joint invasion with Ethiopian troops in 1982 , which stalemated into a border war and later resulted in the decline of the SSDF. The SNM continued operating and carrying out insurgent attacks on
22578-466: The war, the Somali army scored continuous victories on the Ethiopian army and followed them as far as Sidamo . By September 1977, Somalia controlled 90% of the Ogaden and captured strategic cities such as Jijiga and put heavy pressure on Dire Dawa , threatening the train route from the latter city to Djibouti. After the siege of Harar, a massive unprecedented Soviet intervention consisting of 20,000 Cuban forces and several thousand Soviet experts came to
22737-607: The war-torn country as reasons for the dismissal. Earlier in the year, Hussein had survived a vote of no confidence after having been accused by some lawmakers of embezzling state funds. Hussein said that Ahmed did not have the power to fire him without parliamentary approval, while Ahmed asserted that he believed Parliament would endorse the dismissal. Parliament supported Hussein in a vote on 15 December, but Ahmed nevertheless appointed Mohamoud Mohamed Guled as Prime Minister to replace Hussein on 16 December. On 21 December, Radio Garowe reported that 80 members of parliament held
22896-541: The waterless area northeast of Galkayo, Garoowe , and Jariban . In Galkayo, members of the Victory Pioneers , the urban militia known for harassing civilians, raped large numbers of Majeerteen women. In addition, the clan lost an estimated 50,000 camels, 10,000 cattle, and 100,000 sheep and goats. According to Rebecca Richards , a systematic state violence that followed was linked to the Barre government's belief that SNM attacks were receiving assistance from
23055-411: Was a Somali politician and former military officer. He was one of the founders of the rebel Somali Salvation Democratic Front (SSDF), as well as the Puntland state of Somalia, the latter of which he served as the first president. In 2004, Yusuf also helped establish the Transitional Federal Government (TFG), which he led as President of Somalia from 2004 until 2008. Yusuf was a career soldier in
23214-577: Was also widespread vote rigging, with the French expelling thousands of Somalis before the referendum reached the polls. The majority of those who voted 'no' were Somalis who were strongly in favour of joining a united Somalia, as had been proposed by Mahmoud Harbi , Vice President of the Government Council. Harbi was killed in a plane crash two years later. Djibouti finally gained independence from France in 1977, and Hassan Gouled Aptidon ,
23373-404: Was announced that the government would relocate to Villa Somalia in the capital from its interim location in Baidoa. This marked the first time since in 1991 that a Somali government controlled most of the country. During fierce fighting in Mogadishu in early 2007, the Ethiopian army reportedly carpet bombed neighborhoods. Yusuf announced in a radio interview that “any place from which a bullet
23532-532: Was condemned by the League of Nations , but little was done to stop it or to liberate occupied Ethiopia. In 1936, Italian Somalia was integrated into Italian East Africa , alongside Eritrea and Ethiopia, as the Somalia Governorate . On 3 August 1940, Italian troops, including Somali colonial units, crossed from Ethiopia to invade British Somaliland , and by 14 August, succeeded in taking Berbera from
23691-555: Was elected as the TFG president, and, under Ethiopian direction, he appointed a prime minister with connections to then-Ethiopian Prime Minister Meles Zenawi . These close connections to Addis Ababa were a driving force behind the invasion and provoked the ICU into later adopting a bellicose stance. In 2004, Yusuf made his first foreign visit as President when he travelled to Ethiopia. During this visit he requested 20,000 Ethiopian troops to back his government. As President, Ahmed pledged to promote reconciliation and to set about rebuilding
23850-537: Was established in 2000, followed by the formation of the Transitional Federal Government of Somalia (TFG) in 2004, which reestablished the Somali Armed Forces . At the end of 2006, a US-backed Ethiopian invasion overthrew the Islamic Courts Union (ICU), leading to the installation of the TFG in Mogadishu under an Ethiopian military occupation . The subsequent insurgency which emerged saw
24009-422: Was extremely rare. Alleged late-night operations by government authorities, however, included "disappearances" of individuals from their homes. In 1991, the Barre administration was ousted by a coalition of clan-based opposition groups, backed by Ethiopia's then-ruling Derg regime and Libya . Following a meeting of the Somali National Movement and northern clans' elders, the northern former British portion of
24168-479: Was formed by Abdullahi Issa and Muhammad Haji Ibrahim Egal with other members of the trusteeship and protectorate governments, with Abdulcadir Muhammed Aden as President of the Somali National Assembly , Aden Abdullah Osman Daar as President of the Somali Republic, and Abdirashid Ali Shermarke as Prime Minister (later to become president from 1967 to 1969). On 20 July 1961 and through
24327-596: Was generally known to have controlled central Mogadishu. The Somali rebels rejected attempts by Siad Barre to introduce a ceasefire, and only allowed foreign military evacuations under the watch of the Red Cross , which the Red Cross agreed to. A USC spokesman claimed that 10,000 reinforcements were arriving to Mogadishu to oust the Somali government. On 22 January, a ceasefire was implemented, according to Somali government radio, but days later, on 26 January, rebels overran
24486-413: Was instead hastily carried out a few days earlier, on 9 April, due to fears of potential leaks. Ahmed was at the time in the southern Gedo region and was unaware of the changes to the coup plan. He later learned of the failed putsch via a secured communication network, which contained a coded two sentence message from Col. Abdullahi Ahmed Irro reading "Wife Aborted", dated 11:00 am, 9 April 1978. Most of
24645-840: Was led by Brigadier General Mohamed Ainanshe Guled , Lieutenant Colonel Salaad Gabeyre Kediye and Chief of Police Jama Korshel . Kediye officially held the title "Father of the Revolution", and Barre shortly afterwards became the head of the SRC. The SRC subsequently renamed the country the Somali Democratic Republic, dissolved the parliament and the Supreme Court, and suspended the constitution. The revolutionary government established large-scale public works programs and successfully implemented an urban and rural literacy campaign, which helped dramatically increase
24804-487: Was placed on the Muslim principles of social progress, equality and justice, which the government argued formed the core of scientific socialism and its own accent on self-sufficiency, public participation and popular control, as well as direct ownership of the means of production. While the SRSP encouraged private investment on a limited scale, the administration's overall direction was essentially communist . In July 1977,
24963-472: Was promoted to the post of commander in 1960. As a soldier, he participated in the 1964 war against the Ethiopia and was decorated for his actions of valor during the war. Ahmed obtained a degree in Military Topography from the M. V. Frunze Military Academy in the former Soviet Union (Военная академия им. М. В. Фрунзе), an elite institution reserved for the most qualified officers of
25122-499: Was weakened further in the 1980s as the Cold War drew to a close and Somalia's strategic importance was diminished. The government became increasingly authoritarian , and resistance movements , encouraged by Ethiopia, sprang up across the country, eventually leading to the Somali Civil War . Among the militia groups were the Somali Salvation Democratic Front (SSDF), United Somali Congress (USC), Somali National Movement (SNM) and
25281-515: Was withdrawn. The July 1989 riots and massacres brought large scale violence to Mogadishu for the first time, intensifying the rebellion. By late 1990, the country was on the brink of full-scale civil war, with the USC routed the Somali army in Mudug , Galgadud , and Hiiraan . After a battle between the regime and rebels in Mogadishu, the Somali Democratic Republic collapsed in January 1991, marking
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