Sâniob ( Hungarian : Szentjobb ) is a commune in Bihor County , Crișana , Romania . It is composed of four villages:
122-410: Known as Sâniob prior to 1968, the commune's name was changed to Ciuhoi that year and its seat moved to the latter village. In 2012, the commune's previous name was revived and the seat moved back to Sâniob village. The village was named after Stephen I of Hungary 's Holy Dexter , whose preserved right hand was kept in an abbey here. The name was granted by Ladislaus I of Hungary in 1083. The locality
244-500: A cathedral chapter and his new capital. His decision was influenced by the opening, in 1018 or 1019, of a new pilgrimage route that bypassed his old capital, Esztergom. The new route connected Western Europe and the Holy Land through Hungary. Stephen often met the pilgrims, contributing to the spread of his fame throughout Europe. Abbot Odilo of Cluny , for example, wrote in a letter to Stephen that "those who have returned from
366-676: A new bishopric at Csanád (Cenad, Romania), Ajtony's former capital, which was renamed after the commander of the royal army. According to the Annales Posonienses , the Venetian Gerard was consecrated as the first bishop of the new diocese in 1030. Stephen's brother-in-law, Emperor Henry, died on 13 July 1024. He was succeeded by a distant relative, Conrad II (r. 1024–1039), who adopted an offensive foreign policy. Conrad II expelled Doge Otto Orseolo—the husband of Stephen's sister—from Venice in 1026. He also persuaded
488-487: A Christian state was one of Stephen's principal concerns throughout his reign. Although the Hungarians' conversion had already begun in his father's reign, it was only Stephen who systematically forced his subjects to give up their pagan rituals. His legislative activity was closely connected with Christianity. For example, his First Book of Laws from the first years of his reign includes several provisions prescribing
610-622: A Christian state, because Stephen's cousin, Vazul —who had the strongest claim to succeed him—was suspected of an inclination towards paganism. According to the Annals of Altaich Stephen disregarded his cousin's claim and nominated his sister's son, the Venetian Peter Orseolo , as his heir. The same source adds that Vazul was captured and blinded, and his three sons, Levente , Andrew and Béla , were expelled from Hungary. Stephen's legends refer to an unsuccessful attempt upon
732-480: A child, descendant of rich parents, living among soft pillows, who has been caressed and brought up in all kinds of comforts; you have had a part neither in the troubles of the campaigns nor in the various attacks of the pagans in which almost my whole life has been worn away. The following family tree presents Stephen's ancestors and his relatives who are mentioned in the article. *A Khazar, Pecheneg or Volga Bulgarian lady. **Györffy writes that she may have been
854-540: A child. Emeric , who received the name of his maternal uncle, Emperor Henry II, was born around 1007. His Legend from the early 12th century describes him as a saintly prince who preserved his chastity even during his marriage. According to Györffy, Emeric's wife was a kinswoman of the Byzantine Emperor Basil II. His premature death led to the series of conflicts leading to Vazul's blinding and civil wars. Be obedient to me, my son. You are
976-500: A cruel monarch, suggesting that he was a despot who mercilessly consolidated his authority over the rebellious Hungarian lords. Hungarian chronicles agree that Stephen's mother was Sarolt , daughter of Gyula , a Hungarian chieftain with jurisdiction either in Transylvania or in the wider region of the confluence of the rivers Tisza and Maros . Many historians—including Pál Engel and Gyula Kristó —propose that her father
1098-473: A decisive victory over his enemies. Koppány was killed on the battlefield. His body was quartered and its parts were displayed at the gates of the forts of Esztergom, Győr , Gyulafehérvár (Alba Iulia, Romania ) and Veszprém in order to threaten all of those who were conspiring against the young monarch. Stephen occupied Koppány's duchy and granted large estates to his own partisans. He also prescribed that Koppány's former subjects were to pay tithes to
1220-493: A later addition". Stephen died on 15 August 1038. He was buried in the basilica of Székesfehérvár. His reign was followed by a long period of civil wars, pagan uprisings and foreign invasions. The instability ended in 1077 when Ladislaus , a grandson of Vazul, ascended the throne. Stephen married Gisela , a daughter of Duke Henry the Wrangler of Bavaria, who was a nephew of Otto I, Holy Roman Emperor . Gisela's mother
1342-634: A member of the Bulgarian Cometopuli dynasty . ***Samuel Aba might have been the son of Stephen's sister instead of her husband. Counties of the Kingdom of Hungary A county ( Hungarian : vármegye or megye ; the earlier refers to the counties of the Kingdom of Hungary ) is the name of a type of administrative unit in Hungary . This article deals with counties in
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#17327800362531464-419: A number of persons appointed ad hoc from among the present nobles. From the 15th century onwards, permanent jurors were elected from among the nobles of the county. The sedria served as the court of first instance for minor disputes of the nobles and as the appeal instance for village courts and patrimonial courts ( sedes dominialis ). From the beginning of their existence, the noble judges were
1586-427: A result, by royal decrees of 1267, 1290, and 1298, the king could only confirm that the royal counties had turned into noble ones. Nobles (mostly former royal servant families) became quasi-rulers in the counties. The change from a royal to a noble county, however, took place at different times in each county. In the 15th century, the borders of the counties stabilised and basically remained unchanged until 1920. Between
1708-803: Is sometimes used in English. Latin: processus / reambulatio , Hungarian: (szolgabírói) járás , Slovak: slúžnovský obvod/slúžnovský okres , German: Stuhlbezirk A Typical county in Hungary are made up of several districts. The headquarters of the districts were usually located in small towns. Latin: comes (supremus) , Hungarian: főispán , Slovak: hlavný župan , German: Obergespan Latin: congregatio generali , Hungarian: közgyűlés , Slovak: generálna kongregácia / stoličné zhromaždenie , German: Komitatsgeneralversammlung Its decrees and decisions are binding on all county officials. The county regulations were enacted by
1830-635: Is still used in present-day Slavic languages, i.e. in Slovak (as medza ), in Slovenian (as meja ), in Serbo-Croatian (as međa , међа ), in a similar sense, and seems to have meant, initially, the border of a county in the Hungarian language. Hungarian has another word ( mezsgye ) of the same origin meaning borderland. The Hungarian word ispán (county head) is derived from
1952-449: Is uncertain as it was not recorded in contemporaneous documents. Hungarian and Polish chronicles written centuries later give three different years: 967, 969 and 975. The unanimous testimony of his three late 11th-century or early 12th-century hagiographies and other Hungarian sources, which state that Stephen was "still an adolescent" in 997, substantiate the reliability of the latest year (975). Stephen's Lesser Legend adds that he
2074-537: The Polish-Hungarian Chronicle and later Polish sources state that Stephen's mother was Adelhaid, an otherwise unknown sister of Duke Mieszko I of Poland , but the reliability of this report is not accepted by modern historians. Stephen was born as Vajk , a name derived from the Turkic word baj , meaning "hero", "master", "prince" or "rich". Stephen's Greater Legend narrates that he
2196-464: The 2021 census , Sâniob had a population of 2,237; of those, 60.62% were Hungarians and 33.62% Romanians. This Bihor County location article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Stephen I of Hungary Stephen I , also known as King Saint Stephen ( Hungarian : Szent István király [ˌsɛnt ˈiʃtvaːn kiraːj] ; Latin : Sanctus Stephanus ; Slovak : Štefan I. or Štefan Veľký ; c. 975 – 15 August 1038),
2318-585: The Austrian Habsburgs established a military dictatorship in the Kingdom of Hungary and the counties were turned into simple state administration entities and authorities. A provisional centralised administration started to be created by the Austrians in February 1849, Alexander Bach issued a decree on provisional organisation of the Kingdom of Hungary in early August 1849 and a regulation on
2440-585: The Carpathian Basin in 895. The first counties were probably the counties situated in present-day northern Pannonia (Transdanubia); they arose before or around 1000. The exact time of the creation of many other counties is disputed, many of them, however, arose not later than during the rule of King Stephen I (1000/01–1038). Initially there were also several small frontier counties (Latin: marchiae ), established for military purposes only (e. g. comitatus of Bolondus), which however ceased to exist in
2562-500: The Holy Virgin . His death was followed by civil wars which lasted for decades. He was canonized by Pope Gregory VII , together with his son Emeric and Bishop Gerard of Csanád , in 1083. Stephen is a popular saint in Hungary and neighboring territories. In Hungary, his feast day (celebrated on 20 August) is also a public holiday commemorating the foundation of the state, known as State Foundation Day . Stephen's birth date
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#17327800362532684-549: The Illuminated Chronicle , "knights of Swabian origin" who settled in Hungary either under Géza or in the first years of Stephen's reign. On the other hand, Lukačka and other Slovak historians say that Hont and Pázmány were "Slovak" noblemen who had joined Stephen during his rule in Nyitra. Koppány was besieging Veszprém when he was informed of the arrival of Stephen's army. In the ensuing battle, Stephen won
2806-462: The Illuminated Chronicle , one of his tutors was a Count Deodatus from Italy , who later founded a monastery in Tata . According to Stephen's legends, Grand Prince Géza convoked an assembly of the Hungarian chieftains and warriors when Stephen "ascended to the first stage of adolescence", at the age of 14 or 15. Géza nominated Stephen as his successor and all those present took an oath of loyalty to
2928-515: The Virgin Mary . Modern historians—including Pál Engel, and Miklós Molnár—write that Stephen always asserted his sovereignty and never accepted papal or imperial suzerainty. For instance, none of his charters were dated according to the years of the reign of the contemporary emperors, which would have been the case if he had been their vassal. Furthermore, Stephen declared in the preamble to his First Book of Laws that he governed his realm "by
3050-465: The noble judges (see below), and the courts of the servientes regis - the so-called sedes iudiciaria or sedria - developed into the county court (the Latin name remained sedria ). The sedria meetings were led by the county head, later de facto by his deputy (see below). Until the 15th century, the county head's co-judges were his deputy county head , the (usually four) noble judges , and
3172-587: The shrine of our Lord " testify to the king's passion "towards the honour of our divine religion". Stephen also established four hostels for pilgrims in Constantinople, Jerusalem , Ravenna and Rome . [Almost] all those from Italy and Gaul who wished to go to the Sepulchre of the Lord at Jerusalem abandoned the usual route, which was by sea, making their way through the country of King Stephen. He made
3294-471: The Árpád dynasty , which was Koppány at that time. Koppány, who held the title Duke of Somogy , had for many years administered the regions of Transdanubia south of Lake Balaton . Koppány proposed to Géza's widow, Sarolt, in accordance with the pagan custom of levirate marriage . He also announced his claim to the throne. Although it is not impossible that Koppány had already been baptized, in 972, most of his supporters were pagans, opponents of
3416-466: The 1020s, although Györffy and other scholars put it at least a decade earlier. The conflict arose when Ajtony, who "had taken his power from the Greeks", according to Saint Gerard's legend, levied tax on the salt transported to Stephen on the river. The king sent a large army led by Csanád against Ajtony, who was killed in battle. His lands were transformed into a Hungarian county and the king set up
3538-551: The 1020s. His silver dinars bearing the inscriptions STEPHANUS REX ("King Stephen") and REGIA CIVITAS ("royal city") were popular in contemporary Europe, as demonstrated by counterfeited copies unearthed in Sweden . Stephen convinced some pilgrims and merchants to settle in Hungary. Gerard , a Benedictine monk who arrived in Hungary from the Republic of Venice between 1020 and 1026, initially planned to continue his journey to
3660-418: The 13th-14th century onwards, the deputy county heads , and not the county head himself, were the real administrators of the county. This development was emphasised by the fact that the county heads were also higher dignitaries of the state or of the court at the same time ( palatine , treasurer , etc.), so that they did not have much time for the management of the county. The deputy county head ' s role
3782-436: The 14th century when royal counties were transformed into noble ones. Initially, there were also some small special castle districts, which ceased to exist in the 13th century. Each county was the responsibility of a county head , whose seat was a castle – a quasi-capital of the county. The county head was the representative of the king , the judge, and the chief law enforcement officer in his respective territory. He collected
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3904-402: The 1840s (with an exception in 1785-1790), the official language of county administration was Latin . In 1840, the deputy county head ( alispán , Ger. Vicegespann or Vizegespan ) was described as "the personage of the most importance in the county", having duties similar to an English sheriff but also presiding over the county court of justice. (The Obergespann , theoretically his superior,
4026-538: The 1870 Act, and other types of territorial municipalities (3 in Hungary proper and 18 in Transylvania), including privileged districts, the so-called seats of the Székely Land and Transylvanian Saxons and others. Thus, the total number of municipal entities was 175 under direct control of the central Hungarian government, of which about a third was a county. The main effect of the 1870 Municipalities Act
4148-715: The Bavarians incited skirmishes along the common borders of Hungary and the Holy Roman Empire in 1029, causing a rapid deterioration in relations between the two countries. Emperor Conrad personally led his armies to Hungary in June 1030 and plundered the lands west of the River Rába . However, according to the Annals of Niederalteich , the emperor, suffering from consequences of the scorched earth tactics used by
4270-668: The Bavarians to proclaim his own son, Henry , as their duke in 1027, although Stephen's son Emeric had a strong claim to the Duchy of Bavaria through his mother. Emperor Conrad planned a marriage alliance with the Byzantine Empire and dispatched one of his advisors, Bishop Werner of Strasbourg , to Constantinople. In the autumn of 1027, the bishop seemingly travelled as a pilgrim, but Stephen, who had been informed of his actual purpose, refused to let him enter into his country. Conrad II's biographer Wipo of Burgundy narrated that
4392-680: The Christianity represented by Stephen and his predominantly German retinue . A charter of 1002 for the Pannonhalma Archabbey writes of a war between "the Germans and the Hungarians" when referring to the armed conflicts between Stephen and Koppány. Even so, Györffy says that Oszlar (" Alan "), Besenyő (" Pecheneg "), Kér and other place names, referring to ethnic groups or Hungarian tribes in Transdanubia around
4514-609: The Church in Hungary became independent of the prelates of the Holy Roman Empire. The earliest reference to an archbishop of Esztergom, named Domokos , has been preserved in the deed of foundation of the Pannonhalma Archabbey from 1002. According to historian Gábor Thoroczkay , Stephen also established the Diocese of Kalocsa in 1001. Stephen invited foreign priests to Hungary to evangelize his kingdom. Associates of
4636-677: The Danube—by the Poles in the 1010s. On the other hand, the Polish-Hungarian Chronicle states that the Polish duke occupied large territories north of the Danube and east of the Morava as far as Esztergom in the early 11th century. According to Steinhübel, the latter source proves that a significant part of the lands that now form Slovakia were under Polish rule between 1002 and 1030. In contrast with
4758-521: The Emperor was not able to enter a kingdom so fortified with rivers and forests , he returned, after he had sufficiently avenged his injury with lootings and burnings on the borders of the kingdom; and it was his wish at a more opportune time to complete the things he had begun. His son, King Henry , however, still a young boy entrusted to the care of Eigilbert, bishop of Freising , received a legation of King [Stephen] which asked for peace; and solely with
4880-456: The Holy Land, but decided to stay in the country after his meeting with the king. Stephen also established a number of Benedictine monasteries—including the abbeys at Pécsvárad , Zalavár and Bakonybél —in this period. The Long Life of Saint Gerard mentions Stephen's conflict with Ajtony , a chieftain in the region of the river Maros . Many historians date their clash to the end of
5002-580: The Holy Roman Empire brought her into a war with Poland lasting from around 1014 until 1018. The Poles occupied the Hungarian posts along the river Morava. Györffy and Kristó write that a Pecheneg incursion into Transylvania, the memory of which has been preserved in Stephen's legends, also took place in this period, because the Pechenegs were close allies of the Polish duke's brother-in-law, Grand Prince Sviatopolk I of Kiev (r. 1015–1019). Poland and
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5124-564: The Holy Roman Empire concluded the Peace of Bautzen in January 1018. Later in the same year, 500 Hungarian horsemen accompanied Boleslav of Poland to Kyiv , suggesting that Hungary had been included in the peace treaty. The historian Ferenc Makk says that the Peace of Bautzen obliged Boleslav to hand over all the territories he had occupied in the Morava valley to Stephen. According to Leodvin,
5246-464: The Hungarian army, returned to Germany "without an army and without achieving anything, because the army was threatened by starvation and was captured by the Hungarians at Vienna ". Peace was restored after Conrad had ceded the lands between the rivers Lajta and Fischa to Hungary in the summer of 1031. At this same time, dissensions arose between the Pannonian nation and the Bavarians, through
5368-606: The Kabars—who was either Samuel Aba or his father— married Stephen's unnamed younger sister on this occasion. The Aba clan was the most powerful among the native families who joined Stephen and supported him in his efforts to establish a Christian monarchy. The reports by Anonymus , Simon of Kéza and other Hungarian chroniclers of the Bár-Kalán, Csák and other 13th-century noble families descending from Hungarian chieftains suggest that other native families were also involved in
5490-497: The Kingdom of Hungary proper, and the town and district of Rijeka declared autonomous. In 1869, the counties lost the jurisdiction powers (the courts) as royal courts were organized. Modernization of the counties was then realized in two steps. First, an 1870 act of parliament unified the legal status and internal administrative structures of the various municipal (self-governing) administrative units, abolishing almost all historical privileges. However, this Municipalities Act retained
5612-429: The Pannonhalma Archabbey, according to the deed of the foundation of this monastery which has been preserved in a manuscript containing interpolations . The same document declares that "there were no other bishoprics and monasteries in Hungary" at that time. On the other hand, the nearly contemporary Bishop Thietmar of Merseburg stated that Stephen "established bishoprics in his kingdom" before being crowned king. If
5734-576: The Pannonians") or Hungarie rex ("king of Hungary")—in his charters. Although Stephen's power did not rely on his coronation, the ceremony granted him the internationally accepted legitimacy of a Christian monarch who ruled his realm " by the Grace of God ". All his legends testify that he established an archbishopric with its see in Esztergom shortly after his coronation. This act ensured that
5856-587: The Slovak historian, Györffy writes that this late chronicle "in which one absurdity follows another" contradicts all facts known from 11th-century sources. The Illuminated Chronicle narrates that Stephen "led his army against Kean, Duke of the Bulgarians and Slavs whose lands are by their natural position most strongly fortified" following the occupation of Gyula's country. According to a number of historians, including Zoltán Lenkey and Gábor Thoroczkay, Kean
5978-539: The Southern Slavic word župan ( жупан ), which was used by the Slavs living in the Carpathian Basin before the arrival of the Hungarians and stood for the head of various territorial units. Title župan was also used as a ruling title in medieval Serbia. For centuries, the official written language of the Kingdom of Hungary was Latin. The Latin word for the English and Hungarian county, comitatus ,
6100-540: The Younger, whose realm "was most wide and rich", according to the Illuminated Chronicle . Stephen invaded Transylvania and seized Gyula and his family around 1002 or in 1003. The contemporary Annals of Hildesheim adds that Stephen converted his uncle's "country to the Christian faith by force" after its conquest. Accordingly, historians date the establishment of the Diocese of Transylvania to this period. If
6222-499: The administrative system of the Kingdom of Hungary followed on October 24. Under this regulation: Under a regulation on provisional political administration of the Kingdom of Hungary issued on September 13, 1850, the territory was divided into the above 5 districts (called civil districts now), which in turn consisted of counties and the counties of districts. The territories of some counties changed, some counties were newly created. The districts were led by main district county heads ,
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#17327800362536344-479: The assistance of foreign knights including Vecelin , Hont and Pázmány , and native lords. He was crowned on 25 December 1000 or 1 January 1001 with a crown sent by Pope Sylvester II . In a series of wars against semi-independent tribes and chieftains—including the Black Hungarians and his uncle, Gyula the Younger —he unified the Carpathian Basin . He protected the independence of his kingdom by forcing
6466-478: The burg mentioned above, but in others as well. About a hundred years later, the chronicler Gallus Anonymus also made mention of armed conflicts between Stephen and Boleslav, stating that the latter "defeated the Hungarians in battle and made himself master of all their lands as far as the Danube ". Györffy says that the chronicler's report refers to the occupation of the valley of the river Morava —a tributary of
6588-546: The coronation of the German kings. Accordingly, Stephen was anointed with consecrated oil during the ceremony. Stephen's portrait, preserved on his royal cloak from 1031, shows that his crown, like the Holy Roman Emperor's diadem, was a hoop crown decorated with gemstones . Besides his crown, Stephen regarded a spear with a flag as an important symbol of his sovereignty. For instance, his first coins bear
6710-452: The counsel of the princes of the realm, and without his father's knowledge, he granted the favor of reconciliation. Stephen's biographer, Hartvic, narrates that the King, whose children died one by one in infancy, "restrained the grief over their death by the solace on account of the love of his surviving son", Emeric . However, Emeric was wounded in a hunting accident and died in 1031. After
6832-529: The counties by a chairman (German: Vorstand ) and the districts by noble judges (German: Stuhlrichter ). Only slight changes were made to the previous arrangement. Each district was formally turned to an administrative territory of a governorship department (since July 1, 1860: administrative territory of the branche-offices of the governorship ). Some county territories were slightly modified and they were led by commissioners . The only responsibilities of these state counties were political administration and
6954-425: The counties corresponded to the traditional one, but in 1786 many of them were merged and the counties became pure units of state administration – the main county heads were abolished, the county clerks became employees of the state, the courts became the responsibility of the state etc. The capitals of the districts were chosen so as to be situated right in the middle of the district. The number of processus districts
7076-687: The county assembly constituted the county's local legislation. The county legislation was subordinate only to the laws of the parliament. Latin: iudices nobilium / iudlium , Hungarian (pl) szolgabírák , Slovak (pl) slúžni , German Schöffen / Stuhlrichter (later Stuhlrichter only) iurati assessores / iurassores , Hungarian: esküdtek , Slovak: súdni prísažní , German Geschworene Latin: viceiudex , Hungarian: alszolgabírák , Slovak: podslúžni , German: Unterstuhlrichter(?) . Hungarian: törvényhatósági jogú város , Slovak: municipálne mesto , German: Munizipalstadt/ Munizipium The Hungarians settled in
7198-419: The county could not influence the appointment of the deputy county head, but in the early 15th century, they managed to put through a rule that only a noble from the same county can become the deputy county head (see below). Initially, in the 13th century, influence of nobles made itself felt only in the judicial sphere . The judges of the servientes regis - the so-called iudices servientium - developed into
7320-404: The county head. Originally, this body was created and served only as a judicial body, which comprised the judge, the sedria members and 8 elected noble jurors , and which was usually convened once a year. At the same time, the inquisitio communis (hearing of a witness) enabled the nobles to influence the proceedings conducted at the royal curia . Gradually, judicial affairs were excluded from
7442-471: The county, except for inhabitants of free royal towns ( liberae regiae civitate ), mining towns, free districts, and at the time of the Anjou kings also of royal castle domains. Until 1486, some members of the supreme nobility were exempt from the jurisdiction of the county, too. The most important body of self-government of the county was the congregatio generalis , i. e. the county assembly convened and led by
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#17327800362537564-551: The course of the Revolution of 1848 by legal articles III–V and XVI/ 1848. In 1785, king Joseph II decided to abolish the counties as entities of noble autonomy (self-governance) and tried to introduce a new system of absolutist centralized state administration in the Kingdom of Hungary. The kingdom, including Croatia and Slavonia , was primarily divided into 10 newly created military/administrative districts, each of which consisted of four to seven counties. The territory of
7686-512: The crown and consecration" from the Pope, but not without the Emperor's consent. Around 75 years after the coronation, Pope Gregory VII (r. 1075–1085), who claimed suzerainty over Hungary, declared that Stephen had "offered and devotedly surrendered" Hungary "to Saint Peter " (that is, to the Holy See ). In a contrasting report, Stephen's Greater Legend states that the King offered Hungary to
7808-417: The death of his son, the elderly King could never "fully regain his former health", according to the Illuminated Chronicle . Kristó writes that the picture, which has been preserved in Stephen's legends, of the king keeping the vigils and washing the feet of paupers, is connected with Stephen's last years, following the death of his son. Emeric's death jeopardized his father's achievements in establishing
7930-455: The deputy county head's appointment had to be approved by the nobles (congregatio generalis -see below), so that the deputy county head definitively became the de facto leader of the county. The county head, appointed by the king from the oligarchs (supreme nobility), was only the formal representative of the county. The county authorities were very powerful and administered all spheres of public life. They were responsible for all inhabitants of
8052-657: The early 16th century and the late 17th century, however, most of the counties ceased to exist once they became part of the Ottoman Empire (the Turks ) or of the Principality of Transylvania . After the final defeat of the Turks in 1718, the three southern counties Temesiensis , Torontaliensis and Krassoviensis created the special administrative district Banatus Temesiensis (Temeswar Banate ). This district
8174-407: The elderly king's life by members of his court. According to Kristó, the legends refer to a plot in which Vazul participated and his mutilation was a punishment for this act. That Vazul's ears were filled with molten lead was only recorded in later sources, including the Illuminated Chronicle . In the view of some historians, provisions in Stephen's Second Book of Laws on the "conspiracy against
8296-634: The exact date of his expedition is uncertain. Györffy argues that it was only in the last year of the war that Stephen led his troops against the Bulgarians. Bishop Leodvin wrote that Stephen collected relics of a number of saints in "Cesaries" during his campaign in the Balkans, including Saint George and Saint Nicholas . He donated them to his new triple-naved basilica dedicated to the Holy Virgin in Székesfehérvár, where he also set up
8418-562: The fault of the Bavarians. And, as a result, King [Stephen] of Hungary made many incursions and raids in the realm of the Norici (that is, of the Bavarians). Disturbed on this account Emperor Conrad came upon the Hungarians with a great army. But King [Stephen], whose forces were entirely insufficient to meet the Emperor, relied solely on the guardianship of the Lord, which he sought with prayers and fasts proclaimed through his whole realm. Since
8540-1002: The first family link between a Hungarian ruler and a Western European ruling house, as Gisela was closely related to the Ottonian dynasty of Holy Roman Emperors . According to popular tradition preserved in the Scheyern Abbey in Bavaria , the ceremony took place at the Scheyern castle and was celebrated by Saint Adalbert. Gisela was accompanied to her new home by Bavarian knights, many of whom received land grants from her husband and settled in Hungary, helping to strengthen Stephen's military position. According to Györffy, Stephen and his wife "presumably" settled in Nyitra after their marriage. Grand Prince Géza died in 997. Stephen convoked an assembly at Esztergom where his supporters declared him grand prince. Initially, he only controlled
8662-574: The first known Bishop of Bihar (r. c. 1050 – c. 1060), Stephen allied with the Byzantines and led a military expedition to assist them against " barbarians " in the Balkan Peninsula . The Byzantine and Hungarian troops jointly took "Cesaries" which Györffy identifies as the present-day town of Ohrid . Leodvin's report suggests that Stephen joined the Byzantines in the war ending with their conquest of Bulgaria in 1018. However,
8784-521: The former Kingdom of Hungary from the 10th century until the Treaty of Trianon of 1920. For lists of individual counties, see: Administrative divisions of the Kingdom of Hungary . For counties of Hungary since 1950, see: Counties of Hungary . The Latin word comitatus is derived from the word comes , which originally stood for companion or retinue member. In the Early and High Middle Ages ,
8906-538: The historical names and officials of the municipalities and did not touch their territories in general, so the territory and names of the counties still largely corresponded to those of the pre-1848 period. However, in addition to the 65 counties (49 in Hungary proper, 8 in Transylvania, and 8 in Croatia), there were 89 cities with municipal rights, including historical royal privileged towns and others, authorised by
9028-453: The identification, proposed by Kristó, Györffy and other Hungarian historians, of Gyula with one Prokui—who was Stephen's uncle according to Thietmar of Merseburg—is valid, Gyula later escaped from captivity and fled to Bolesław I the Brave , Duke of Poland (r. 992–1025). [Duke Boleslav the Brave's] territory included a certain burg, located near the border with the Hungarians. Its guardian
9150-410: The inscription LANCEA REGIS ("the king's spear") and depict an arm holding a spear with flag. According to the contemporaneous Adémar de Chabannes , a spear had been given to Stephen's father by Emperor Otto III as a token of Géza's right to "enjoy the most freedom in the possession of his country". Stephen is styled in various ways— Ungarorum rex ("king of the Hungarians"), Pannoniorum rex ("king of
9272-501: The invading troops of Conrad II, Holy Roman Emperor , to withdraw from Hungary in 1030. Stephen established at least one archbishopric, six bishoprics and three Benedictine monasteries, leading the Church in Hungary to develop independently from the archbishops of the Holy Roman Empire . He encouraged the spread of Christianity by meting out severe punishments for ignoring Christian customs. His system of local administration
9394-429: The king and the kingdom" imply that the book was promulgated after Vazul's unsuccessful plot against Stephen. However, this view has not been universally accepted. Györffy states that the law book was issued, not after 1031, but around 1009. Likewise, the authenticity of the decree on tithes is debated: according to Györffy, it was issued during Stephen's reign, but Berend, Laszlovszky and Szakács argue that it "might be
9516-599: The king, but a number of prelates (from the 15th century also seculars ) received the "eternal county leadership" of their diocese . Note that the formal title comes was also borne by some dignitaries of the Court (e. g. comes curiae ) and other nobles in the Early Middle Ages , and then by other members of middle nobility in the Late Middle Ages , and it did not mean count in these cases. From
9638-450: The kings Charles Robert and Louis I . From 1385 onwards, the counties were sending representatives to meetings of the Diet of the Kingdom of Hungary and they played a role in the collection and setting of taxes. But only in the early 15th century, the nobles managed to put through a rule that only a noble from the same county can become the deputy county head and a co-judge. From 1504 onwards
9760-510: The knowledge of the grammatical art" in his childhood. This implies that he studied Latin, though some scepticism is warranted as few kings of this era were able to write. His two other late 11th-century hagiographies do not mention any grammatical studies, stating only that he "was brought up by receiving an education appropriate for a little prince". Kristó says that the latter remark only refers to Stephen's physical training, including his participation in hunts and military actions. According to
9882-481: The late Adalbert of Prague, including Radla and Astrik , arrived in Hungary in the first years of his reign. The presence of an unnamed "Archbishop of the Hungarians" at the synod of 1007 of Frankfurt and the consecration of an altar in Bamberg in 1012 by Archbishop Astrik show that Stephen's prelates maintained a good relationship with the clergy of the Holy Roman Empire. The transformation of Hungary into
10004-488: The latter report is valid, the dioceses of Veszprém and Győr are the most probable candidates, according to historian Gábor Thoroczkay . By ordering the display of one part of Koppány's quartered corpse in Gyulafehérvár, the seat of his maternal uncle, Gyula the Younger , Stephen asserted his claim to rule all lands dominated by Hungarian lords. He also decided to strengthen his international status by adopting
10126-406: The link between the king and the nobility. As a rule, the county heads (from the 15th /16th century onwards called main county head ) were the supreme feudal lords of the county. From the beginning of the 14th century, the county head was at the same time the castellan of the respective county castle in 13 counties. People became county heads for a limited period of time and could be recalled by
10248-549: The management of taxes. The courts were the responsibility of other entities. The situation prevailing before 1848 was restored in October 1860, both in terms of borders and in terms of noble autonomy. In 1863, however, the noble autonomy was replaced by an absolutist system of state administration again. After the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 , in 1868 Transylvania was definitively reunited with
10370-501: The meeting in Győr where the royal charter determining the borders of the newly established Bishopric of Pécs was issued on 23 August 1009. The Diocese of Eger was also set up around 1009. According to Thoroczkay, "it is very probable" that the bishopric's establishment was connected with the conversion of the Kabars —an ethnic group of Khazar origin— and their chieftain. The head of
10492-399: The meetings of the congregatio generalis, which thus turned from a judicial body into an administrative body. All nobles of the county participated in person in the meetings of the congregatio and the congregatio decided on all important political, military and economic affairs. As from the beginning of the 15th century, the territory of each county was divided into processus each of which
10614-483: The northern regions of Transdanubia, took many of Stephen's forts and plundered his lands. Stephen, who, according to the Illuminated Chronicle , "was for the first time girded with his sword", placed the brothers Hont and Pázmány at the head of his own guard and nominated Vecelin to lead the royal army. The last was a German knight who had come to Hungary in the reign of Géza. Hont and Pázmány were, according to Simon of Kéza 's Gesta Hunnorum et Hungarorum and
10736-415: The northwestern regions of the Carpathian Basin ; the rest of the territory was still dominated by tribal chieftains. Stephen's ascension to the throne was in line with the principle of primogeniture , which prescribed that a father was succeeded by his son. On the other hand, it contradicted the traditional idea of seniority , according to which Géza should have been succeeded by the most senior member of
10858-516: The nuclei of Church organization. The settlements developing around them, where markets were held on each Sunday, were important local economic centers. Stephen's brother-in-law, Henry II , became King of Germany in 1002 and Holy Roman Emperor in 1013. Their friendly relationship ensured that the western borders of Hungary experienced a period of peace in the first decades of the 11th century. Even when Henry II's discontented brother, Bruno , sought refuge in Hungary in 1004, Stephen preserved
10980-555: The number of municipalities significantly and made counties the only territorial units by abolishing privileged districts, seats and other forms. 73 counties were organized in place of the 65 counties and 21 other units. However, historical identities were highly considered; in Hungary proper only minor corrections were made. Bigger changes came to Transylvania where the Székely Land and the Saxons' Land were completely "countified". At
11102-449: The observance of feast days and the confession before death. His other laws protected property rights and the interests of widows and orphans, or regulated the status of serfs. If someone has such a hardened heart—God forbid it to any Christian—that he does not want to confess his faults according to the counsel of a priest, he shall lie without any divine service and alms like an infidel. If his relatives and neighbors fail to summon
11224-515: The opponents of Stephen's proselytizing policy—is uncertain. Györffy locates their lands to the east of the river Tisza ; while Thoroczkay says they live in the southern parts of Transdanubia. Bruno of Querfurt's report of the Black Hungarians' conversion by force suggests that Stephen conquered their lands at the latest in 1009 when "the first mission of Saint Peter" —a papal legate , Cardinal Azo—arrived in Hungary. The latter attended
11346-532: The peace with Germany and negotiated a settlement between his two brothers-in-law. Around 1009, he gave his younger sister in marriage to Otto Orseolo , Doge of Venice (r. 1008–1026), a close ally of the Byzantine Emperor , Basil II (r. 976–1025), which suggests that Hungary's relationship with the Byzantine Empire was also peaceful. On the other hand, the alliance between Hungary and
11468-472: The priest, and therefore he should die unconfessed, prayers and alms should be offered, but his relatives shall wash away their negligence by fasting in accordance with the judgement of the priests. Those who die a sudden death shall be buried with all ecclesiastical honor; for divine judgment is hidden from us and unknown. Many Hungarian lords refused to accept Stephen's suzerainty even after his coronation. The new King first turned against his own uncle, Gyula
11590-405: The process. Stephen set up a territory-based administrative system, establishing counties . Each county, headed by a royal official known as a count or ispán , was an administrative unit organized around a royal fortress. Most fortresses were earthworks in this period, but the castles at Esztergom, Székesfehérvár and Veszprém were built of stone. Forts serving as county seats also became
11712-435: The real representatives of county autonomy. They were elected by the congregatio generalis (see below) and were not only judges, but also political administrators of their respective processus districts (see below). They formed the core of the newly arising class of squires . Later, the counties even turned to political entities representing the noble autonomy (noble self-government). This evolution started especially under
11834-577: The road safe for everyone, welcomed as brothers all he saw and gave them enormous gifts. This action led many people, nobles and commoners, to go to Jerusalem. In addition to pilgrims, merchants often used the safe route across Hungary when travelling between Constantinople and Western Europe. Stephen's legends refer to 60 wealthy Pechenegs who travelled to Hungary, but were attacked by Hungarian border guards. The king sentenced his soldiers to death in order to demonstrate his determination to preserve internal peace. Regular minting of coinage began in Hungary in
11956-637: The same time the total number of municipal towns was reduced from 89 to 30. After 1876 only minor changes were made to the system until 1918. The number of processus districts steadily increased over the next decades, growing from around 400 up to some 450 by 1918. The powers and responsibilities of the counties were constantly decreased and were transferred to ministries in different fields of special administration, like responsibilities in terms of construction, veterinary medicine and (overall) financial management. The ministries controlled these through their own regional and local agencies. The main county body
12078-428: The self-governments of the counties was reinstated in 1790. Only the duty to support the king militarily, the territorial unit and formally also the title of county head remained from the former royal counties. The new county was a self-governing (autonomous) entity of lower gentry. It was led by the county head ( comes ), appointed by the king, and by his deputy, appointed by the county head. These two persons were
12200-400: The supposed borders of Koppány's duchy, suggest that significant auxiliary units and groups of Hungarian warriors—who had been settled there by Grand Prince Géza—fought in Stephen's army. Kristó states that the entire conflict between Stephen and Koppány was only a feud between two members of the Árpád dynasty , with no effect on other Hungarian tribal leaders. Koppány and his troops invaded
12322-487: The taxes and payments in kind made by the subjects to the king, gave two thirds of them to the king and kept the rest. His castle had special fortifications and was able to withstand even long-term sieges. The sources mention deputy county heads in the 12th century for the first time. The royal county consisted of castle districts . In the late 13th century, the royal counties gradually turned into highly autonomous noble counties. The reasons for this development were: As
12444-422: The title comes was a noble title used in various meanings, in the Kingdom of Hungary especially (but not exclusively) in the meaning "county head". The Hungarian word megye is likely derived from Southern Slavic medja ( međa , међа ) meaning approximately territorial border. The Slavic word in turn is related to Latin medius (middle) through a common Indo-European root. The original word
12566-625: The title of king. However, the exact circumstances of his coronation and its political consequences are subject to scholarly debate. Thietmar of Merseburg writes that Stephen received the crown "with the favour and urging" of Emperor Otto III (r. 996–1002), implying that Stephen accepted the Emperor's suzerainty before his coronation. On the other hand, all of Stephen's legends emphasize that he received his crown from Pope Sylvester II (r. 999–1003). Kristó and other historians point out that Pope Sylvester and Emperor Otto were close allies, which implies that both reports are valid: Stephen "received
12688-403: The will of God". The exact date of Stephen's coronation is unknown. According to later Hungarian tradition, he was crowned on the first day of the second millennium, which may refer either to 25 December 1000 or to 1 January 1001. Details of Stephen's coronation preserved in his Greater Legend suggest that the ceremony, which took place in Esztergom or Székesfehérvár followed the rite of
12810-450: The young prince. Györffy writes, without identifying his source, that Géza appointed his son to rule the " Nyitra ducate " around that time. Slovak historians, including Ján Steinhübel and Ján Lukačka, accept Györffy's view and propose that Stephen administered Nyitra (now Nitra , Slovakia) from around 995. Géza arranged Stephen's marriage to Gisela , daughter of Henry II, Duke of Bavaria , in or after 995. This marriage established
12932-685: Was Gisela of Burgundy , a member of the Welf dynasty . Born around 985, Gisela was younger than her husband, whom she survived. She left Hungary in 1045 and died as Abbess of the Niedernburg Abbey in Passau in Bavaria around 1060. Although the Illuminated Chronicle states that Stephen "begot many sons", only two of them, Otto and Emeric, are known by name. Otto, who was named after Otto III, seems to have been born before 1002. He died as
13054-415: Was administered by one of the noble judges (there were therefore usually four in each county). The aim was to simplify the administration. The number of processus was increasing from the 18th century onwards, because the functions of the counties were increasing too. The processus, in turn, consisted of 2 to 6 circuits (Latin: circuli ), each of which was the responsibility of a deputy noble judge . Until
13176-642: Was baptized by the saintly Bishop Adalbert of Prague , who stayed in Géza's court several times between 983 and 994. However, Saint Adalbert's nearly contemporaneous Legend , written by Bruno of Querfurt , does not mention this event. Accordingly, the date of Stephen's baptism is unknown: Györffy argues that he was baptized soon after birth, while Kristó proposes that he only received baptism just before his father's death in 997. Stephen's official hagiography , written by Bishop Hartvic and sanctioned by Pope Innocent III , narrates that he "was fully instructed in
13298-504: Was based on counties organized around fortresses and administered by royal officials . Hungary enjoyed a lasting period of peace during his reign, and became a preferred route for pilgrims and merchants traveling between Western Europe , the Holy Land and Constantinople . Stephen survived all of his children, dying on 15 August 1038 aged 62 or 63. He was buried in his new basilica , built in Székesfehérvár and dedicated to
13420-458: Was born in Esztergom , which implies that he was born after 972 because his father, Géza, Grand Prince of the Hungarians , chose Esztergom as royal residence around that year. Géza promoted the spread of Christianity among his subjects by force, but never ceased worshipping pagan gods. Both his son's Greater Legend and the nearly contemporaneous Thietmar of Merseburg described Géza as
13542-644: Was conquered by the Ottomans in 1661, becoming the seat of a sanjak in Varat Eyalet . Called Şenköy by the new authorities, it was captured by the Habsburg monarchy in 1691. At the 2011 census , the commune had 2,333 inhabitants, of which 56.7% were Hungarians , 37.3% Romanians , and 5.6% Roma . In terms of religious affiliation, 46.1% were Roman Catholic , 29% Romanian Orthodox , 16.4% Reformed , 5.9% Pentecostal , and 0.9% Greek-Catholic . At
13664-433: Was descended from a prominent family of gyulas . Although both of his parents were baptized, Stephen was the first member of his family to become a devout Christian. He married Gisela of Bavaria , a scion of the imperial Ottonian dynasty . After succeeding his father in 997, Stephen had to fight for the throne against his relative, Koppány , who was supported by large numbers of pagan warriors. He defeated Koppány with
13786-538: Was dissolved again in 1779, but its southernmost part remained part of the Military Frontier ( Confiniaria militaria ) till the late 19th century. The bodies of the new counties considerably helped to defend the interests of lower and middle nobility with respect to the oligarchs , who were often the de facto rulers of the kingdom, and with respect to the absolutistic efforts of the Habsburg kings. The counties as noble institutions were abolished only in
13908-532: Was identical with " Gylas ", who had been baptized in Constantinople around 952 and "remained faithful to Christianity", according to Byzantine chronicler John Skylitzes . However, this identification is not unanimously accepted; historian György Györffy states that it was not Sarolt's father, but his younger brother, who was baptized in the Byzantine capital. In contrast with all Hungarian sources,
14030-433: Was lord Prokui, an uncle of the Hungarian king. Both in the past and more recently, Prokui had been driven from his lands by the king and his wife had been taken captive. When he was unable to free her, his nephew arranged for her unconditional release, even though he was Prokui's enemy. I have never heard of anyone who showed such restraint towards a defeated foe. Because of this, God repeatedly granted him victory, not only in
14152-466: Was reduced. The official language became German rather than Latin. The districts were headed by a commissioner appointed by the Austrian emperor , who was simultaneously also the king of Hungary . After the death of Emperor Joseph II, however, facing strong resistance against any kind of absolutist centralization in Hungary, the new king Leopold II had to repeal all the reforms and the old system of
14274-400: Was that it was no longer only the nobles and other privileged groups who could lead the municipalities (see Functioning). The system of districts (historically, in Latin, processus ) as administrative sub-divisions was affirmed in counties and extended to other areas. The second step of modernization was realized in another act of parliament in 1876. This Municipal Territories Act reduced
14396-518: Was the municipal committee , comprising 50% virilists (persons paying the highest direct taxes), and 50% elected persons fulfilling the prescribed census and ex officio members ( deputy county head , main notary and others). The county was led by the main county head , who was a government official subordinated to the Ministry of the Interior of the Kingdom of Hungary. The deputy county head
14518-402: Was the head of a small state located in the southern parts of Transylvania and Stephen occupied his country around 1003. Other historians, including Györffy, say that the chronicle's report preserved the memory of Stephen's campaign against Bulgaria in the late 1010s. Likewise, the identification of the " Black Hungarians " —who were mentioned by Bruno of Querfurt and Adémar de Chabannes among
14640-431: Was the last grand prince of the Hungarians between 997 and 1000 or 1001, and the first king of Hungary from 1000 or 1001 until his death in 1038. The year of his birth is uncertain, but many details of his life suggest that he was born in, or after, 975, in Esztergom . He was given the pagan name Vajk at birth, but the date of his baptism is unknown. He was the only son of Grand Prince Géza and his wife, Sarolt , who
14762-407: Was to administer the county during the county head ' s absence. Originally, the deputy county head was a personal employee of the king and thus the main person through which the king exercised influence in the county. At the same time, the deputy was the castellan of the castle of the county head or an economic officer (Latin: provisor ) of the properties of the same. Initially, the nobles of
14884-567: Was usually a nobleman, who would commonly be in Vienna or Pesth and thus have little time for local affairs.) Furthermore, the Vicegespann presided over the county assembly, which had as late as 1840 a long list of powers, ranging from police regulations to tax, to improvements on bridges and roads. In 1849, in the course of and after the defeat of the Magyars in the 1848-1849 Revolution ,
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