137-513: The Sembakung River is a river in Borneo that flows from Sabah , Malaysia to North Kalimantan , Indonesia, about 1600 km northeast of the capital Jakarta . The 322 kilometers long river flows in the northeastern area of Borneo island with predominantly tropical rainforest climate (designated as Af in the Köppen-Geiger climate classification). The annual average temperature in
274-595: A Neogene basin which is currently exposed in large areas of eastern and southern Sabah . In southeast Sabah, the Miocene to recent island arc terranes of the Sulu Archipelago extend onshore into Borneo with the older volcanic arc was the result of southeast dipping subduction while the younger volcanics are likely resulted from northwest dipping subduction the Celebes Sea . Before sea levels rose at
411-521: A Paleozoic continental core. At the beginning of the Cenozoic Borneo formed a promontory of Sundaland which partly separated from Asian mainland by the proto-South China Sea . The oceanic part of the proto-South China Sea was subducted during the Paleogene period and a large accretionary complex formed along the northwestern of the island of Borneo. In the early Miocene uplift of
548-412: A karst areas contains thousands of smaller caves. The Borneo rainforest is estimated to be around 140 million years old, making it one of the oldest rainforests in the world. The current dominant tree group, the dipterocarps , has dominated the Borneo lowland rain forests for millions of years. It is the centre of the evolution and distribution of many endemic species of plants and animals, and
685-689: A colony named "Ellena" in the Kimanis area. The colony failed and was abandoned, due to denials of financial backing, especially by the US government, and to diseases and riots among the workers. Before Torrey left, he managed to sell the land to the German businessman, Overbeck. Meanwhile, the Germans under William Frederick Schuck were awarded a parcel of land in northeastern Borneo of the Sandakan Bay from
822-618: A fee to the sultanate. He established a monarchy, and the Brooke dynasty (through his nephew and great-nephew) ruled Sarawak for 100 years; the leaders were known as the White Rajahs . Brooke also acquired the island of Labuan for Great Britain in 1846 through the Treaty of Labuan with the sultan of Brunei, Omar Ali Saifuddin II on 18 December 1846. The region of northern Borneo came under
959-817: A length of 1,143 km (710 mi). Other major rivers include the Mahakam in East Kalimantan (980 km (610 mi) long), the Barito , Kahayan , and Mendawai in South Kalimantan (1,090 km (680 mi), 658 km (409 mi), and 616 km (383 mi) long respectively), Rajang in Sarawak (565 km (351 mi) long) and Kinabatangan in Sabah (560 km (350 mi) long). Borneo has significant cave systems. In Sarawak,
1096-599: A minor crop. Fruit such as peaches , cherries and oranges , as well as chickens and various vegetables, were also domesticated in Neolithic China. Bronze artifacts have been found at the Majiayao culture site (between 3100 and 2700 BC). The Bronze Age is also represented at the Lower Xiajiadian culture (2200–1600 BC) site in northeast China. Sanxingdui located in what is now Sichuan
1233-546: A population density of 30.8 inhabitants per square kilometre (80 inhabitants per square mile). Most of the population lives in coastal cities, although the hinterland has small towns and villages along the rivers. May includes the offshore islands and its populations Due to its size, Brunei is further subdivided into 4 districts ( mukim ), which is similar to the size of smaller administrative units in Indonesia ( kecamatan ) and Malaysia ( daerah ) Data based on
1370-566: A state ideology promoted by the emperor and his chancellor Li Si that was introduced at an earlier time by Shang Yang . In legal matters this philosophy emphasised mutual responsibility in disputes and severe punishments for crime, while economic practices included the general encouragement of agriculture and repression of trade. Reforms occurred in weights and measures, writing styles ( seal script ) and metal currency ( Ban Liang ), all of which were standardized. Traditionally, Qin Shi Huang
1507-503: A successful campaign against the northern Xiongnu peoples (210s BC), reportedly with 300,000 troops. Under Qin Shi Huang's orders, Meng supervised the combining of numerous ancient walls into what came to be known as the Great Wall of China and oversaw the building of a 500 miles (800 km) straight highway between northern and southern China. The emperor also oversaw the construction of his monumental mausoleum , which includes
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#17327659508001644-554: Is a statistic of combined indicators that takes into account life expectancy , health , education and per-capita income. History of China The history of China spans several millennia across a wide geographical area. Each region now considered part of the Chinese world has experienced periods of unity, fracture, prosperity, and strife. Chinese civilization first emerged in the Yellow River valley, which along with
1781-585: Is believed to be one of a very few loci of independent invention of writing, and the earliest surviving records display an already-mature written language. The culture remembered by the earliest extant literature is that of the Zhou dynasty ( c. 1046 – 256 BC), China's Axial Age , during which the Mandate of Heaven was introduced, and foundations laid for philosophies such as Confucianism , Taoism , Legalism , and Wuxing . China
1918-468: Is believed to be the site of a major ancient city, of a previously unknown Bronze Age culture (between 2000 and 1200 BC). The site was first discovered in 1929 and then re-discovered in 1986. Chinese archaeologists have identified the Sanxingdui culture to be part of the state of Shu , linking the artifacts found at the site to its early legendary kings. Ferrous metallurgy begins to appear in
2055-577: Is conventionally defined by the presence of agriculture, it follows that the Neolithic began at different times in the various regions of what is now China. Agriculture in China developed gradually, with initial domestication of a few grains and animals gradually expanding with the addition of many others over subsequent millennia. The earliest evidence of cultivated rice, found by the Yangtze River,
2192-631: Is highly dependent on the oil and gas production sector, and the country has become one of the largest oil producers in Southeast Asia. The Malaysian states of Sabah and Sarawak are both top exporters of timber . Sabah is also known as the agricultural producer of rubber , cacao , and vegetables, and for its fisheries, while Sabah, Sarawak and Labuan export liquefied natural gas (LNG) and petroleum. The Indonesian provinces of Kalimantan are mostly dependent on mining sectors despite also being involved in logging and oil and gas explorations. HDI
2329-571: Is known as the Warring States period. Though the Zhou king nominally remained as such until 256 BC, he was largely a figurehead that held little real power. Numerous developments were made during this period in the areas of culture and mathematics—including the Zuo Zhuan within the Spring and Autumn Annals (a literary work summarizing the preceding Spring and Autumn period), and
2466-515: Is named after the famous Spring and Autumn Annals . The sharply reduced political authority of the royal house left a power vacuum at the center of the Zhou culture sphere. The Zhou kings had delegated local political authority to hundreds of settlement states , some of them only as large as a walled town and surrounding land. These states began to fight against one another and vie for hegemony . The more powerful states tended to conquer and incorporate
2603-587: Is regarded as ordering a mass burning of books and the live burial of scholars under the guise of Legalism, though contemporary scholars express considerable doubt on the historicity of this event . Despite its importance, Legalism was probably supplemented in non-political matters by Confucianism for social and moral beliefs and the five-element Wuxing ( 五行 ) theories for cosmological thought. The Qin administration kept exhaustive records on their population, collecting information on their sex, age, social status and residence. Commoners, who made up over 90% of
2740-682: Is still widely found in rural areas in Ketapang and surrounding areas of West Kalimantan. Internationally it is known as Borneo , derived from European contact with the Brunei kingdom in the 16th century during the Age of Exploration . On a map from around 1601, Brunei city is referred to as Borneo, and the whole island is also labelled Borneo. The name Borneo may derive from the Sanskrit word váruṇa ( वरुण ), meaning either "water" or Varuna ,
2877-678: Is termed the Eastern Han dynasty . With the capable administrations of Emperors Ming and Zhang , former glories of the dynasty were reclaimed, with brilliant military and cultural achievements. The Xiongnu Empire was decisively defeated . The diplomat and general Ban Chao further expanded the conquests across the Pamirs to the shores of the Caspian Sea , thus reopening the Silk Road , and bringing trade, foreign cultures, along with
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#17327659508003014-640: Is the southwestern Yuanmou Man ( 元谋人 ; in Yunnan ), dated to c. 1.7 Ma, which lived in a mixed bushland -forest environment alongside chalicotheres , deer , the elephant Stegodon , rhinos , cattle, pigs, and the giant short-faced hyena . The better-known Peking Man ( 北京猿人 ; near Beijing) of 700,000–400,000 BP , was discovered in the Zhoukoudian cave alongside scrapers , choppers , and, dated slightly later, points, burins , and awls. Other Homo erectus fossils have been found widely throughout
3151-515: The Bamboo Annals and Sima Qian 's Shiji ( c. 91 BC ). The Xia is generally considered mythical by Western scholars, but in China it is usually associated with the early Bronze Age site at Erlitou (1900–1500 BC) in Henan that was excavated in 1959. Since no writing was excavated at Erlitou or any other contemporaneous site, there is not enough evidence to prove whether
3288-615: The Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824 to exchange trading ports in Malay Peninsula and Sumatra that were under their controls and assert spheres of influence. This resulted in indirectly establishing British- and Dutch-controlled areas in the north (Malay Peninsula) and south (Sumatra and Riau Islands) respectively. In 1895, Marcus Samuel received a concession in the Kutei area of east Borneo, and based on oil seepages in
3425-552: The Indonesian language ) is the third-largest island in the world , with an area of 748,168 km (288,869 sq mi). Situated at the geographic centre of Maritime Southeast Asia , it is one of the Greater Sunda Islands , located north of Java , west of Sulawesi , and east of Sumatra . The island is politically divided among three countries: Malaysia and Brunei in the north, and Indonesia to
3562-556: The Late Shang period ( c. 1250–1050 BC ). The findings at Anyang include the earliest written record of the Chinese so far discovered: inscriptions of divination records in ancient Chinese writing on the bones or shells of animals—the oracle bones , dating from c. 1250 – c. 1046 BC . A series of at least twenty-nine kings reigned over the Shang dynasty. Throughout their reigns, according to
3699-1088: The Mahakam River delta , Mark Abrahams struck oil in February 1897. This was the discovery of the Sanga Sanga Oil Field, a refinery was built in Balikpapan , and discovery of the Samboja Oil Field followed in 1909. In 1901, the Pamusian Oil Field was discovered on Tarakan , and the Bunyu Oil Field in 1929. Royal Dutch Shell discovered the Miri Oil Field in 1910, and the Seria oil field in 1929. During World War II, Japanese forces gained control and occupied most areas of Borneo from 1941 to 1945. In
3836-531: The Mandate of Heaven called for the end of the Han dynasty and the rise of his own, and he founded the short-lived Xin dynasty. Wang Mang started an extensive program of land and other economic reforms, including the outlawing of slavery and land nationalization and redistribution. These programs, however, were never supported by the landholding families, because they favored the peasants. The instability of power brought about chaos, uprisings, and loss of territories. This
3973-582: The Mongol Empire conquered all of China, establishing the Yuan dynasty in 1271. Contact with Europe began to increase during this time. Achievements under the subsequent Ming dynasty (1368–1644) include global exploration , fine porcelain , and many extant public works projects, such as those restoring the Grand Canal and Great Wall . Three of the four Classic Chinese Novels were written during
4110-614: The Sandakan Death March . In addition, of the total of 17,488 Javanese labourers brought in by the Japanese during the occupation, only 1,500 survived mainly due to starvation, harsh working conditions and maltreatment. The Dayak and other indigenous people played a role in guerrilla warfare against the occupying forces, particularly in the Kapit Division . They temporarily revived headhunting of Japanese toward
4247-450: The Shiji , the capital city was moved six times. The final and most important move was to Yin during the reign of Wu Ding c. 1250 BC . The term Yin dynasty has been synonymous with the Shang dynasty in history, although it has lately been used to refer specifically to the latter half of the Shang dynasty. Although written records found at Anyang confirm the existence of
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4384-473: The Sui dynasty , which soon gave way to the long-lived Tang dynasty (608–907), regarded as another Chinese golden age. The Tang dynasty saw flourishing developments in science, technology, poetry, economics, and geographical influence. China's only officially recognized empress, Wu Zetian , reigned during the dynasty's first century. Buddhism was adopted by Tang emperors. "Tang people" is the other common demonym for
4521-652: The Turks , Mongols , and Tibetans . Many had, to some extent, been " sinicized " long before their ascent to power. In fact, some of them, notably the Qiang and the Xiongnu, had already been allowed to live in the frontier regions within the Great Wall since late Han times. During this period, warfare ravaged the north and prompted large-scale Han Chinese migration south to the Yangtze River Basin and Delta. In
4658-541: The Yangtze basin constitutes the geographic core of the Chinese cultural sphere . China maintains a rich diversity of ethnic and linguistic people groups. The traditional lens for viewing Chinese history is the dynastic cycle : imperial dynasties rise and fall, and are ascribed certain achievements. Throughout pervades the narrative that Chinese civilization can be traced as an unbroken thread many thousands of years into
4795-677: The Yellow and Yangtze rivers. The Erlitou culture in the central plains of China is sometimes identified with the Xia dynasty (3rd millennium BC) of traditional Chinese historiography . The earliest surviving written Chinese dates to roughly 1250 BC, consisting of divinations inscribed on oracle bones . Chinese bronze inscriptions , ritual texts dedicated to ancestors, form another large corpus of early Chinese writing. The earliest strata of received literature in Chinese include poetry , divination , and records of official speeches . China
4932-493: The arrival of Buddhism . With extensive connections with the west, the first of several Roman embassies to China were recorded in Chinese sources, coming from the sea route in AD 166, and a second one in AD 284. The Eastern Han dynasty was one of the most prolific eras of science and technology in ancient China, notably the historic invention of papermaking by Cai Lun , and the numerous scientific and mathematical contributions by
5069-623: The sultan of Brunei would be the head of state for the federation—though Azahari had his own intention to abolish the Brunei monarchy, to make Brunei more democratic, and to integrate the territory and other former British colonies in Borneo into Indonesia, with the support from the latter government. This directly led to the Brunei Revolt , which thwarted Azahari's attempt and forced him to escape to Indonesia. Brunei withdrew from being part of
5206-664: The 14th century, Borneo became a vassal state of Majapahit (in present-day Indonesia), later changing its allegiance to the Ming dynasty of China. Pre-Islamic Sulu, then known locally as Lupah Sug , stretched from Palawan and the Sulu archipelago at the Philippines; to Sabah , Eastern , and Northern Kalimantan in Borneo. The Sulu empire rose as a rebellion and reaction against former Majapahit Imperialism against Sulu which Majapahit briefly occupied. The religion of Islam entered
5343-601: The Allied forces, the meeting was shelved. Sukarno and Hatta continued the plan by unilaterally declaring independence, although the Dutch tried to retake their colonial possession in Borneo. The southern part of the island achieved its independence through the Proclamation of Indonesian Independence on 17 August 1945. The southern part saw guerrilla conflicts followed by Dutch blockade to cut supplies for nationalist within
5480-658: The British to halt such efforts, and as a result a Treaty of Protection was signed in 1888, rendering Brunei a British protectorate. Before the acquisition by the British, the Americans also managed to establish their temporary presence in northwestern Borneo after acquiring a parcel of land from the Sultanate of Brunei. A company known as American Trading Company of Borneo was formed by Joseph William Torrey , Thomas Bradley Harris and several Chinese investors, establishing
5617-491: The British trying to maintain their presence in northern Borneo and the Malay Peninsula, decided to launch a military infiltration, later known as the confrontation , from 1962 to 1969. As a response to the growing opposition, the British deployed their armed forces to guard their colonies against Indonesian and communist revolts, which was also participated by Australia and New Zealand . The Philippines opposed
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5754-411: The Central Advisory Council, an advisory council for south Borneo, Celebes , and Lesser Sunda , set up in February 1945. After the fall of Singapore , the Japanese sent several thousand of British and Australian prisoners of war to camps in Borneo such as Batu Lintang camp . From the Sandakan camp site, only six of some 2,500 prisoners survived after they were forced to march in an event known as
5891-445: The Clearwater Cave has one of the world's longest underground rivers while Deer Cave is home to over three million bats , with guano accumulated to over 100 metres (330 ft) deep. The Gomantong Caves in Sabah has been dubbed as the "Cockroach Cave" due to the presence of millions of cockroaches inside the cave. The Gunung Mulu National Park in Sarawak and Sangkulirang-Mangkalihat Karst in East Kalimantan which particularly
6028-434: The Dutch followed suit to increase their economic production. By 1888, North Borneo, Sarawak and Brunei in northern Borneo had become British protectorate . The area in southern Borneo was made Dutch protectorate in 1891. The Dutch who already claimed the whole Borneo were asked by Britain to delimit their boundaries between the two colonial territories to avoid further conflicts. The British and Dutch governments had signed
6165-457: The Dutch only began their trade in 1644: to Banjar and Martapura, also in the southern Borneo. The Dutch tried to settle the island of Balambangan , north of Borneo, in the second half of the 18th century, but withdrew by 1797. In 1812, the sultan in southern Borneo ceded his forts to the British East India Company . The British, led by Stamford Raffles , then tried to establish an intervention in Sambas but failed. Although they managed to defeat
6302-415: The Han River valley. Qin imitated the administrative reforms of the other states, thereby becoming a powerhouse. Its final expansion began during the reign of Ying Zheng , ultimately unifying the other six regional powers, and enabling him to proclaim himself as China's first emperor —known to history as Qin Shi Huang . Ying Zheng's establishment of the Qin dynasty ( 秦朝 ) in 221 BC effectively formalised
6439-404: The Han dynasty's long period of stability and prosperity consolidated the foundation of China as a unified state under a central imperial bureaucracy, which was to last intermittently for most of the next two millennia. During the Han dynasty, territory of China was extended to most of the China proper and to areas far west. Confucianism was officially elevated to orthodox status and was to shape
6576-509: The Han ethnic group. After the Tang fractured, the Song dynasty (960–1279) saw the maximal extent of imperial Chinese cosmopolitan development. Mechanical printing was introduced, and many of the earliest surviving witnesses of certain texts are wood-block prints from this era. Song scientific advancement led the world, and the imperial examination system gave ideological structure to the political bureaucracy. Confucianism and Taoism were fully knit together in Neo-Confucianism . Eventually,
6713-461: The Han imperial order finally collapsed after four centuries, China entered an equally lengthy period of disunity, during which Buddhism began to have a significant impact on Chinese culture, while Calligraphy , art, historiography, and storytelling flourished. Wealthy families in some cases became more powerful than the central government. The Yangtze River valley was incorporated into the dominant cultural sphere. A period of unity began in 581 with
6850-444: The Hindu god of rain. Another source said it was from the Sanskrit word Kalamanthana , meaning "burning weather" possibly to describe its hot and humid tropical weather. In Indianized Malay era the name Kalamanthana was derived from Sanskrit terms kala (time or season) and manthana (churning, kindling or creating fire by friction), which possibly describes the heat of the weather. In 977, Chinese records began to use
6987-439: The Huai River valley, and southward into the Yangtze River valley. In 771 BC, King You and his forces were defeated in the Battle of Mount Li by rebel states and Quanrong barbarians. The rebel aristocrats established a new ruler, King Ping , in Luoyang , beginning the second major phase of the Zhou dynasty: the Eastern Zhou period, which is divided into the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods. The former period
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#17327659508007124-442: The Indonesian portion of Borneo lost 10.7 million hectares (26 million acres) of tree cover between 2002 and 2019, of which 4 million hectares (9.9 million acres) was primary forest , compared with Malaysian Borneo's 4.4 million hectares (11 million acres) of tree cover loss and 1.9 million hectares (4.7 million acres) of primary forest cover loss. As of 2020, Indonesian Borneo accounts for 72% of
7261-473: The Jin prince Sima Rui , based in modern-day Nanjing , became emperor and continued the dynasty, now known as the Eastern Jin, which held southern China for another century. Prior to this move, historians refer to the Jin dynasty as the Western Jin. Northern China fragmented into a series of independent states known as the Sixteen Kingdoms , most of which were founded by Xiongnu , Xianbei , Jie , Di and Qiang rulers. These non-Han peoples were ancestors of
7398-512: The Ming. The Qing dynasty that succeeded the Ming was ruled by ethnic Manchu people. The Qianlong emperor ( r. 1735–1796) commissioned a complete encyclopaedia of imperial libraries, totaling nearly a billion words. Imperial China reached its greatest territorial extent of during the Qing, but China came into increasing conflict with European powers, culminating in the Opium Wars and subsequent unequal treaties . The 1911 Xinhai Revolution , led by Sun Yat-sen and others, created
7535-466: The Portuguese described the place as surrounded by a stone wall . While Borneo was seen as rich, the Portuguese did not make any attempts to conquer it. The Spanish had sailed from Latin America and conquered the Brunei's provinces in the Philippines and incorporated it into the Mexico-Centered Viceroyalty of New Spain . The Spanish visit to Brunei led to the Castilian War in 1578. The British began to trade with Sambas of southern Borneo in 1609, while
7672-443: The Republic retreating to Taiwan. Both governments still claim sole legitimacy of the entire mainland area. The PRC has slowly accumulated the majority of diplomatic recognition, and Taiwan's status remains disputed to this day. From 1966 to 1976, the Cultural Revolution in mainland China helped consolidate Mao's power towards the end of his life. After his death, the government began economic reforms under Deng Xiaoping , and became
7809-405: The Sarawak river delta reveal that the area was a thriving centre of trade between India and China from the 6th century until about 1300. Stone pillars bearing inscriptions in the Pallava script , found in Kutai along the Mahakam River in East Kalimantan and dating to around the second half of the 4th century, constitute some of the oldest evidence of Hindu influence in Southeast Asia. By
7946-425: The Shang and Zhou. Both archaeological evidence like oracle bones and bronzes, as well as transmitted texts attest the historical existence of the Shang dynasty ( c. 1600 – c. 1046 BC ). Findings from the earlier Shang period come from excavations at Erligang (modern Zhengzhou ). Findings have been found at Yinxu (near modern Anyang , Henan), the site of the final Shang capital during
8083-417: The Shang dynasty, Western scholars are often hesitant to associate settlements that are contemporaneous with the Anyang settlement with the Shang dynasty. For example, archaeological findings at Sanxingdui suggest a technologically advanced civilization culturally unlike Anyang. The evidence is inconclusive in proving how far the Shang realm extended from Anyang. The leading hypothesis is that Anyang, ruled by
8220-421: The Spring and Autumn period, and its influence on administration would prove resilient—its terminology can still be seen in the contemporaneous sheng and xian ("provinces" and "counties") of contemporary China. The state of Qin became dominant in the waning decades of the Warring States period, conquering the Shu capital of Jinsha on the Chengdu Plain; and then eventually driving Chu from its place in
8357-471: The Sultanate of Sulu where he conducted business and exported large quantities of arms, opium , textiles and tobacco to Sulu before the land was also passed to Overbeck by the sultanate. Prior to the recognition of Spanish presence in the Philippine archipelago, a protocol known as the Madrid Protocol of 1885 was signed between the governments of the United Kingdom, Germany and Spain in Madrid to cement Spanish influence and recognise their sovereignty over
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#17327659508008494-412: The Sultanate of Sulu—in return for Spain's relinquishing its claim to the former possessions of the sultanate in northern Borneo. The British administration then established the first railway network in northern Borneo, known as the North Borneo Railway . During this time, the British sponsored a large number of Chinese workers to migrate to northern Borneo to work in European plantation and mines, and
8631-473: The Sulu former territories. The Philippine government also claimed that the heirs of the sultanate had ceded all their territorial rights to the republic. The Sultanate of Brunei at the first welcomed the proposal of a new larger federation. Meanwhile, the Brunei People's Party led by A.M. Azahari desired to reunify Brunei, Sarawak and North Borneo into one federation known as the North Borneo Federation ( Malay : Kesatuan Negara Kalimantan Utara ), where
8768-418: The Three Kingdoms dramatizes events of this period. The warlord Cao Cao reunified the north in 208, and in 220 his son accepted the abdication of Emperor Xian of Han , thus initiating the Wei dynasty. Soon, Wei's rivals Shu and Wu proclaimed their independence. This period was characterized by a gradual decentralization of the state that had existed during the Qin and Han dynasties, and an increase in
8905-428: The Wei River valley of modern western Shaanxi Province, where they were appointed Western Protectors by the Shang . A coalition led by the ruler of the Zhou, King Wu , defeated the Shang at the Battle of Muye . They took over most of the central and lower Yellow River valley and enfeoffed their relatives and allies in semi-independent states across the region. Several of these states eventually became more powerful than
9042-413: The Xia dynasty ever existed. Some archaeologists claim that the Erlitou site was the capital of the Xia. In any case, the site of Erlitou had a level of political organization that would not be incompatible with the legends of Xia recorded in later texts. More importantly, the Erlitou site has the earliest evidence for an elite who conducted rituals using cast bronze vessels, which would later be adopted by
9179-415: The Yangtze delta. The cultures of the middle and late Neolithic in the central Yellow River valley are known, respectively, as the Yangshao culture (5000 BC to 3000 BC) and the Longshan culture (3000 BC to 2000 BC). Pigs and dogs were the earliest-domesticated animals in the region, and after about 3000 BC domesticated cattle and sheep arrived from Western Asia. Wheat also arrived at this time but remained
9316-411: The Zhou kings. The kings of Zhou invoked the concept of the Mandate of Heaven to legitimize their rule, a concept that was influential for almost every succeeding dynasty. Like Shangdi, Heaven ( tian ) ruled over all the other gods, and it decided who would rule China. It was believed that a ruler lost the Mandate of Heaven when natural disasters occurred in great number, and when, more realistically,
9453-427: The accretionary complex occurred as a result of underthrusting of thinned continental crust in northwest. The uplift may have also resulted from shortening due to the counter-clockwise rotation of Borneo between 20 and 10 mega-annum (Ma) as a consequence of Australia -Southeast Asia collision. Large volumes of sediment were shed into basins, which scattered offshore to the west, north and east of Borneo as well into
9590-443: The administration of North Borneo Chartered Company following the acquisition of territory from the Sultanates of Brunei and Sulu by a German businessman and adventurer named Baron von Overbeck , before it was passed to the British Dent brothers (comprising Alfred Dent and Edward Dent). Further expansion by the British continued into the Borneo interior. This led the 26th sultan of Brunei, Hashim Jalilul Alam Aqamaddin to appeal
9727-461: The ambitious Emperor Wu brought the empire to its zenith. To consolidate his power, he disenfranchised the majority of imperial relatives, appointing military governors to control their former lands. As a further step, he extended patronage to Confucianism, which emphasizes stability and order in a well-structured society. Imperial Universities were established to support its study. At the urging of his Legalist advisors, however, he also strengthened
9864-453: The annual global tropical timber acquisition comes from Borneo. Palm oil plantations have been widely developed and are rapidly encroaching on the last remnants of primary rainforest. Forest fires since 1997, started by the locals to clear the forests for plantations were exacerbated by an exceptionally dry El Niño season, worsening the annual shrinkage of the rainforest. During these fires, hotspots were visible on satellite images and
10001-655: The archaeological site of Xihoudu , Shanxi Province. The circumstances surrounding the evolution of Homo erectus to contemporary H. sapiens is debated; the three main theories include the dominant "Out of Africa" theory (OOA), the regional continuity model and the admixture variant of the OOA hypothesis. Regardless, the earliest modern humans have been dated to China at 120,000–80,000 BP based on fossilized teeth discovered in Fuyan Cave of Dao County , Hunan. The larger animals which lived alongside these humans include
10138-517: The area is 24 °C. The warmest month is August, when the average temperature is around 26 °C, and the coldest is January, at 22 °C. The average annual rainfall is 4020 mm. The wettest month is December, with an average of 393 mm rainfall, and the driest is June, with 251 mm rainfall. 3°43′37″N 117°48′17″E / 3.72698°N 117.8046°E / 3.72698; 117.8046 Borneo Borneo ( / ˈ b ɔːr n i oʊ / ; also known as Kalimantan in
10275-605: The bundle of 21 bamboo slips from the Tsinghua collection, dated to 305 BC—being the world's earliest known example of a two-digit, base-10 multiplication table. The Tsinghua collection indicates that sophisticated commercial arithmetic was already established during this period. As neighboring territories of the seven states were annexed (including areas of modern Sichuan and Liaoning ), they were now to be governed under an administrative system of commanderies and prefectures . This system had been in use elsewhere since
10412-425: The desires of its indigenous people and following the disposition of Malaya . Sukarno and Mohammad Yamin meanwhile continuously advocated for a Greater Indonesian republic. Towards the end of the war, Japan decided to give an early independence to a new proposed country of Indonesia on 17 July 1945, with an Independence Committee meeting scheduled for 19 August 1945. However, following the surrender of Japan to
10549-490: The discovery of the oldest known figurative art painting , over 40,000 (perhaps as old as 52,000) years old, of an unknown animal, in the cave of Lubang Jeriji Saléh on the island of Borneo. It has been proposed, based on house construction styles, linguistic and genetic evidence, that Madagascar may have been first populated from southern Borneo. According to ancient Chinese (977), Indian and Japanese manuscripts, western coastal cities of Borneo had become trading ports by
10686-775: The divide known as Wallace's Line between Asian and Australia- New Guinea biological regions. The island today is surrounded by the South China Sea to the north and northwest, the Sulu Sea to the northeast, the Celebes Sea and the Makassar Strait to the east, and the Java Sea and Karimata Strait to the south. To the west of Borneo are the Malay Peninsula and Sumatra . To the south and east are islands of Indonesia: Java and Sulawesi , respectively. To
10823-596: The early 5th century China entered a period known as the Northern and Southern dynasties, in which parallel regimes ruled the northern and southern halves of the country. In the south, the Eastern Jin gave way to the Liu Song , Southern Qi , Liang and finally Chen . Each of these Southern dynasties were led by Han Chinese ruling families and used Jiankang (modern Nanjing) as the capital. They held off attacks from
10960-432: The empire slipped into gradual stagnation and decline. Economically, the state treasury was strained by excessive campaigns and projects, while land acquisitions by elite families gradually drained the tax base. Various consort clans exerted increasing control over strings of incompetent emperors and eventually the dynasty was briefly interrupted by the usurpation of Wang Mang . In AD 9 the usurper Wang Mang claimed that
11097-406: The empire was a centralized bureaucratic monarchy, a governing scheme which dominated the future of Imperial China. In an effort to improve the Zhou's perceived failures, this system consisted of more than 36 commanderies ( 郡 ; jun ), made up of counties ( 县 ; xian ) and progressively smaller divisions, each with a local leader. Many aspects of society were informed by Legalism ,
11234-407: The end of the last ice age , Borneo was part of the mainland of Asia, forming, with Java and Sumatra , the upland regions of a peninsula that extended east from present day Indochina . The South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand now submerge the former low-lying areas of the peninsula. Deeper waters separating Borneo from neighbouring Sulawesi prevented a land connection to that island, creating
11371-525: The end of the war, with Allied Z Special Unit provided assistance to them. Australia contributed significantly to the liberation of Borneo. The Australian Imperial Force was sent to Borneo to fight off the Japanese. Together with other Allies, the island was completely liberated in 1945. In May 1945, officials in Tokyo suggested that whether northern Borneo should be included in the proposed new country of Indonesia should be separately determined based on
11508-518: The extinct Ailuropoda baconi panda, the Crocuta ultima hyena, the Stegodon , and the giant tapir . Evidence of Middle Palaeolithic Levallois technology has been found in the lithic assemblage of Guanyindong Cave site in southwest China, dated to approximately 170,000–80,000 years ago. The Neolithic Age in China is considered to have begun about 10,000 years ago. Because the Neolithic
11645-428: The famous polymath Zhang Heng . By the 2nd century, the empire declined amidst land acquisitions, invasions, and feuding between consort clans and eunuchs . The Yellow Turban Rebellion broke out in AD 184, ushering in an era of warlords . In the ensuing turmoil, three states emerged, trying to gain predominance and reunify the land, giving this historical period its name. The classic historical novel Romance of
11782-562: The first millennium AD. In Chinese manuscripts, gold, camphor , tortoise shells, hornbill ivory , rhinoceros horn, crane crest , beeswax , lakawood (a scented heartwood and root wood of a thick liana , Dalbergia parviflora ), dragon's blood , rattan , edible bird's nests and various spices were described as among the most valuable items from Borneo. The Indians named Borneo Suvarnabhumi (the land of gold) and also Karpuradvipa (Camphor Island). The Javanese named Borneo Puradvipa , or Diamond Island. Archaeological findings in
11919-550: The first stage of the war, the British saw the Japanese advance to Borneo as motivated by political and territorial ambitions rather than economic factors. The occupation drove many people in the coastal towns to the interior, searching for food and escaping the Japanese. The Chinese residents in Borneo, especially with the Sino-Japanese War in Mainland China mostly resisted the Japanese occupation. Following
12056-632: The fiscal structure of the dynasty with government monopolies . Major military campaigns were launched to weaken the nomadic Xiongnu Empire , limiting their influence north of the Great Wall. Along with the diplomatic efforts led by Zhang Qian , the sphere of influence of the Han Empire extended to the states in the Tarim Basin , opened up the Silk Road that connected China to the west, stimulating bilateral trade and cultural exchange. To
12193-671: The formation of resistance movements in northern Borneo such as the Jesselton Revolt , many innocent indigenous and Chinese people were executed by the Japanese for their alleged involvement. In Kalimantan, the Japanese also killed many Malay intellectuals, executing all the Malay sultans of West Kalimantan in the Pontianak incidents , together with Chinese people who were already against the Japanese for suspecting them to be threats. Sultan Muhammad Ibrahim Shafi ud-din II of Sambas
12330-415: The independent Federation of Malaya desired to unite Malaya, the British colonies of Sarawak , North Borneo , Singapore and the protectorate of Brunei under the proposed Federation of Malaysia . The idea was heavily opposed by the governments in both Indonesia and the Philippines as well from communist sympathisers and nationalists in Borneo. Sukarno, as the president of the new republic, perceiving
12467-540: The island due to its influence in the region) and several islands in the Philippines. During the 1450s, Shari'ful Hashem Syed Abu Bakr , an Arab born in Johor , arrived in Sulu from Malacca. In 1457, he founded the Sultanate of Sulu ; he titled himself as "Paduka Maulana Mahasari Sharif Sultan Hashem Abu Bakr". Following its independence in 1578 from Brunei's influence, Sulu began to expand its thalassocracy to parts of
12604-549: The island in the 10th century, following the arrival of Muslim traders who later converted many indigenous peoples in the coastal areas. The Sultanate of Brunei declared independence from Majapahit following the death of the Majapahit emperor in the mid-14th century. During its golden age under Bolkiah from the 15th to the 17th century, the Bruneian sultanate ruled almost the entire coastal area of Borneo (lending its name to
12741-520: The island's tree cover, Malaysian Borneo 27%, and Brunei 1%. Primary forest in Indonesia accounts for 44% of Borneo's overall tree cover. The island historically had extensive rainforest cover, but the area was reduced due to heavy logging by the Indonesian and Malaysian wood industry, especially with the large demands of raw materials from industrial countries along with the conversion of forest lands for large-scale agricultural purposes. Half of
12878-594: The late 6th century in the Yangtze valley. A bronze hatchet with a blade of meteoric iron excavated near the city of Gaocheng in Shijiazhuang (now Hebei ) has been dated to the 14th century BC. An Iron Age culture of the Tibetan Plateau has tentatively been associated with the Zhang Zhung culture described in early Tibetan writings. Chinese historians in later periods were accustomed to
13015-761: The modern Republic of China . From 1927 to 1949, a costly civil war roiled between the Republican government under Chiang Kai-shek and the Communist-aligned Chinese Red Army , interrupted by the industrialized Empire of Japan invading the divided country until its defeat in the Second World War. After the Communist victory, Mao Zedong proclaimed the establishment of the People's Republic of China (PRC) in 1949, with
13152-432: The natives which became the name for modern-day Indonesian Borneo. The term kelamantan is used in Sarawak to refer to a group of people who consume sago in the northern part of the island. According to Crowfurd, the word kelamantan is the name of a type of mango (Mangifera) so the island of Borneo is called a mango island by the native. But he adds that the word is fanciful and unpopular. The local mango, called klemantan,
13289-524: The new Federation of Malaysia due to some disagreements on other issues while political leaders in Sarawak and North Borneo continued to favour inclusion in a larger federation. With the continuous opposition from Indonesia and the Philippines, the Cobbold Commission was established to discover the feeling of the native populations in northern Borneo; it found the people greatly in favour of federation, with various stipulations. The federation
13426-654: The newly proposed federation, claiming the eastern part of North Borneo (today the Malaysian state of Sabah) as part of its territory as a former possession of the Sultanate of Sulu . The Philippine government mostly based their claim on the Sultanate of Sulu's cession agreement with the British North Borneo Company, as by now the sultanate had come under the jurisdiction of the Philippine republican administration, which therefore should inherit
13563-916: The north and preserved many aspects of Chinese civilization, while northern barbarian regimes began to sinify . In the north the last of the Sixteen Kingdoms was extinguished in 439 by the Northern Wei , a kingdom founded by the Xianbei , a nomadic people who unified northern China. The Northern Wei eventually split into the Eastern and Western Wei , which then became the Northern Qi and Northern Zhou . These regimes were dominated by Xianbei or Han Chinese who had married into Xianbei families. During this period most Xianbei people adopted Han surnames, eventually leading to complete assimilation into
13700-509: The north coast, comprises about 1% of Borneo's land area. A little more than half of the island is in the Northern Hemisphere , including Brunei and the Malaysian portion, while the Indonesian portion spans the Northern and Southern hemispheres. The Native people of Borneo referred to their island as Pulu K'lemantang but not as an ethnic name, when the sixteenth century Portuguese explorer Jorge de Menezes made contact with
13837-583: The northeast are the Philippine Islands . With an area of 743,330 square kilometres (287,000 sq mi), it is the third-largest island in the world, and is the largest island of Asia (the largest continent). Its highest point is Mount Kinabalu in Sabah, Malaysia, with an elevation of 4,095 m (13,435 ft). The largest river system is the Kapuas in West Kalimantan , with
13974-447: The northern Borneo. Both the sultanates who ruled northern Borneo had traditionally engaged in trade with China by means of the frequently-arriving Chinese junks . Despite the thalassocracy of the sultanates, Borneo's interior region remained free from the rule of any kingdoms. After the fall of Malacca in 1511, Portuguese merchants traded regularly with Borneo, and especially with Brunei from 1530. Having visited Brunei's capital,
14111-550: The notion of one dynasty succeeding another, but the political situation in early China was much more complicated. Hence, as some scholars of China suggest, the Xia and the Shang can refer to political entities that existed concurrently, just as the early Zhou existed at the same time as the Shang. This bears similarities to how China, both contemporaneously and later, has been divided into states that were not one region, legally or culturally. The earliest period once considered historical
14248-704: The past , making it one of the cradles of civilization . At various times, states representative of a dominant Chinese culture have directly controlled areas stretching as far west as the Tian Shan , the Tarim Basin , and the Himalayas , as far north as the Sayan Mountains , and as far south as the delta of the Red River . The Neolithic period saw increasingly complex polities begin to emerge along
14385-438: The peat swamp is comparatively infertile, while it is known to be the home of various bird species such as the hook-billed bulbul , helmeted hornbill and rhinoceros hornbill . There are about 15,000 species of flowering plants with 3,000 species of trees (267 species are dipterocarps ), 221 species of terrestrial mammals and 420 species of resident birds in Borneo. There are about 440 freshwater fish species in Borneo (about
14522-408: The population, "suffered harsh treatment" according to the historian Patricia Buckley Ebrey , as they were often conscripted into forced labor for the empire's construction projects. This included a massive system of imperial highways in 220 BC, which ranged around 4,250 miles (6,840 km) altogether. Other major construction projects were assigned to the general Meng Tian , who concurrently led
14659-847: The power of great families. In 266, the Jin dynasty overthrew the Wei and later unified the country in 280, but this union was short-lived. The Jin dynasty reunited China proper for the first time since the end of the Han dynasty , ending the Three Kingdoms era. However, the Jin dynasty was severely weakened by the War of the Eight Princes and lost control of northern China after non-Han Chinese settlers rebelled and captured Luoyang and Chang'an . In 317,
14796-676: The projection in the former territories in East Kalimantan Province (prior to the separation of North Kalimantan in 2012) Based on alphabetical order Religion in Brunei (2016) Religion in Malaysian Borneo (2020) Religion in Indonesian Borneo (December 2023) The island of Borneo is divided administratively by three countries. Borneo's economy depends mainly on agriculture, logging and mining, oil and gas, and ecotourism . Brunei's economy
14933-466: The rainforest is one of the few remaining natural habitats for the endangered Bornean orangutan . It is an important refuge for many endemic forest species, including the Borneo elephant , the eastern Sumatran rhinoceros , the Bornean clouded leopard , the Bornean rock frog , the hose's palm civet and the dayak fruit bat . Peat swamp forests occupy the entire coastline of Borneo. The soil of
15070-577: The region as a true empire for the first time in Chinese history, rather than a state, and its pivotal status probably led to "Qin" ( 秦 ) later evolving into the Western term " China ". To emphasise his sole rule, Zheng proclaimed himself Shi Huangdi ( 始 皇 帝 ; "First Emperor"); the Huangdi title, derived from Chinese mythology , became the standard for subsequent rulers. Based in Xianyang ,
15207-580: The region, including the northwestern Lantian Man in Shaanxi , as well minor specimens in northeastern Liaoning and southern Guangdong . The dates of most Paleolithic sites were long debated but have been more reliably established based on modern magnetostratigraphy : Majuangou at 1.66–1.55 Ma, Lanpo at 1.6 Ma, Xiaochangliang at 1.36 Ma, Xiantai at 1.36 Ma, Banshan at 1.32 Ma, Feiliang at 1.2 Ma and Donggutuo at 1.1 Ma. Evidence of fire use by Homo erectus occurred between 1–1.8 million years BP at
15344-650: The region. While nationalist guerrillas supporting the inclusion of southern Borneo in the new Indonesian republic were active in Ketapang, and to lesser extent in Sambas where they rallied with the red-white flag which became the flag of Indonesia , most of the Chinese residents in southern Borneo expected to be liberated by Chinese Nationalist troops from mainland China and to integrate their districts as an overseas province of China . Meanwhile, Sarawak and Sabah in northern Borneo became separate British crown colonies in 1946. In 1961, Prime Minister Tunku Abdul Rahman of
15481-504: The resulting haze frequently affected Brunei, Indonesia and Malaysia. The haze could also reach southern Thailand , Cambodia , Vietnam and the Philippines as evidenced on the 2015 Southeast Asian haze . A 2018 study found that Bornean orangutans declined by 148,500 individuals from 1999 to 2015. List of highest peaks in Borneo by elevation. List of longest river in Borneo by length. In November 2018, scientists reported
15618-405: The same Shang in the official history, coexisted and traded with numerous other culturally diverse settlements in the area that is now referred to as China proper . The Zhou dynasty (1046 BC to about 256 BC) is the longest-lasting dynasty in Chinese history, though its power declined steadily over the almost eight centuries of its existence. In the late 2nd millennium BC, the Zhou dynasty arose in
15755-566: The same as Sumatra and Java combined). The Borneo river shark is known only from the Kinabatangan River . In 2010, the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) stated that 123 species have been discovered in Borneo since the " Heart of Borneo " agreement was signed in 2007. The WWF has classified the island into seven distinct ecoregions . Most are lowland regions: According to analysis of data from Global Forest Watch ,
15892-461: The site of Jiahu, which is dated around 7000 BC, Damaidi around 6000 BC, Dadiwan from 5800 BC to 5400 BC, and Banpo dating from the 5th millennium BC. With agriculture came increased population, the ability to store and redistribute crops, and the potential to support specialist craftsmen and administrators, which may have existed at late Neolithic sites like Taosi and the Liangzhu culture in
16029-624: The south, various small kingdoms far beyond the Yangtze River Valley were formally incorporated into the empire. Emperor Wu also dispatched a series of military campaigns against the Baiyue tribes. The Han annexed Minyue in 135 BC and 111 BC, Nanyue in 111 BC , and Dian in 109 BC . Migration and military expeditions led to the cultural assimilation of the south. It also brought the Han into contact with kingdoms in Southeast Asia, introducing diplomacy and trade. After Emperor Wu
16166-463: The south. Approximately 73% of the island is Indonesian territory. In the north, the East Malaysian states of Sabah and Sarawak make up about 26% of the island. The population in Borneo is 23,053,723 (2020 national censuses). Additionally, the Malaysian federal territory of Labuan is situated on a small island just off the coast of Borneo. The sovereign state of Brunei , located on
16303-474: The southern part of the island upon resuming contact in 1815, posting residents to Banjarmasin, Pontianak and Sambas and assistant-residents to Landak and Mampawa. The Sultanate of Brunei in 1842 granted large parts of land in Sarawak to the British adventurer James Brooke , as a reward for his help in quelling a local rebellion. Brooke established the Raj of Sarawak and was recognised as its rajah after paying
16440-468: The sovereign had apparently lost his concern for the people. In response, the royal house would be overthrown, and a new house would rule, having been granted the Mandate of Heaven. The Zhou established two capitals Zongzhou (near modern Xi'an ) and Chengzhou ( Luoyang ), with the king's court moving between them regularly. The Zhou alliance gradually expanded eastward into Shandong, southeastward into
16577-492: The state of Sabah, although his plan failed and resulted in the Jabidah massacre and later the insurgency in the southern Philippines . In August 2019, Indonesian president Joko Widodo announced a plan to move the capital of Indonesia from Jakarta to a newly established location in the East Kalimantan province in Borneo. The demonym for Borneo is Bornean . Borneo had 23,053,723 inhabitants (in 2020 Censuses),
16714-452: The subsequent Chinese civilization. Art, culture and science all advanced to unprecedented heights. With the profound and lasting impacts of this period of Chinese history, the dynasty name "Han" had been taken as the name of the Chinese people, now the dominant ethnic group in modern China, and had been commonly used to refer to Chinese language and written characters . After the initial laissez-faire policies of Emperors Wen and Jing ,
16851-445: The subsequent Warring States period. Such influential intellectual movements as Confucianism , Taoism , Legalism and Mohism were founded, partly in response to the changing political world. The first two philosophical thoughts would have an enormous influence on Chinese culture. After further political consolidations, seven prominent states remained during the 5th century BC. The years in which these states battled each other
16988-473: The sultanate the next year and declared a blockade on all ports in Borneo except Brunei, Banjarmasin and Pontianak , the project was cancelled by the British governor-general Lord Minto in India as it was too expensive. At the beginning of British and Dutch exploration on the island, they described the island of Borneo as full of head hunters , with the indigenous in the interior practising cannibalism , and
17125-433: The surviving states to develop better administrations to mobilize more soldiers and resources. Within states there was constant jockeying between elite families. For example, the three most powerful families in the Jin state—Zhao, Wei and Han—eventually overthrew the ruling family and partitioned the state between them . The Hundred Schools of Thought of classical Chinese philosophy began blossoming during this period and
17262-513: The term Bo-ni to refer to Borneo. In 1225, it was also mentioned by the Chinese official Chau Ju-Kua (趙汝适). The Javanese manuscript Nagarakretagama , written by Majapahit court poet Mpu Prapanca in 1365, mentioned the island as Nusa Tanjungnagara , which means the island of the Tanjungpura Kingdom . Borneo was formed through Mesozoic accretion of microcontinental fragments, ophiolite terranes and island arc crust onto
17399-530: The waters around the island infested with pirates , especially between the north eastern Borneo and the southern Philippines. The Malay and Sea Dayak pirates preyed on maritime shipping in the waters between Singapore and Hong Kong from their haven in Borneo, along with the attacks by Illanuns of the Moro pirates from the southern Philippines, such as in the Battle off Mukah . The Dutch began to intervene in
17536-635: The weaker ones, so the number of states declined over time. By the 6th century BC most small states had disappeared by being annexed and just a few large and powerful principalities remained. Some southern states, such as Chu and Wu, claimed independence from the Zhou, who undertook wars against some of them (Wu and Yue). Many new cities were established in this period and society gradually became more urbanized and commercialized. Many famous individuals such as Laozi , Confucius and Sun Tzu lived during this chaotic period. Conflict in this period occurred both between and within states. Warfare between states forced
17673-555: The well known Terracotta Army . After Qin Shi Huang's death the Qin government drastically deteriorated and eventually capitulated in 207 BC after the Qin capital was captured and sacked by rebels, which would ultimately lead to the establishment of the Han Empire. The Han dynasty was founded by Liu Bang , who emerged victorious in the Chu–Han Contention that followed the fall of the Qin dynasty. A golden age in Chinese history,
17810-453: The world's fastest-growing major economy . China had been the most populous nation in the world for decades since its unification, until it was surpassed by India in 2023. The archaic human species of Homo erectus arrived in Eurasia sometime between 1.3 and 1.8 million years ago (Ma) and numerous remains of its subspecies have been found in what is now China. The oldest of these
17947-518: Was first united under a single imperial state by Qin Shi Huang in 221 BC. Orthography , weights, measures, and law were all standardized. Shortly thereafter, China entered its classical era with the Han dynasty (202 BC – 220 AD), marking a critical period. A term for the Chinese language is still "Han language", and the dominant Chinese ethnic group is known as Han Chinese . The Chinese empire reached some of its farthest geographical extents during this period. Confucianism
18084-660: Was carbon-dated to 8,000 years ago. Early evidence for millet agriculture in the Yellow River valley was radiocarbon-dated to about 7000 BC. The Jiahu site is one of the best preserved early agricultural villages (7000 to 5800 BC). At Damaidi in Ningxia, 3,172 cliff carvings dating to 6000–5000 BC have been discovered, "featuring 8,453 individual characters such as the sun, moon, stars, gods and scenes of hunting or grazing", according to researcher Li Xiangshi. Written symbols, sometimes called proto-writing , were found at
18221-465: Was compounded by mass flooding of the Yellow River ; silt buildup caused it to split into two channels and displaced large numbers of farmers. Wang Mang was eventually killed in Weiyang Palace by an enraged peasant mob in AD 23. Emperor Guangwu reinstated the Han dynasty with the support of landholding and merchant families at Luoyang , east of the former capital Xi'an. Thus, this new era
18358-463: Was executed in 1944. The sultanate was thereafter suspended and replaced by a Japanese council. The Japanese also set-up Pusat Tenaga Rakjat (PUTERA) in the Indonesian archipelago in 1943, although it was abolished the following year when it became too nationalistic. Some of the Indonesian nationalist like Sukarno and Hatta who had returned from Dutch exile began to co-operate with the Japanese. Shortly after his release, Sukarno became president of
18495-489: Was officially sanctioned and its core texts were edited into their received forms. Wealthy landholding families independent of the ancient aristocracy began to wield significant power. Han technology can be considered on par with that of the contemporaneous Roman Empire : mass production of paper aided the proliferation of written documents, and the written language of this period was employed for millennia afterwards. China became known internationally for its sericulture . When
18632-505: Was successfully achieved with the inclusion of northern Borneo through the Malaysia Agreement on 16 September 1963. To this day, the area in northern Borneo is still subjected to attacks by Moro pirates since the 18th century and militant from groups such as Abu Sayyaf since 2000 in the frequent cross border attacks . During the administration of Philippine president Ferdinand Marcos , Marcos made some attempts to destabilise
18769-399: Was the legendary era of the sage-emperors Yao , Shun , and Yu . Traditionally, the abdication system was prominent in this period, with Yao yielding his throne to Shun, who abdicated to Yu, who founded the Xia dynasty. The Xia dynasty ( c. 2070 – c. 1600 BC ) is the earliest of the three dynasties described in much later traditional historiography, which includes
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