188-614: Sangley (English plural: Sangleys ; Spanish plural: Sangleyes ) and Mestizo de Sangley ( Sangley mestizo , mestisong Sangley , chino mestizo or Chinese mestizo ) are archaic terms used in the Philippines during the Spanish colonial era to describe respectively a person of pure overseas Chinese ancestry and a person of mixed Chinese and native Filipino ancestry. The Sangley Chinese were ancestors to both modern Chinese Filipinos and modern Filipino mestizo descendants of
376-571: A Gulf Coast port on the Atlantic side of Mexico. As the Spanish galleons carried mostly Chinese luxury goods destined for Europe, Mexicans called them náos de China (Chinese ships). The Spanish galleon trade was mainly a business affair involving Spanish officials in Manila, Mexico and Spain, and Chinese traders from Xiamen. The highly lucrative galleon trade carried few products originating from
564-410: A moneylender extended loans to farmers, who in exchange for cash, pawned their land with the option of buying it back. In the event of default, the moneylender recovered the loan by foreclosing on the land from the farmer. Many local farmers lost their lands to mestizos de sangley in this manner. The Spanish Galleon Trade (1565–1815) tied China to Europe via Manila and Acapulco, Mexico . Acting as
752-476: A shootout with MILF rebels in Mamasapano delayed passage of the law. Growing public frustration with post- EDSA governance led to the 2016 election of populist Rodrigo Duterte , whose presidency saw the decline of liberalism in the country albeit largely retaining liberal economic policies. Among Duterte's priorities was aggressively increasing infrastructure spending to spur economic growth;
940-475: A "word" in English, and others not willing to limit it to the English concept of a word. Examples from POJ include ⟨sì-cha̍p⟩ "forty", ⟨bé-hì-thôan⟩ "circus", and ⟨hôe-ho̍k⟩ "recover (from illness)". The non-final syllables of a compound typically undergo tone sandhi, but exact rules have not been clearly identified by linguists. A double hyphen ⟨--⟩
1128-533: A 17th-century war against the Dutch , 18th-century British occupation of Manila , and conflict with Muslims in the south. Administration of the Philippines was considered a drain on the economy of New Spain, and abandoning it or trading it for other territory was debated. This course of action was opposed because of the islands' economic potential, security, and the desire to continue religious conversion in
1316-506: A Southern Min version of Misplaced Pages in the orthography, there are teaching materials, religious texts, and books about linguistics, medicine and geography. POJ was initially not well supported by word-processing applications due to the special diacritics needed to write it. Support has now improved and there are now sufficient resources to both enter and display POJ correctly. Several input methods exist to enter Unicode -compliant POJ, including OpenVanilla ( macOS and Microsoft Windows ),
1504-402: A claim on eastern North Borneo . In 1965, Macapagal lost the presidential election to Ferdinand Marcos . Early in his presidency , Marcos began infrastructure projects funded mostly by foreign loans; this improved the economy, and contributed to his reelection in 1969 . Near the end of his last constitutionally-permitted term, Marcos declared martial law on September 21, 1972 using
1692-566: A deft negotiation of the political realities in Manila. The founding of Chinese mestizo regiments in the Philippines was part of New Spain 's military modernization during the reformist Bourbon era . At the same time, New Spain created a colonial militia in Latin America, also enrolling mestizos there. While the colonies developed in distinct ways, there were similarities in the rise of the mestizo classes in Latin American and
1880-496: A distinct tone, but has long since merged with tone 7 or 2 depending on lexical register). Tones 1 and 4 are both represented without a diacritic , and can be distinguished from each other by the syllable ending, which is a vowel, ⟨-n⟩ , ⟨-m⟩ , or ⟨-ng⟩ for tone 1, and ⟨-h⟩ , ⟨-k⟩ , ⟨-p⟩ , and ⟨-t⟩ for tone 4. Southern Min dialects undergo considerable tone sandhi , i.e. changes to
2068-407: A feature that has been preserved from Middle Chinese . There is some debate as to whether these stops are a tonal feature or a phonemic one, with some authorities distinguishing between ⟨-h⟩ as a tonal feature, and ⟨-p⟩ , ⟨-t⟩ , and ⟨-k⟩ as phonemic features. Southern Min dialects also have an optional nasal property, which is written with
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#17327651967512256-562: A handwoven fabric made of pineapple fiber for heirloom garments. During the late 19th century, the mestizos de sangley wore embroidered barong tagalog while indios wore multicolored camisa de chino . As a means of maintaining social stratification, the Spanish prohibited the indios from wearing European-style clothing, as a means of separating the groups. In food, Chinese-Filipinos adapted Hokkien food from Fujian . They used indigenous ingredients and Spanish names to improvise what became part of an evolving creole Filipino cuisine. During
2444-581: A major non-NATO ally. Under President Duterte , ties with the United States weakened in favor of improved relations with China and Russia . The Philippines relies heavily on the United States for its external defense; the U.S. has made regular assurances to defend the Philippines, including the South China Sea . Since 1975, the Philippines has valued its relations with China —its top trading partner, and cooperates significantly with
2632-651: A modified Latin alphabet and some diacritics to represent the spoken language. After initial success in Fujian , POJ became most widespread in Taiwan and, in the mid-20th century, there were over 100,000 people literate in POJ. A large amount of printed material, religious and secular, has been produced in the script, including Taiwan 's first newspaper, the Taiwan Church News . During Japanese rule (1895–1945),
2820-517: A monopoly. Cultivation was concentrated in Cagayan , where the Spanish relied on the principalía to have their workers produce and deliver the tobacco. With the opening of the colony to foreign trade in 1834, Western merchants established import/export and financial companies in Binondo . They partnered with Chinese wholesale/retail traders throughout the islands. The mestizos de sangley shifted to
3008-659: A more capable defense system. The Philippines has long struggled against local insurgencies , separatism , and terrorism . Bangsamoro 's largest separatist organizations, the Moro National Liberation Front and the Moro Islamic Liberation Front , signed final peace agreements with the government in 1996 and 2014 respectively. Other, more-militant groups such as Abu Sayyaf and Bangsamoro Islamic Freedom Fighters have kidnapped foreigners for ransom, particularly in
3196-648: A person with likewise similar features. Mestizo de sangley is a term that arose during Spanish colonization of the Philippines, where circumstances were different from colonial settlement of the Americas. During the Spanish colonization of the Americas of the 16th and 17th centuries, numerous male Spaniards ( conquistadors , explorers, missionaries, and soldiers) settled there. For decades most Spanish men made liaisons and intermarried with indigenous women; their children were considered mixed race and were called mestizo . Male Chinese traders and workers came during
3384-556: A royal decree outlawing the sangleys , as governor-general of the Philippines, Gómez Pérez Dasmariñas created Binondo in 1594 for the Catholic sangleys and their indio wives and their mestizos de sangley children and descendants. He gave the sangleys and mestizo de sangleys a land grant in perpetuity. They were allowed to establish a self-governing organization, called Gremio de Mestizos de Binondo (Guild of Mestizos of Binondo). The Spanish colonists attempted to assimilate
3572-470: A sacred part of Chinese culture. Taking the other side, Thomas Barclay believed that literacy in POJ should be a goal rather than a waypoint : Soon after my arrival in Formosa I became firmly convinced of three things, and more than fifty years experience has strengthened my conviction. The first was that if you are to have a healthy, living Church it is necessary that all the members, men and women, read
3760-531: A six-year term ) and the House of Representatives , the lower house , with members elected to a three-year term. Senators are elected at-large , and representatives are elected from legislative districts and party lists . Judicial authority is vested in the Supreme Court , composed of a chief justice and fourteen associate justices , who are appointed by the president from nominations submitted by
3948-727: A small printing press to the local church, which Thomas Barclay learned how to operate in 1881 before founding the Presbyterian Church Press in 1884. Subsequently, the Taiwan Prefectural City Church News , which first appeared in 1885 and was produced by Barclay's Presbyterian Church of Taiwan Press, became the first printed newspaper in Taiwan, marking the establishment of POJ in Taiwan, giving rise to numerous literary works written in POJ. As other authors made their own alterations to
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#17327651967514136-565: A superscript ⟨ⁿ⟩ and usually identified as being part of the vowel. Vowel nasalisation also occurs in words that have nasal initials (⟨m-⟩, ⟨n-⟩, ⟨ng-⟩), however in this case superscript ⟨ⁿ⟩ is not written, e.g. 卵 nūi ( [nuĩ] ). The letter ⁿ appears at the end of a word except in some interjections, such as haⁿh ( [hãʔ] ), however more conservative users of Pe̍h-ōe-jī write such words as hahⁿ . A valid syllable in Hokkien takes
4324-427: A three-tier social structure: nobility, freemen, and dependent debtor-bondsmen. Among the nobility were leaders known as datus , who were responsible for ruling autonomous groups ( barangays or dulohan). When the barangays banded together to form a larger settlement or a geographically looser alliance, their more-esteemed members would be recognized as a " paramount datu ", rajah or sultan , and would rule
4512-527: A total area of roughly 300,000 square kilometers, which are broadly categorized in three main geographical divisions from north to south: Luzon , Visayas , and Mindanao . The Philippines is bounded by the South China Sea to the west, the Philippine Sea to the east, and the Celebes Sea to the south. It shares maritime borders with Taiwan to the north, Japan to the northeast, Palau to
4700-483: A transshipment port, Manila attracted Chinese traders from Xiamen (Amoy); they traveled in armed ships to trade with the Spanish. Chinese luxury goods, such as silk , porcelain and finely crafted furniture, were exchanged for silver from Mexican and Peruvian mines. Twice a year the galleons sailed across the Pacific Ocean from Manila to Acapulco and back. The goods were later shipped to Spain via Veracruz ,
4888-399: A tropical maritime climate which is usually hot and humid. There are three seasons: a hot dry season from March to May, a rainy season from June to November, and a cool dry season from December to February. The southwest monsoon (known as the habagat ) lasts from May to October, and the northeast monsoon ( amihan ) lasts from November to April. The coolest month is January, and
5076-674: A tumultuous experience with democracy, which included the overthrow of a decades-long dictatorship in a nonviolent revolution . The Philippines is an emerging market and a newly industrialized country , whose economy is transitioning from being agricultural to service- and manufacturing-centered. It is a founding member of the United Nations , the World Trade Organization , ASEAN , the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation forum, and
5264-470: A typical year, usually from July to October; eight or nine of them make landfall . The wettest recorded typhoon to hit the Philippines dropped 2,210 millimeters (87 in) in Baguio from July 14 to 18, 1911. The country is among the world's ten most vulnerable to climate change . The Philippines has a democratic government, a constitutional republic with a presidential system . The president
5452-494: Is head of state and head of government , and is the commander-in-chief of the armed forces . The president is elected through direct election by the citizens of the Philippines for a six-year term. The president appoints and presides over the cabinet and officials of various national government agencies and institutions. The bicameral Congress is composed of the Senate (the upper house , with members elected to
5640-685: Is a founding and active member of ASEAN (Association of Southeast Asian Nations) and a member of the East Asia Summit , the Group of 24 , and the Non-Aligned Movement . The country has sought to obtain observer status in the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation since 2003, and was a member of SEATO . Over 10 million Filipinos live and work in 200 countries , giving the Philippines soft power . During
5828-796: Is a priority hotspot for biodiversity conservation ; it has more than 200 protected areas , which was expanded to 7,790,000 hectares (30,100 sq mi) as of 2023 . Three sites in the Philippines have been included on the UNESCO World Heritage List: the Tubbataha Reef in the Sulu Sea, the Puerto Princesa Subterranean River , and the Mount Hamiguitan Wildlife Sanctuary. The Philippines has
Sangley - Misplaced Pages Continue
6016-466: Is also used in historical place names such as Punta Sangley ( Sangley Point ), the northern promontory point and former US naval base headquarters in the Cavite Peninsula . Generally, Sangley is usually believed or purported to literally mean "merchant traveler" or "frequent visitor." According to Go Bon Juan, the most commonly accepted version is usually that the term "sangley" comes from
6204-604: Is an orthography used to write variants of Hokkien Southern Min , particularly Taiwanese and Amoy Hokkien , and it is widely employed as one of the writing systems for Southern Min. During its peak, it had hundreds of thousands of readers. Developed by Western missionaries working among the Chinese diaspora in Southeast Asia in the 19th century and refined by missionaries working in Xiamen and Tainan , it uses
6392-571: Is largely disassociated from its former religious purpose. The term "romanization" is also disliked by some, who see it as belittling the status of pe̍h-ōe-jī by identifying it as a supplementary phonetic system instead of a standalone orthography. The history of pe̍h-ōe-jī has been heavily influenced by official attitudes towards the Southern Min vernaculars and the Christian organizations that propagated it. Early documents point to
6580-515: Is often abbreviated in POJ itself to Kàu-lô . ( 教羅 ; Jiàoluō ) There is some debate on whether " pe̍h-ōe-jī " or "Church Romanization" is the more appropriate name. Objections to " pe̍h-ōe-jī " are that it can refer to more than one system and that both literary and colloquial register Southern Min appear in the system and so describing it as "vernacular" writing might be inaccurate. Objections to "Church Romanization" are that some non-Christians and some secular writing use it. POJ today
6768-467: Is used when POJ is deployed as an orthography (rather than as a transcription system) to indicate that the following syllable should be pronounced in the neutral tone. It also marks to the reader that the preceding syllable does not undergo tone sandhi, as it would were the following syllable non-neutral. Morphemes following a double hyphen are often (but not always) grammatical function words. Some authors use an interpunct ⟨·⟩ in place of
6956-683: Is where San Lorenzo Ruiz grew up in the early 1600s. He was martyred under torture in Japan with three missionaries ; none would recant their Christian beliefs. Long venerated in the Philippines, he later was beatified by the Catholic Church and canonized in 1987 as the first Filipino saint . During the 17th century, the Spaniards carried out four great massacres and expulsions against the unconverted sangleys, usually generated from real or imagined fears of an imminent invasion from China. In
7144-575: The Reconquista . The Spanish–Moro conflict lasted for several hundred years; Spain conquered portions of Mindanao and Jolo during the last quarter of the 19th century, and the Muslim Moro in the Sultanate of Sulu acknowledged Spanish sovereignty. Philippine ports opened to world trade during the 19th century, and Filipino society began to change. Social identity changed, with
7332-459: The bourgeoisie of the colonial economy. From their concentration in Binondo, Manila, the mestizos de sangley migrated to Central Luzon, Cebu, Iloilo, Negros and Cavite to handle the domestic trade of the islands. From trading, they branched out into landleasing, moneylending and later landholding. With wealth, they gained the ability to give their children elite education at the best schools in
7520-441: The tornatrás (Spanish-Chinese mestizos, descendants of colonial Spanish Filipinos and Sangley Chinese), the mestizos de Bombay (Indian mestizos, descendants of colonial Indian Filipinos and native Filipinos), mestizos de japoneses (Japanese mestizos, descendants of colonial Japanese Filipinos and native Filipinos), etc. Overseas Chinese entered the Philippines as traders prior to Spanish colonization. Many emigrated to
7708-535: The 2022 election . Marcos's renewal of a pro-US foreign policy, however, has been viewed as a reversal of Duterte's cordiality with China, and territorial disputes in the South China Sea have since escalated. The Philippines is an archipelago of about 7,641 islands , covering a total area (including inland bodies of water) of about 300,000 square kilometers (115,831 sq mi). Stretching 1,850 kilometers (1,150 mi) north to south, from
Sangley - Misplaced Pages Continue
7896-576: The Batanes Islands (where they built stone fortresses known as ijangs ) and northern Luzon . Jade artifacts have been dated to 2000 BC, with lingling-o jade items made in Luzon with raw materials from Taiwan. By 1000 BC, the inhabitants of the archipelago had developed into four societies: hunter-gatherer tribes, warrior societies, highland plutocracies , and port principalities. The earliest known surviving written record in
8084-514: The Bocabulario however prefers the latter. In Wenceslao Retana 's Diccionario de filipinismos (1921), the entry for Sangley was also recorded before as ( sic ): Sangley (del chino xiang-lay , mercader.) adj. Nombre que en lo antiguo se dio en Filipinas a los mercaderes chinos, y que luego se hizo genérico de los de esta raza residentes en aquellas islas Sangley (from Chinese xiang-lay , merchant.) adj. Name that in ancient times
8272-684: The Coral Triangle ecoregion, Philippine waters have unique, diverse marine life and the world's greatest diversity of shore-fish species. The country has over 3,200 fish species (121 endemic). Philippine waters sustain the cultivation of fish, crustaceans, oysters, and seaweeds. Eight major types of forests are distributed throughout the Philippines: dipterocarp , beach forest, pine forest, molave forest, lower montane forest , upper montane (or mossy forest ), mangroves , and ultrabasic forest. According to official estimates,
8460-673: The Dominican Spanish friars recorded before in Manila as one of the terms listed as Spanish : mercader , lit. 'merchant'. Another cited possible etymon is the Hokkien Chinese : 常來 ; Pe̍h-ōe-jī : siâng lâi ; lit. 'frequently comes', which appeared beside "Sangley" labeled in the Boxer Codex (circa 1590s), Dasmariñas record to the King of Spain , which also contains
8648-498: The East Asia Summit ; it is a member of the Non-Aligned Movement and a major non-NATO ally of the United States. Its location as an island country on the Pacific Ring of Fire and close to the equator makes it prone to earthquakes and typhoons . The Philippines has a variety of natural resources and a globally-significant level of biodiversity . During his 1542 expedition, Spanish explorer Ruy López de Villalobos named
8836-515: The Hokkien Chinese : 生理 ; Pe̍h-ōe-jī : Seng-lí , IPA : /ɕiɪŋ³³ li⁵⁵⁴/ ; lit. 'business', which is consistent with the business background of the early Chinese in the Philippines. According to Saul Hofileña Jr on the history of Sangley Point , the name supposedly derived from ' xiangli , a Chinese word for 'trader', which became "sangley" to the Spaniards . According to Go Bon Juan, Hofileña had apparently based this on
9024-513: The Judicial and Bar Council . Attempts to change the government to a federal , unicameral , or parliamentary government have been made since the Ramos administration . Philippine politics tends to be dominated by well-known families , such as political dynasties or celebrities , and party switching is widely practiced. Corruption is significant , attributed by some historians to
9212-665: The Mestizos de Sangley, also known as Chinese mestizos, which are mixed descendants of Sangley Chinese and native Filipinos. Chinese mestizos were mestizos (mixed peoples) in the Spanish Empire , classified together with other Filipino mestizos . The Spanish had such categories as indios ( Spanish : indio , lit. 'Indian' for natives of the East Indies ), mestizos de Español (descendants of colonial ethnic Spanish and native-born Filipinos),
9400-482: The Moro Gulf and in 1990 on Luzon . The Philippines has 23 active volcanoes ; of them, Mayon , Taal , Canlaon , and Bulusan have the largest number of recorded eruptions. The country has valuable mineral deposits as a result of its complex geologic structure and high level of seismic activity. It is thought to have the world's second-largest gold deposits (after South Africa), large copper deposits, and
9588-726: The Philippine–American War . The war resulted in the deaths of 250,000 to 1 million civilians, primarily due to famine and disease. Many Filipinos were transported by the Americans to concentration camps , where thousands died. After the fall of the First Philippine Republic in 1902, an American civilian government was established with the Philippine Organic Act . American forces continued to secure and extend their control of
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#17327651967519776-470: The South China Sea to the Celebes Sea , the Philippines is bordered by the Philippine Sea to the east, and the Sulu Sea to the southwest. The country's 11 largest islands are Luzon , Mindanao , Samar , Negros , Palawan , Panay , Mindoro , Leyte , Cebu , Bohol and Masbate , about 95 percent of its total land area. The Philippines' coastline measures 36,289 kilometers (22,549 mi),
9964-595: The Spanish American wars of independence resulting in the loss of Spain's colonies in the Americas, the Spanish government quickly lost its position of pre-eminence amongst the Western powers . After losing Mexico when it became independent in 1821, Spain took over direct control of the Philippines. It had been governed by the Virreinato de Nueva España or Viceroyalty of New Spain (Mexico) during much of
10152-545: The Taft Commission ; the 1934 Tydings–McDuffie Act granted a ten-year transition to independence through the creation of the Commonwealth of the Philippines the following year, with Manuel Quezon president and Sergio Osmeña vice president. Quezon's priorities were defence, social justice, inequality, economic diversification, and national character. Filipino (a standardized variety of Tagalog) became
10340-508: The Taiwanese Romanization System ( Tâi-lô ), a government-sponsored successor based on pe̍h-ōe-jī , was released. Despite this, native language education, and writing systems for Taiwanese, have remained a fiercely debated topic in Taiwan. POJ laid the foundation for the creation of new literature in Taiwan. Before the 1920s, many people had already written literary works in POJ, contributing significantly to
10528-555: The Tejeros Convention , at which Bonifacio lost his position and Emilio Aguinaldo was elected the new leader of the revolution. The 1897 Pact of Biak-na-Bato resulted in the Hong Kong Junta government in exile. The Spanish–American War began the following year, and reached the Philippines; Aguinaldo returned, resumed the revolution, and declared independence from Spain on June 12, 1898. In December 1898,
10716-602: The cross-platform Tai-lo Input Method released by the Taiwanese Ministry of Education , and the Firefox add-on Transliterator, which allows in-browser POJ input. When POJ was first used in word-processing applications it was not fully supported by the Unicode standard, thus necessitating work-arounds. One employed was encoding the necessary characters in the "Private Use" section of Unicode, but this required both
10904-589: The initial , a consonant or consonant blend which appears at the beginning of the syllable, secondly the final , consisting of a medial vowel (optional), a nucleus vowel , and an optional ending ; and finally the tone, which is applied to the whole syllable. In terms of the non-tonal (i.e. phonemic) features, the nucleus vowel is the only required part of a licit syllable in Chinese varieties. Unlike Mandarin but like other southern varieties of Chinese, Taiwanese has final stop consonants with no audible release ,
11092-464: The principalía. As the subsistence economy shifted to an export crop economy, for sugar , abaca and tobacco, in 1834 the Spanish allowed both non-Spanish Westerners and Chinese immigrants to settle anywhere in the islands. The mestizos de sangley had been displaced from tobacco marketing as the Spanish established their monopoly. Some wholesale and retail traders converted their capital into larger landholdings. They developed sugar plantations for
11280-466: The sangleys earned their livelihood as carpenters, tailors, cobblers, locksmiths, masons, metalsmiths, weavers, bakers, carvers and other skilled craftsmen. As metalsmiths, they helped to build the Spanish galleons in shipyards located in Cavite . As masons, they built Intramuros and its numerous structures. The Spanish gave the mestizos de sangley special rights and privileges as colonial subjects of
11468-566: The sangleys into the Hispanic culture and converted many to Catholicism . They allowed Catholic sangleys to intermarry with indio women. They did not recognize marriages of the unconverted sangleys , as they did not officially sanction marriages among subjects that were performed outside the Catholic Church. Beginning in 1600, the first generation of mestizos de sangley formed a small community of several hundred in Binondo. This
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#173276519675111656-401: The "true sons of Spain", the mestizos de sangley tended to side with the white Spanish colonists during the numerous indio revolts against Spanish rule. In the late 19th century, José Rizal , a fifth-generation mestizo de sangley , arose as an intellectual from the relatively wealthy, middle-class, Spanish-educated Filipinos known as Ilustrados . He was among those who called for reforms in
11844-532: The 1930s, with a few minor exceptions (detailed below). There is a fair degree of similarity with the Vietnamese alphabet , including the ⟨b/p/ph⟩ distinction and the use of ⟨ ơ ⟩ in Vietnamese compared with ⟨ o͘ ⟩ in POJ. POJ uses the following letters and combinations: Chinese phonology traditionally divides syllables in Chinese into three parts; firstly
12032-418: The 1970s, a POJ New Testament translation known as the "Red Cover Bible" ( Âng-phoê Sèng-keng ) was confiscated and banned by the Nationalist regime. Official moves against native languages continued into the 1980s, the Ministry of Education and the Ministry of the Interior decided in 1984 to forbid missionaries to use "local dialects" and romanizations in their work. It was not until the late 1980s, with
12220-409: The 1990s, the Philippines began to seek economic liberalization and free trade to help spur foreign direct investment . It is a member of the World Trade Organization and the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation . The Philippines entered into the ASEAN Trade in Goods Agreement in 2010 and the Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership free trade agreement (FTA) in 2023. Through ASEAN,
12408-442: The 19th century, noodle shops called panciterias serving comida China (Chinese food) dotted the islands. The ubiquitous pancit (meaning " noodle " from the Hokkien word pian-e-sit ) became pancit luglog and lomi (flavored with sauce); mami (served with broth); pancit molo (cooked as pasta) and pancit Malabon (mixed with seafood ). The Chinese brought their use of rice as a staple (and wet-rice agriculture). One result
12596-455: The Amoy Dialect , published in 1853. The manual can therefore be regarded as the first presentation of a pre-modern POJ, a significant step onwards from Medhurst's orthography and different from today's system in only a few details. From this point on various authors adjusted some of the consonants and vowels, but the system of tone marks from Doty's Manual survives intact in modern POJ. John Van Nest Talmage has traditionally been regarded as
12784-499: The Christian church, much of the material in the script is religious in nature, including several Bible translations, books of hymns, and guides to morality. The Tainan Church Press, established in 1884, has been printing POJ materials ever since, with periods of quiet when POJ was suppressed in the early 1940s and from around 1955 to 1987. In the period to 1955, over 2.3 million volumes of POJ books were printed, and one study in 2002 catalogued 840 different POJ texts in existence. Besides
12972-484: The Feast of La Naval de Manila, commemorating the naval victory of the Spanish over the Dutch off Manila Bay in 1646. In the late 19th century, cosmopolitan mercantilism emerged in Binondo, at the same time that Western and overseas Chinese merchants entered the island's economy, which was being integrated into the global trading system. The Spaniards tended to be more isolated from the new urban environment. They lived in Intramuros , where Hispanic Catholicism dominated
13160-414: The Mexicans called them los indios Chinos. Apart from the Portuguese-controlled Macao -Manila trade in the 17th century and the British-controlled Madras -Manila trade in the 18th century, it was chiefly the Spanish-controlled Manila-Acapulco trade that sustained the colony for much of the period. When the trade ended with the last ship's sailing in 1815, the Spaniards needed new sources of revenue. With
13348-474: The Muslim minority in the Philippines; concerns have been raised about domestic abuse and war affecting the approximately 2.5 million overseas Filipino workers in the region. The Philippines has claims in the Spratly Islands which overlap with claims by China, Malaysia, Taiwan, and Vietnam. The largest of its controlled islands is Thitu Island , which contains the Philippines' smallest town . The 2012 Scarborough Shoal standoff , after China seized
13536-669: The Philippine Autonomy Act and the Jones Law . The official title "Republic of the Philippines" was included in the 1935 constitution as the name of the future independent state, and in all succeeding constitutional revisions. There is evidence of early hominins living in what is now the Philippines as early as 709,000 years ago. A small number of bones from Callao Cave potentially represent an otherwise unknown species, Homo luzonensis , who lived 50,000 to 67,000 years ago. The oldest modern human remains on
13724-646: The Philippine islands or involving resident domestic traders. The trade was so profitable that Mexican silver became an unofficial currency of Southern China; an estimated one-third of silver mined from the Americas flowed into China during that period. The Spanish galleons also transported Filipino crew and militia men to the Americas, among which were many Sangleys; Some of them chose to settle in Mexico, Louisiana , and parts of present United States, specially California . Americans called these immigrants Manilamen and
13912-866: The Philippines (AFP) consist of three branches: the Philippine Air Force , the Philippine Army , and the Philippine Navy . Civilian security is handled by the Philippine National Police under the Department of the Interior and Local Government . The AFP had a total manpower of around 280,000 as of 2022 , of which 130,000 were active military personnel, 100,000 were reserves, and 50,000 were paramilitaries . In 2023, US$ 477 million (1.4 percent of GDP)
14100-790: The Philippines as soldiers and colonists. Spanish Manila became the capital of the Captaincy General of the Philippines and the Spanish East Indies in 1571, Spanish territories in Asia and the Pacific. The Spanish invaded local states using the principle of divide and conquer , bringing most of what is the present-day Philippines under one unified administration. Disparate barangays were deliberately consolidated into towns , where Catholic missionaries could more easily convert their inhabitants to Christianity , which
14288-538: The Philippines becoming ruled by the Crown of Castile, as part of the Spanish Empire , for more than 300 years. Catholic Christianity became the dominant religion, and Manila became the western hub of trans-Pacific trade . Hispanic immigrants from Latin America and Iberia would also selectively colonize. The Philippine Revolution began in 1896, and became entwined with the 1898 Spanish–American War . Spain ceded
14476-564: The Philippines during the 14th century, via the Indianized Hindu Majapahit Empire . By the 15th century, Islam was established in the Sulu Archipelago and spread from there. Polities founded in the Philippines between the 10th and 16th centuries include Maynila , Tondo , Namayan , Pangasinan , Cebu , Butuan , Maguindanao , Lanao , Sulu , and Ma-i . The early polities typically had
14664-400: The Philippines during the Spanish colonial period came from southern Fujian and spoke Hokkien, leaving their mark on Filipino culture (especially the cuisine ). Although mestizo de sangley literally means "mixed-race (person) of business," it implies a "mixed-race (person) of Chinese and indigenous/Indio (Filipino) descent" because many early Chinese immigrants were traders and intermixed with
14852-581: The Philippines had 7,000,000 hectares (27,000 sq mi) of forest cover in 2023. Logging had been systemized during the American colonial period and deforestation continued after independence, accelerating during the Marcos presidency due to unregulated logging concessions. Forest cover declined from 70 percent of the Philippines' total land area in 1900 to about 18.3 percent in 1999. Rehabilitation efforts have had marginal success. The Philippines
15040-429: The Philippines has signed FTAs with China , India , Japan, South Korea, Australia and New Zealand. The country has bilateral FTAs with Japan , South Korea, and four European states : Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway and Switzerland. The Philippines has a long relationship with the United States , involving economics, security , and interpersonal relations. The Philippines' location serves an important role in
15228-505: The Philippines into an "Anglo-Chinese Colony under the Spanish Flag". The Spanish authorities had initially depended upon the sangleys to both supply the labor and manage the colonial economy of the islands. However, after the attacks of the Chinese pirate Limahong, the Spanish colonists viewed the sangleys differently, fearing them as enemy aliens who posed a security threat due to their number. To protect their precarious position,
15416-517: The Philippines is the early-10th-century AD Laguna Copperplate Inscription , which was written in Old Malay using the early Kawi script with a number of technical Sanskrit words and Old Javanese or Old Tagalog honorifics . By the 14th century, several large coastal settlements emerged as trading centers and became the focus of societal changes . Some polities had exchanges with other states throughout Asia. Trade with China began during
15604-474: The Philippines required more skilled laborers and they recruited Chinese immigrants. The economy became highly dependent upon the Chinese for their economic role as traders and artisans. Most of the Chinese living in the Manila area settled in a place called the Parían near Intramuros . The Spanish encouraged those China traders to convert to Catholicism. Many of the Chinese men married native women, and over time
15792-472: The Philippines, establishing concentrated communities first in Manila and throughout the island of Luzon , then in other cities and settlements throughout the archipelago, historically going from Luzon to Visayas and Mindanao . Other Filipino terms that refer to ethnic Chinese or Filipinos with Chinese ancestry: There are multiple versions of the interpretation on the word Sangley, especially as it
15980-454: The Philippines, who they refer as savages. This view intensified after the Spanish colonized the archipelago, where the people, including Spanish officials, were referred by the Chinese as "xiao xiyang" or barbarians. In 1574, a few years after the Spaniards established Manila as the colonial capital of the Philippines, the Chinese pirate Limahong ( Teochiu Chinese : 林阿鳳 ; Pe̍h-ōe-jī : Lîm A-hŏng ) attacked Manila and burned it to
16168-537: The Philippines. Rizal was executed on December 30, 1896, for rebellion, and his death radicalized many who had been loyal to Spain. Attempts at reform met with resistance; Andrés Bonifacio founded the Katipunan secret society, which sought independence from Spain through armed revolt, in 1892. The Katipunan Cry of Pugad Lawin began the Philippine Revolution in 1896. Internal disputes led to
16356-684: The Philippines. When colonial authorities accepted them into the militias and armed them, it was in recognition of their rising social position and integration into the colonial economies. After the Spanish colonists abolished the Parían in 1790, they allowed the sangleys to settle in Binondo. In the 19th century, the population of mestizos de sangley grew rapidly over the years as more Chinese male immigrants arrived, converted to Catholicism, settled in Binondo and intermarried with indio or mestizo de sangley women. With no legal restrictions on their movement, mestizos de sangley migrated to other areas in
16544-525: The Sangleys or Chinese, wanted to expel all Sangleys from the Philippines for a long time. After learning of the Sangley traditional homosexual bond system, the Spanish, especially the clergy, weaponized it to justify the massacre of many Sangley male lovers, with the intention of clearing the Philippines from any Sangleys. Most of the sangleys worked as skilled artisans or traders. Aside from shopkeeping,
16732-590: The Scriptures for themselves; second, that this end can never be attained by the use of the Chinese character; third, that it can be attained by the use of the alphabetic script, this Romanised Vernacular. A great boon to the promotion of POJ in Taiwan came in 1880 when James Laidlaw Maxwell , a medical missionary based in Tainan , started promoting POJ for writing the Bible, hymns, newspapers, and magazines. He donated
16920-449: The Spaniards enacted policies designed to control the residents of the islands by means of racial segregation and cultural assimilation, such as limiting the number of resident sangleys to around 6,000, a measure that was proved soon impossible to maintain. The Spanish founded the Parían in 1581 in what became Manila as the official marketplace and designated residence for the sangleys who did not convert to Catholicism. Circumventing
17108-535: The Spanish Crown and as baptized converts to the Catholic Church. They were given preference to handle the domestic trade of the islands. In addition, they were allowed to lease land from the friar estates through the inquilino or lessee system, that allowed them to sublet those lands. Later, the mestizos de sangley came to acquire many native lands, chiefly through a legal instrument called pacto de retro or contract of retrocession. Through this instrument,
17296-648: The Spanish colonial period's padrino system . The Roman Catholic church exerts considerable but waning influence in political affairs, although a constitutional provision for the separation of Church and State exists. A founding and active member of the United Nations, the Philippines has been a non-permanent member of the Security Council . The country participates in peacekeeping missions, particularly in East Timor . The Philippines
17484-713: The Spanish to refer to islands in the region before Spanish rule was established. During the Philippine Revolution , the Malolos Congress proclaimed it the República Filipina (the Philippine Republic ). American colonial authorities referred to the country as the Philippine Islands (a translation of the Spanish name). The United States began changing its nomenclature from "the Philippine Islands" to "the Philippines" in
17672-542: The Sulu Archipelago and Maguindanao , but their presence has been reduced. The Communist Party of the Philippines (CPP) and its military wing, the New People's Army (NPA), have been waging guerrilla warfare against the government since the 1970s and have engaged in ambushes, bombings, and assassinations of government officials and security forces; although shrinking militarily and politically after
17860-611: The Taiwanese tongue, these being intended for newly arrived government officials from outside Taiwan as well as local Taiwanese. The first government action against native languages came in 1953, when the use of Taiwanese or Japanese for instruction was forbidden. The next move to suppress the movement came in 1955, when the use of POJ for proselytizing was outlawed. At that point in time there were 115,000 people literate in POJ in Taiwan, Fujian, and southeast Asia. Two years later, missionaries were banned from using romanized bibles, and
18048-557: The United States and China signed the Treaty of Burlingame , legalizing and liberalizing Chinese emigration, which had been illegal since the Ming dynasty. This led to a rapid increase in the population of Overseas Chinese traders in the Philippines. By the 1870s, the economic dominance of the British and American merchants and their Chinese trading partners was said by some observers to turn
18236-581: The United States' island chain strategy in the West Pacific; a Mutual Defense Treaty between the two countries was signed in 1951, and was supplemented with the 1999 Visiting Forces Agreement and the 2016 Enhanced Defense Cooperation Agreement . The country supported American policies during the Cold War and participated in the Korean and Vietnam wars. In 2003, the Philippines was designated
18424-657: The Xiamen tongue meant that the missionaries in Taiwan could begin proselytizing immediately, without the intervening time needed to write those materials. Missionary opinion was divided on whether POJ was desirable as an end in itself as a full-fledged orthography, or as a means to literacy in Chinese characters . William Campbell described POJ as a step on the road to reading and writing the characters, claiming that to promote it as an independent writing system would inflame nationalist passions in China, where characters were considered
18612-524: The administration of the colony, integration as a province of Spain, and political representation for the Philippines in the Spanish Cortes. From the beginning of the colonial period in the Philippines, the Spanish administration had the goal of converting natives to Catholicism . Missionaries were among the Spanish settlers in the colony. With the help of the colonial government, religious orders built traditional stone-and-brick churches throughout
18800-441: The aftermath, many sangleys converted at least nominally to Catholicism, adopted Hispanicized names, and intermarried with indio women. Contemporary 21st century historians have studied demographic and social changes in the Philippines during this period. They note the changes in how mestizo de sangley fared in Philippine society. In the late 18th century, the mestizo de sangley began to markedly improved their position. After
18988-543: The application of consistent tone markings (influenced by contemporary linguistic studies of Sanskrit , which was becoming of more mainstream interest to Western scholars). Medhurst was convinced that accurate representation and reproduction of the tonal structure of Southern Min was vital to comprehension: Respecting these tones of the Chinese language, some difference of opinion has been obtained, and while some have considered them of first importance, others have paid them little or no intention. The author inclines decidedly to
19176-553: The capital city of Manila , is connected to Laguna de Bay (the country's largest lake ) by the Pasig River . On the western fringes of the Pacific Ring of Fire , the Philippines has frequent seismic and volcanic activity. The region is seismically active, and has been constructed by plates converging towards each other from multiple directions. About five earthquakes are recorded daily, although most are too weak to be felt. The last major earthquakes were in 1976 in
19364-408: The case of primary grade instruction. In 1863, the Spanish government established a modern system of free public education, the first of its kind in Asia. Binondo served as the traditional center of community life for the Catholic sangleys and mestizos de sangley . The Gremio de Mestizos de Binondo was the official guild chartered to administer community affairs. Born in Binondo, San Lorenzo Ruiz
19552-509: The characters in your country are so difficult only a few people are literate. Therefore, we have striven to print books in pe̍h-ōe-jī to help you to read... don't think that if you know Chinese characters you needn't learn this script, nor should you regard it as a childish thing. Thomas Barclay, Tâi-oân-hú-siâⁿ Kàu-hōe-pò , Issue 1 Quanzhou and Zhangzhou are two major varieties of Southern Min, and in Xiamen they combined to form something "not Quan, not Zhang" – i.e. not one or
19740-507: The chief proponent of major changes in the orthography devised by Morrison and adapted by Medhurst. Through personal communication and letters and articles printed in The Chinese Repository a consensus was arrived at for the new version of POJ, although Williams' suggestions were largely not followed. The first major work to represent this new orthography was Elihu Doty 's Anglo-Chinese Manual with Romanized Colloquial in
19928-422: The citation tone and the sandhi tone to assist the learner. There is some debate as to the correct placement of tone marks in the case of diphthongs and triphthongs , particularly those which include ⟨oa⟩ and ⟨oe⟩ . Most modern writers follow six rules: A single hyphen is used to indicate a compound. What constitutes a compound is controversial, with some authors equating it to
20116-785: The colonial period, most of whom intermarried with native women. The Spanish government classified the anyone who had ancestry from China as Sangley regardless of their ethnic makeup. Their mixed-race descendants with native women were classified as Mestizo de sangley ; they were also known as chino mestizos . As an example, in the late 19th century, the author and activist José Rizal was classified as mestizo de sangley due to his partial Chinese ancestry. But he also had indigenous, Japanese, and Spanish ancestors, and he asked to be classified as Indio . Spanish explorers and conquistadors landed in Las Islas de Filipinas , which they named in honor of Philip II of Spain . The Spanish colonization of
20304-409: The colonial period. Coinciding with the advent of steamships and the consequent expansion of the global economy, the Spaniards decided to open up the Philippines to foreign trade. They appointed Governor-General Basco y Vargas , who was instrumental in establishing the tobacco monopoly in the Philippines, though with much help from other Spanish interests and reliance on Filipino local elites, called
20492-750: The community. Population density is thought to have been low during the 14th to 16th centuries due to the frequency of typhoons and the Philippines' location on the Pacific Ring of Fire . Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan arrived in 1521, claimed the islands for Spain, and was killed by Lapulapu 's men in the Battle of Mactan . Unification and colonization by the Crown of Castile began when Spanish explorer Miguel López de Legazpi arrived from New Spain ( Spanish : Nueva España ) in 1565. Many Filipinos were brought to New Spain as slaves and forced crew. Whereas many Latin Americans were brought to
20680-492: The conventions laid down by Medhurst and Doty, pe̍h-ōe-jī evolved and eventually settled into its current form. Ernest Tipson 's 1934 pocket dictionary was the first reference work to reflect this modern spelling. Between Medhurst's dictionary of 1832 and the standardization of POJ in Tipson's time, there were a number of works published, which can be used to chart the change over time of pe̍h-ōe-jī : Competition for POJ
20868-462: The country (3,500 of which are endemic), Philippine rain forests have an array of flora: about 3,500 species of trees, 8,000 flowering plant species, 1,100 ferns , and 998 orchid species have been identified. The Philippines has 167 terrestrial mammals (102 endemic species), 235 reptiles (160 endemic species), 99 amphibians (74 endemic species), 686 birds (224 endemic species), and over 20,000 insect species. As an important part of
21056-411: The country. Japan is the biggest bilateral contributor of official development assistance to the Philippines; although some tension exists because of World War II , much animosity has faded. Historical and cultural ties continue to affect relations with Spain . Relations with Middle Eastern countries are shaped by the high number of Filipinos working in those countries, and by issues related to
21244-403: The course of work and business, such as Tondo , Bulacan , Pampanga , Bataan , Cavite , Cebu , Iloilo , Samar , Capiz , etc. The number of unconverted sangleys dropped from a high of 25,000 prior to the first great massacre of 1603 to below 10,000 by 1850. From the 18th century until the latter half of the 19th century, Spanish authorities came to depend upon the mestizos de sangley as
21432-758: The early 19th century, China was closed to Christian missionaries , who instead proselytized to overseas Chinese communities in South East Asia . The earliest origins of the system are found in a small vocabulary first printed in 1820 by Walter Henry Medhurst , who went on to publish the Dictionary of the Hok-këèn Dialect of the Chinese Language, According to the Reading and Colloquial Idioms in 1832. This dictionary represents
21620-705: The east and southeast, Indonesia to the south, Malaysia to the southwest, Vietnam to the west, and China to the northwest. It is the world's twelfth-most-populous country , with diverse ethnicities and cultures . Manila is the country's capital , and its most populated city is Quezon City . Both are within Metro Manila . Negritos , the archipelago's earliest inhabitants, were followed by waves of Austronesian peoples . The adoption of animism , Hinduism with Buddhist influence, and Islam established island-kingdoms ruled by datus , rajas , and sultans . Extensive overseas trade with neighbors such as
21808-581: The economy contracted by 7.3 percent annually in 1984 and 1985. On August 21, 1983, opposition leader Benigno Aquino Jr. (Marcos's chief rival) was assassinated on the tarmac at Manila International Airport . Marcos called a snap presidential election in 1986 which proclaimed him the winner, but the results were widely regarded as fraudulent. The resulting protests led to the People Power Revolution , which forced Marcos and his allies to flee to Hawaii . Aquino's widow, Corazon ,
21996-639: The enactment of the Bangsamoro Organic Law; an intensified crackdown on crime and communist insurgencies; and an anti-drug campaign that reduced drug proliferation but that has also led to extrajudicial killings . In early 2020, the COVID-19 pandemic reached the Philippines, necessitating nationwide lockdowns that caused a brief but severe economic recession . Under a promise of continuing Duterte's policies, Marcos's son, Bongbong Marcos , ran with Duterte's daughter, Sara , and won
22184-530: The export crop economy by developing and enlarging plantations devoted to agricultural commodities. The increase in the late 19th century of British and American commercial interests in Manila coincided with the British founding of a network of treaty port-cities in Hong Kong , Singapore and Shanghai . They also expanded the Nanyang trade, previously limited to Xiamen , Quanzhou and Macao . In 1868,
22372-417: The field, usually after a sojourn in Xiamen to acquire the rudiments of the language. Khó-sioh lín pún-kok ê jī chin oh, chió chió lâng khòaⁿ ē hiáu-tit. Só͘-í góan ū siat pa̍t-mih ê hoat-tō͘, ēng pe̍h-ōe-jī lâi ìn-chheh, hō͘ lín chèng-lâng khòaⁿ khah khòai bat... Lâng m̄-thang phah-sǹg in-ūi i bat Khóng-chú-jī só͘-í m̄-bián o̍h chit-hō ê jī; iā m̄-thang khòaⁿ-khin i, kóng sī gín-á só͘-tha̍k--ê. Because
22560-594: The first major reference work in POJ, although the romanization within was quite different from the modern system, and has been dubbed Early Church Romanization by one scholar of the subject. Medhurst, who was stationed in Malacca , was influenced by Robert Morrison's romanization of Mandarin Chinese , but had to innovate in several areas to reflect major differences between Mandarin and Southern Min. Several important developments occurred in Medhurst's work, especially
22748-553: The form (initial) + (medial vowel) + nucleus + (stop) + tone , where items in parentheses indicate optional components. The initials are: Vowels: Coda endings: POJ has a limited amount of legitimate syllables, although sources disagree on some particular instances of these syllables. The following table contains all the licit spellings of POJ syllables, based on a number of sources: In standard Amoy or Taiwanese Hokkien there are seven distinct tones , which by convention are numbered 1–8, with number 6 omitted (tone 6 used to be
22936-537: The former opinion; having found, from uniform experience, that without strict attention to tones, it is impossible for a person to make himself understood in Hok-këèn . The system expounded by Medhurst influenced later dictionary compilers with regard to tonal notation and initials, but both his complicated vowel system and his emphasis on the literary register of Southern Min were dropped by later writers. Following on from Medhurst's work, Samuel Wells Williams became
23124-475: The founder of POJ among the community which uses the orthography, although it now seems that he was an early promoter of the system, rather than its inventor. In 1842 the Treaty of Nanking was concluded, which included among its provisions the creation of treaty ports in which Christian missionaries would be free to preach. Xiamen (then known as Amoy) was one of these treaty ports, and British, Canadian and American missionaries moved in to start preaching to
23312-656: The ground. He retreated later to other places around the Luzon coast, where his forces continued killing and looting. Some of them stayed in the Philippines such as Limahong's male lover Eng Kang who later became the godson of the Spanish governor and renamed as Juan Baptista de Vera, allowing him to assimilate and partake in Philippine society without fear of consequences from Spanish authorities. Some crew of Limahang settled down and had children with native Indios. Many Sangleys, like Limahong and Eng Kang, had traditional homosexual relationships with either other Sangleys or native Indios. The Spanish, who themselves has racist views towards
23500-648: The increasing militarization of Japan and the Kōminka movement encouraging Taiwanese people to " Japanize ", there were a raft of measures taken against native languages, including Taiwanese. While these moves resulted in a suppression of POJ, they were "a logical consequence of increasing the amount of education in Japanese, rather than an explicit attempt to ban a particular Taiwanese orthography in favor of Taiwanese kana ". The Second Sino-Japanese War beginning in 1937 brought stricter measures into force, and along with
23688-692: The islands and later in Europe. Following the promulgation of the Cádiz Constitution of 1812 , the Philippines was granted the status of a Spanish province, with representation in the Spanish Cortes . These subjects were granted Spanish citizenship, thus acquiring legal equality in the Philippines with Spanish-born Spaniards. Toward the end of Spanish rule in the 19th century, the mestizos de sangley identified as Filipinos , showing their identification with these islands. Also identifying as
23876-487: The islands are from the Tabon Caves of Palawan , U/Th-dated to 47,000 ± 11–10,000 years ago. Tabon Man is presumably a Negrito , among the archipelago's earliest inhabitants descended from the first human migrations out of Africa via the coastal route along southern Asia to the now-sunken landmasses of Sundaland and Sahul . The first Austronesians reached the Philippines from Taiwan around 2200 BC, settling
24064-480: The islands in the Spanish or Mexican Baroque style. Constructed within the walled-city of Intramuros , San Agustin Church was the first stone church built in the archipelago. It became the spiritual center of Christianity in the Philippines, and also in Asia. The remains of Miguel López de Legazpi , Juan de Salcedo and Martín de Goiti (who was killed during Limahong's siege) were interred in that church. The church
24252-475: The islands of Leyte and Samar " Felipinas " after the Prince of Asturias , later Philip II of Castile . Eventually, the name " Las Islas Filipinas " would be used for the archipelago's Spanish possessions. Other names, such as " Islas del Poniente " (Western Islands), " Islas del Oriente " (Eastern Islands), Ferdinand Magellan's name, and " San Lázaro " (Islands of St. Lazarus), were used by
24440-556: The islands that this Chinese-Filipino merchant's house came to be known as the "colonial Filipino" style. Philippines in ASEAN (dark grey) – [ Legend ] Pinoy ( colloquial neutral ) Pinay ( colloquial feminine ) The Philippines , officially the Republic of the Philippines , is an archipelagic country in Southeast Asia . In the western Pacific Ocean , it consists of 7,641 islands , with
24628-481: The islands were ceded by Spain to the United States with Puerto Rico and Guam after the Spanish–American War. The First Philippine Republic was promulgated on January 21, 1899. Lack of recognition by the United States led to an outbreak of hostilities that, after refusal by the U.S. on-scene military commander of a cease-fire proposal and a declaration of war by the nascent Republic, escalated into
24816-639: The islands, suppressing an attempted extension of the Philippine Republic , securing the Sultanate of Sulu , establishing control of interior mountainous areas which had resisted Spanish conquest, and encouraging large-scale resettlement of Christians in once-predominantly-Muslim Mindanao. Cultural developments in the Philippines strengthened a national identity, and Tagalog began to take precedence over other local languages. Governmental functions were gradually given to Filipinos by
25004-507: The late Tang or Song empire brought Chinese people to the archipelago as well, which would also gradually settle in and intermix over the centuries. The arrival of Ferdinand Magellan , a Portuguese explorer leading a fleet for Castile , marked the beginning of Spanish colonization . In 1543, Spanish explorer Ruy López de Villalobos named the archipelago Las Islas Filipinas in honor of King Philip II of Castile . Spanish colonization via New Spain , beginning in 1565, led to
25192-552: The late Tang dynasty , and expanded during the Song dynasty . Throughout the second millennium AD, some polities were also part of the tributary system of China . With extensive trade and diplomacy, this brought Southern Chinese merchants and migrants from Southern Fujian , known as "Langlang" and "Sangley" in later years, who would gradually settle and intermix in the Philippines. Indian cultural traits such as linguistic terms and religious practices began to spread in
25380-422: The lifting of martial law, that POJ slowly regained momentum under the influence of the native language movement. With the ending of martial law in 1987, the restrictions on "local languages" were quietly lifted, resulting in growing interest in Taiwanese writing during the 1990s. For the first time since the 1950s, Taiwanese language and literature was discussed and debated openly in newspapers and journals. There
25568-586: The local inhabitants. These missionaries, housed in the cantonment of Gulangyu , created reference works and religious tracts, including a bible translation . Naturally, they based the pronunciation of their romanization on the speech of Xiamen, which became the de facto standard when they eventually moved into other areas of the Hokkien Sprachraum , most notably Taiwan. The 1858 Treaty of Tianjin officially opened Taiwan to western missionaries, and missionary societies were quick to send men to work in
25756-614: The local population. Outside the Philippines, the Spanish word mestizo (without the qualifying de sangley ) is normally used to refer to persons of mixed European and non-European ancestry, but the lower number of European mestizos in the Philippines made the term mestizo come to mean mestizo de sangley . For example, Benito Legarda used this definition when talking to the United States Philippine Commission (1899–1900), citing Wenceslao Retana 's Diccionario de filipinismos (1921). The term chino mestizo
25944-709: The multi-cultural mestizo de sangley caste developed. Although the colonial government never required them to adopt Spanish surnames, in many cases they chose to change their Chinese names. They adopted names such as Jalandoni, Laurel, Lopez, Osmeña, Palanca, Paterno, Rizal, etc., or used transliteration and Spanish phonetic spelling to make them appear Hispanic by concatenation , for example: Asico, Biazon, Chanco, Cojuangco, Cuyangkeng, Goquilay, Lacson, Landicho, Laoinco, Locsin, Ongpin, Quebengco, Sylianco, Tanbengco, Tanchanco, Tanjuatco, Tetangco, Tiongson, Tuazon, Yaptinchay, Yuchenco, Yuchengco, Yupangco, etc. The mainland Chinese has historically had racist views towards people from
26132-662: The national language, women's suffrage was introduced , and land reform was considered. The Empire of Japan invaded the Philippines in December 1941 during World War II , and the Second Philippine Republic was established as a puppet state governed by Jose P. Laurel . Beginning in 1942, the Japanese occupation of the Philippines was opposed by large-scale underground guerrilla activity . Atrocities and war crimes were committed during
26320-474: The native language movements after the end of martial law, took a "divide and conquer" approach by promoting Taiwanese Language Phonetic Alphabet (TLPA), an alternative to POJ, which was at the time the choice of the majority within the nativization movement. Native language education has remained a fiercely debated topic in Taiwan into the 21st century and is the subject of much political wrangling. The current system of pe̍h-ōe-jī has been stable since
26508-518: The new export market, particularly in Central Luzon, and on the islands of Cebu , Iloilo and Negros . The mestizos de sangley took advantage of the rapid changes as the colonial economy was integrated into the markets of the Western world. From the late 18th century through much of the 19th century, the Spanish encouraged development of tobacco as another commodity crop, controlling it as
26696-488: The other, but rather a fusion, which became known as Amoy Dialect or Amoy Chinese . In Taiwan, with its mixture of migrants from both Quanzhou and Zhangzhou, the linguistic situation was similar; although the resulting blend in the southern city of Tainan differed from the Xiamen blend, it was close enough that the missionaries could ignore the differences and import their system wholesale. The fact that religious tracts, dictionaries, and teaching guides already existed in
26884-413: The outlawing of romanized Taiwanese, various publications were prohibited and Confucian-style shobō ( Chinese : 書房 ; pinyin : shūfáng ; Pe̍h-ōe-jī : su-pâng ) – private schools which taught Classical Chinese with literary Southern Min pronunciation – were closed down in 1939. The Japanese authorities came to perceive POJ as an obstacle to Japanization and also suspected that POJ
27072-665: The preservation of Southern Min vocabulary since the late 19th century. On October 14, 2006, the Ministry of Education in Taiwan announced the Taiwanese Romanization System or Tâi-lô based on POJ as the standard spelling system for Southern Min. The name pe̍h-ōe-jī ( Chinese : 白話字 ; pinyin : Báihuà zì ) means "vernacular writing", written characters representing everyday spoken language. The name vernacular writing could be applied to many kinds of writing, romanized and character-based, but
27260-558: The probable earliest romanization of Japan as "Iapon." It is said that the late William Henry Scott , an authority on Philippine history , had seen this picture and supported this version. Additionally, the Bocabulario de la lengua sangleya por las letraz de el A.B.C. (1617) also offers two explanations, it also gives Hokkien Chinese : 常來 ; Pe̍h-ōe-jī : siâng lâi explaining it as "he who comes very often" and Hokkien Chinese : 商 來 ; Pe̍h-ōe-jī : siang lâi which it explains as "those who come to trade" which
27448-521: The pronunciation of the word "trader" in Chinese : 商旅 ; pinyin : shānglǚ ; Pe̍h-ōe-jī : siang-lú / siang-lír / siang-lí ; lit. 'traveling merchant', which Go Bon Juan considered "a rather literal term uncommon among early Chinese in the Philippines", although Hokkien Chinese : 商旅 ; Pe̍h-ōe-jī : siang-lú is indeed recorded in the Dictionario Hispanico Sinicum (1626-1642) that
27636-461: The pure-blooded Chinese immigrants ( sangleys ). Today, Tsinoy or Chinoy (from portmanteau of Filipino word Tsino or Chino in Spanish , and the Filipino word Pinoy ) is widely used in Filipino / Tagalog and other Philippine languages to describe a Sangley , a person born of pure or majority ethnic Han Chinese descent or of mixed native Filipino and Han Chinese ancestry or
27824-411: The purpose of the creation of POJ as being pedagogical in nature, closely allied to educating Christian converts . The first people to use a romanized script to write Southern Min were Spanish missionaries in Manila in the 16th century. However, it was used mainly as a teaching aid for Spanish learners of Southern Min, and seems not to have had any influence on the development of pe̍h-ōe-jī . In
28012-578: The region. The colony survived on an annual subsidy from the Spanish crown averaging 250,000 pesos, usually paid as 75 tons of silver bullion from the Americas. British forces occupied Manila from 1762 to 1764 during the Seven Years' War , and Spanish rule was restored with the 1763 Treaty of Paris . The Spanish considered their war with the Muslims in Southeast Asia an extension of
28200-697: The return of democracy in 1986, the CPP-NPA, through the National Democratic Front of the Philippines , continues to gather public support in urban areas by setting up communist fronts , infiltrating sectoral organizations, and rallying public discontent and increased militancy against the government. The Philippines ranked 104th out of 163 countries in the 2024 Global Peace Index . Pe%CC%8Dh-%C5%8De-j%C4%AB Pe̍h-ōe-jī ( Taiwanese Hokkien: [pe˩ˀ o̯e̞˩ d͡ʑi˧] , English approximation: / p eɪ w eɪ ˈ dʒ iː / pay-way- JEE ; abbr. POJ ; lit. ' vernacular writing ' ), sometimes known as Church Romanization ,
28388-617: The second hyphen. In addition to the standard syllables detailed above, there are several regional variations of Hokkien which can be represented with non-standard or semi-standard spellings. In the Zhangzhou -type varieties, spoken in Zhangzhou , parts of Taiwan (particularly the northeastern coast around Yilan City ), and parts of Malaysia (particularly in Penang ), there is a final ⟨-uiⁿ⟩ , for example in "egg" ⟨nūi⟩ and "cooked rice" ⟨pūiⁿ⟩ , which has merged with ⟨-ng⟩ in mainstream Taiwanese. Zhangzhou-type varieties may also have
28576-424: The semi-official capital of an "Anglo-Chinese colony" in the late 19th-century Philippines. Chinese-Filipino merchants dominated the textile industry in Molo and Jaro. Iloilo produced sinamay , a hand-woven cloth made from fine abaca threads, which was used for the casual camisa de chino ; jusi (Chinese term for raw silk ), a translucent fabric woven from silk yarn for the formal barong tagalog ; and piña ,
28764-411: The sense of openness and space connecting the interior and exterior. These helped shield residents from seasonal monsoons . During less severe rain and in the hot summers, the sliding windows could be opened to allow greater circulation of air and more light into the house. When illuminated at night, such houses resemble giant Chinese lanterns. The stone/brick-and-wood house became so widespread throughout
28952-456: The shoal from the Philippines, led to an international arbitration case which the Philippines eventually won; China rejected the result, and made the shoal a prominent symbol of the broader dispute. China has rejected new Philippine maritime laws aimed at strengthening sovereignty in the South China Sea, stating they infringe on Chinese territorial claims and vowing to defend its interests in contested areas. The volunteer Armed Forces of
29140-594: The specter of communism and began to rule by decree ; the period was characterized by political repression , censorship , and human rights violations . Monopolies controlled by Marcos's cronies were established in key industries, including logging and broadcasting; a sugar monopoly led to a famine on the island of Negros . With his wife, Imelda , Marcos was accused of corruption and embezzling billions of dollars of public funds. Marcos's heavy borrowing early in his presidency resulted in economic crashes , exacerbated by an early 1980s recession where
29328-427: The spread of the romanization. In 1964, use of Taiwanese in schools or official settings was forbidden, and transgression in schools was punished with beatings, fines and humiliation. The Taiwan Church News (printed in POJ) was banned in 1969, and only allowed to return a year later when the publishers agreed to print it in Chinese characters . In the 1970s, the Nationalist government in Taiwan completely prohibited
29516-550: The term pe̍h-ōe-jī is commonly restricted to the Southern Min romanization system developed by Presbyterian missionaries in the 19th century. The missionaries who invented and refined the system used, instead of the name pe̍h-ōe-jī , various other terms, such as "Romanized Amoy Vernacular" and "Romanized Amoy Colloquial." The origins of the system and its extensive use in the Christian community have led to it being known by some modern writers as "Church Romanization" ( 教會羅馬字 ; Kàu-hōe Lô-má-jī ; Jiàohuì Luōmǎzì ) and
29704-493: The term Filipino encompassing all residents of the archipelago instead of solely referring to Spaniards born in the Philippines . Revolutionary sentiment grew in 1872 after 200 locally recruited colonial troops and laborers alongside three activist Catholic priests were executed on questionable grounds . This inspired the Propaganda Movement , organized by Marcelo H. del Pilar , José Rizal , Graciano López Jaena , and Mariano Ponce , which advocated political reform in
29892-401: The territory to the United States, and Filipino revolutionaries declared the First Philippine Republic . The ensuing Philippine–American War ended with the United States controlling the territory until the Japanese invasion of the islands during World War II . After the United States retook the Philippines from the Japanese , the Philippines became independent in 1946. The country has had
30080-419: The tone depending on the position of the syllable in any given sentence or utterance. However, like pinyin for Mandarin Chinese , POJ always marks the citation tone (i.e. the original, pre-sandhi tone) rather than the tone which is actually spoken. This means that when reading aloud the reader must adjust the tone markings on the page to account for sandhi. Some textbooks for learners of Southern Min mark both
30268-420: The tradition of Malay village houses-on-stilts, called bahay kubo , but instead of using bamboo and thatch, they used molave -wood structural beams to frame the two-story house. Walls were formed of brick coated with plaster. Sliding window panels made with translucent capiz shells , in latticework patterns, enclosed the typically large horizontal windows . On the outside, sliding wooden shutters could cover
30456-510: The use of pe̍h-ōe-jī was suppressed and Taiwanese kana encouraged; it faced further suppression during the Kuomintang martial law period (1947–1987). In Fujian, use declined after the establishment of the People's Republic of China (1949) and by the early 21st century the system was not in general use there. However, Taiwanese Christians , non-native learners of Southern Min, and native-speaker enthusiasts in Taiwan are among those that continue to use pe̍h-ōe-jī . Full computer support
30644-399: The use of "native languages" (i.e. Taiwanese Hokkien, Hakka, and the non-Sinitic Formosan languages ) in church work became illegal. The ban on POJ bibles was overturned in 1959, but churches were "encouraged" to use character bibles instead. Government activities against POJ intensified in the late 1960s and early 1970s, when several publications were banned or seized in an effort to prevent
30832-439: The use of POJ, causing it to decline. In 1974, the Government Information Office banned A Dictionary of Southern Min , with a government official saying: "We have no objection to the dictionary being used by foreigners. They could use it in mimeographed form. But we don't want it published as a book and sold publicly because of the Romanization it contains. Chinese should not be learning Chinese through Romanization." Also in
31020-476: The violence and turmoil of the Spanish expulsion of Chinese-Filipino population for having sided with the British in their 1762 capture of Manila , mestizo economic power increased in conjunction with its social and political clout. The formation of auxiliary units called Real Princípe in Tondo mirrored these trends. Spanish military commanders publicly expressed a preference for mestizo regiments over native militias, enraging Filipino indio elites and requiring
31208-582: The vowel / ɛ /, written as ⟨ɛ⟩ or ⟨e͘ ⟩ (with a dot above right, by analogy with ⟨o͘ ⟩ ), which has merged with ⟨e⟩ in Taiwanese. Goân-khí-thâu Siōng-tè chhòng-chō thiⁿ kap tōe. Tōe sī khang-khang hūn-tūn; chhim-ian ê bin-chiūⁿ o͘-àm; Siōng-tè ê Sîn ūn-tōng tī chúi-bīn. Siōng-tè kóng, Tio̍h ū kng, chiū ū kng. Siōng-tè khòaⁿ kng, sī hó; Siōng-tè chiong kng àm pun-khui. Siōng-tè kiò hit ê kng chòe Ji̍t, kiò àm chòe Mî. Ū ê-hng ū chá-khí sī thâu chi̍t-ji̍t. Genesis 1:1–5 Due to POJ's origins in
31396-411: The walled city. The rapid urbanization elsewhere transformed the ethnic enclave of Binondo into a thriving commercial district within an expanding urban core. The overseas Chinese ( traditional Chinese : 華僑; pinyin : Huáqiáo) merchants essentially displaced the mestizos de sangley from their role as the domestic traders of the islands. Although officially under Spanish rule, cosmopolitan Binondo became
31584-420: The war, including the Bataan Death March and the Manila massacre . The Philippine resistance and Allied troops defeated the Japanese in 1944 and 1945. Over one million Filipinos were estimated to have died by the end of the war. On October 11, 1945, the Philippines became a founding member of the United Nations . On July 4, 1946, during the presidency of Manuel Roxas , the country's independence
31772-561: The warmest is May. Temperatures at sea level across the Philippines tend to be in the same range, regardless of latitude; average annual temperature is around 26.6 °C (79.9 °F) but is 18.3 °C (64.9 °F) in Baguio , 1,500 meters (4,900 ft) above sea level. The country's average humidity is 82 percent. Annual rainfall is as high as 5,000 millimeters (200 in) on the mountainous east coast, but less than 1,000 millimeters (39 in) in some sheltered valleys. The Philippine Area of Responsibility has 19 typhoons in
31960-442: The windows for another layer of privacy and ventilation control. This area has been designated as an historic district. In contrast to the typical stone-and-brick Spanish colonial houses, this style of residence was better suited to the tropical environment of the islands. It was more flexible, so could better withstand frequent earthquakes . The steep roofs with overhanging eaves provided shelter against rain and storms, and added to
32148-401: The world's fifth-longest , and the country's exclusive economic zone covers 2,263,816 km (874,064 sq mi). Its highest mountain is Mount Apo on Mindanao, with an altitude of 2,954 meters (9,692 ft) above sea level. The Philippines' longest river is the Cagayan River in northern Luzon, which flows for about 520 kilometers (320 mi). Manila Bay , on which is
32336-466: The world's largest deposits of palladium . Other minerals include chromium , nickel , molybdenum , platinum , and zinc . However, poor management and law enforcement, opposition from indigenous communities, and past environmental damage have left these resources largely untapped. The Philippines is a megadiverse country , with some of the world's highest rates of discovery and endemism (67 percent). With an estimated 13,500 plant species in
32524-460: The writer and the reader to have the correct custom font installed. Another solution was to replace troublesome characters with near equivalents, for example substituting ⟨ä⟩ for ⟨ā⟩ or using a standard ⟨o⟩ followed by an interpunct to represent ⟨ o͘ ⟩ . With the introduction into Unicode 4.1.0 of the combining character U+0358 ◌͘ COMBINING DOT ABOVE RIGHT in 2004, all
32712-441: Was a mestizo de sangley who served as an altar boy in the Binondo Church (which has since been named after him). Established by the Spanish Dominicans for Catholic sangleys , the Binondo Church is now known as the Minor Basilica of San Lorenzo Ruiz . It became the center site for the religious rites of the community. The Catholic mestizos de sangley expressed religious devotion with processions marking important occasions, such as
32900-601: Was achieved in 2004 with the release of Unicode 4.1.0, and POJ is now implemented in many fonts , input methods , and is used in extensive online dictionaries. Versions of pe̍h-ōe-jī have been devised for other Southern Chinese varieties , including Hakka and Teochew Southern Min . Other related scripts include Pha̍k-oa-chhi for Gan , Pha̍k-fa-sṳ for Hakka , Bǽh-oe-tu for Hainanese , Bàng-uâ-cê for Fuzhou , Pe̍h-ūe-jī for Teochew , Gṳ̿ing-nǎing Lô̤-mǎ-cī for Northern Min , and Hing-hua̍ báⁿ-uā-ci̍ for Pu-Xian Min . In 2006,
33088-450: Was also support from the then opposition party, the Democratic Progressive Party , for writing in the language. From a total of 26 documented orthographies for Taiwanese in 1987 (including defunct systems), there were a further 38 invented from 1987 to 1999, including 30 different romanizations, six adaptations of bopomofo and two hangul -like systems. Some commentators believe that the Kuomintang, while steering clear of outright banning of
33276-465: Was also used interchangeably with mestizo de sangley . In 16th to 19th century Spanish Philippines, the term mestizo de sangley differentiated ethnic Chinese from other types of island mestizos (such as those of mixed Indio and Spanish ancestry, who were fewer in number. Their Indio ancestry (generally on the maternal side) made the Chinese mestizos be granted the legal status of colonial subjects of Spain, with certain rights and privileges denied to
33464-434: Was being used to hide "concealed codes and secret revolutionary messages". In the climate of the ongoing war the government banned the Taiwan Church News in 1942 as it was written in POJ. Initially the Kuomintang government in Taiwan had a liberal attitude towards "local dialects" (i.e. non-Mandarin varieties of Chinese). The National Languages Committee produced booklets outlining versions of Zhuyin fuhao for writing
33652-607: Was given in the Philippines to Chinese merchants, and that later became generic to those of this race residing in those islands. Spanish Governor-General Francisco de Sande also notes in his Relacion y Descripciones de las Islas Filipinas ( "Relation and Description of the Filipinas Islands" , 1576) as per Manuel (1948): Throughout these islands they call the Chinese 'Sangleyes', meaning 'a people who come and go,' on account of their habit of coming annually to these islands to trade, or, as they say there, 'the regular port'. The majority of Chinese sojourners, traders, and settlers in
33840-613: Was initially Syncretist . Christianization by the Spanish friars occurred mostly across the settled lowlands over the course of time. From 1565 to 1821, the Philippines was governed as a territory of the Mexico City -based Viceroyalty of New Spain; it was then administered from Madrid after the Mexican War of Independence . Manila became the western hub of trans-Pacific trade by Manila galleons built in Bicol and Cavite . During its rule, Spain nearly bankrupted its treasury quelling indigenous revolts and defending against external military attacks, including Moro piracy ,
34028-421: Was installed as president and a new constitution was promulgated. The return of democracy and government reforms which began in 1986 were hampered by national debt , government corruption, and coup attempts . A communist insurgency and military conflict with Moro separatists persisted; the administration also faced a series of disasters, including the eruption of Mount Pinatubo in June 1991. Aquino
34216-408: Was introduced during the Japanese era in Taiwan (1895–1945) in the form of Taiwanese kana , a system designed as a teaching aid and pronunciation guide, rather than an independent orthography like POJ. During the Japanese rule period, the Japanese government began suppressing POJ, banning classes, and forcing the cessation of publications like the Taiwan Church News . From the 1930s onwards, with
34404-474: Was marked by economic growth, but was tainted by corruption and political scandals, including electoral fraud allegations during the 2004 presidential election . Economic growth continued during Benigno Aquino III 's administration, which advocated good governance and transparency. Aquino III signed a peace agreement with the Moro Islamic Liberation Front (MILF) resulting in the Bangsamoro Organic Law establishing an autonomous Bangsamoro region, but
34592-552: Was recognized by the United States with the Treaty of Manila . Efforts at post-war reconstruction and ending the Hukbalahap Rebellion succeeded during Ramon Magsaysay 's presidency, but sporadic communist insurgency continued to flare up long afterward. Under Magsaysay's successor, Carlos P. Garcia , the government initiated a Filipino First policy which promoted Filipino-owned businesses. Succeeding Garcia, Diosdado Macapagal moved Independence Day from July 4 to June 12—the date of Emilio Aguinaldo's declaration— and pursued
34780-423: Was sacked during the Battle of Manila in 1762, before being rebuilt in 1854. The Spanish colonial government established schools and colleges run mostly by religious orders, including the Colegio de San Juan de Letran , the Ateneo Municipal , the Universidad de Santo Tomás in Manila, or the Colegio de San Ildefonso in Cebu, that accepted all types of students, regardless of race, gender or financial status in
34968-423: Was spent on the Philippine military. Most of the country's defense spending is on the Philippine Army, which leads operations against internal threats such as communist and Muslim separatist insurgencies; its preoccupation with internal security contributed to the decline of Philippine naval capability which began during the 1970s. A military modernization program began in 1995 and expanded in 2012 to build
35156-482: Was succeeded by Fidel V. Ramos , who liberalized the national economy with privatization and deregulation . Ramos's economic gains were overshadowed by the onset of the 1997 Asian financial crisis . His successor, Joseph Estrada , prioritized public housing but faced corruption allegations which led to his overthrow by the 2001 EDSA Revolution and the succession of Vice President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo on January 20, 2001. Arroyo's nine-year administration
35344-467: Was the local rice porridge called arroz caldo . Other well-known Filipino dishes such as lumpia (egg-roll), maki (soup dish), kiampong (fried rice) and ma-chang (sticky rice,) among others, trace their origins to the Chinese immigrants. In Vigan, Ilocos Sur , known as kasanglayan (meaning "where sangleys live"), prosperous Chinese-Filipino merchants built stone-and-wood houses (really brick and wood) called bahay na bato . These followed some of
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