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183-733: Wilson was a leading force in the Progressive Movement . During his first term, he oversaw the passage of progressive legislative policies unparalleled until the New Deal in the 1930s. Taking office one month after the ratification of the 16th Amendment of the Constitution permitted a federal income tax, he helped pass the Revenue Act of 1913 , which introduced a low federal income tax to replace revenue lost in lower tariff rates . The income tax soared to high rates after

366-567: A moralistic policy in dealing with Mexico's civil war . Upon the outbreak of World War I in 1914, Wilson maintained a policy of neutrality, and sought to broker a peace agreement between the belligerents. Wilson's second term was dominated by America's roles fighting and financing the World War, and designing a postwar peaceful world . In April 1917, when Germany resumed unrestricted submarine warfare , Wilson asked Congress to declare war in order to make "the world safe for democracy." Through

549-504: A "New Nationalism" with active supervision of corporations, higher taxes, and unemployment and old-age insurance. He supported voting rights for women but was silent on civil rights for blacks, who remained in the regular Republican fold. He lost and his new party collapsed, as conservatism dominated the GOP for decades to come. Biographer William Harbaugh argues: Woodrow Wilson gained a national reputation as governor of New Jersey by defeating

732-470: A 1911 treaty with Japan. The law bred resentment in Japan which lingered into the 1920s and 1930s. As America entered the war, many Irish and German Americans were alienated—they did not want to help Britain or fight Germany. These Irish and German " Hyphenated American " elements repulsed Wilson because he believed that they were motivated to help the goals of Ireland and Germany, not to the needs and values of

915-674: A July 1913 letter responding to Oswald Garrison Villard , publisher of the New York Evening Post and founding member of the NAACP ; Wilson suggested the segregation removed "friction" between the races. While segregation had been present in the army prior to Wilson, its severity increased significantly under him. During Wilson's first term, the army and navy refused to commission new black officers. Black officers already serving experienced increased discrimination and were often forced out or discharged on dubious grounds. In 1917–1918

1098-506: A benefit, and ought to be so regarded by you gentlemen." In 1918, W. E. B. Du Bois —a leader of the NAACP who had campaigned for Wilson believing he was a "liberal southerner"—was offered an army commission in charge of dealing with race relations; DuBois accepted, but he failed his army physical and did not serve. By 1916, Du Bois opposed Wilson, charging that his first term had seen "the worst attempt at Jim Crow legislation and discrimination in civil service that [blacks] had experienced since

1281-546: A blistering indictment of corruption in the US Senate. Roosevelt gave these journalists their nickname when he complained they were not being helpful by raking up too much muck. The progressives were avid modernizers, with a belief in science and technology as the grand solution to society's flaws. They looked to education as the key to bridging the gap between their present wasteful society and technologically enlightened future society. Characteristics of progressivism included

1464-632: A central bank since the Bank War of the 1830s. In the aftermath of the Panic of 1907 , there was general agreement among bankers and leaders in both parties of the necessity to create some sort of central banking system to provide coordination during financial emergencies. Most leaders also sought currency reform, as they believed that the roughly $ 3.8 billion in coins and banknotes did not provide an adequate money supply during financial panics. Under conservative Republican Senator Nelson Aldrich 's leadership,

1647-554: A creditor nation for the first time in its history. But the loans caused no end of diplomatic problems when Washington in the 1920s demanded (and did not get) full repayment. In 1932, 90% was written off because of the Great Depression; after that the issue was largely forgotten and the loans were finally repaid in 1951. In the midst of the war, the federal budget soared from $ 1 billion in fiscal year 1916 to $ 19 billion in fiscal year 1919. The War Revenue Act of 1917 raised

1830-433: A favorable attitude toward urban–industrial society, belief in mankind's ability to improve the environment and conditions of life, belief in an obligation to intervene in economic and social affairs, a belief in the ability of experts and in the efficiency of government intervention. Scientific management, as promulgated by Frederick Winslow Taylor , became a watchword for industrial efficiency and elimination of waste, with

2013-472: A former prosecutor, was sworn in as New Jersey's first lieutenant governor on January 19, 2010, under Governor Chris Christie . Guadagno was succeeded by former assemblywoman Sheila Oliver , who was sworn in on January 16, 2018, under Governor Phil Murphy . On August 1, 2023, the lieutenant governor position became vacant on August 1, 2023, when Oliver died in office. On September 8, 2023, Governor Murphy selected Tahesha Way , New Jersey's Secretary of State, as

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2196-454: A key element of the progressive outlook, as expressed in his Fourteen Points and the League of Nations —an ideal called Wilsonianism . New York Governor Charles Evans Hughes is known for exposing the insurance industry. During his time in office he promoted a range of reforms. As presidential candidate in 1916 he lost after alienating progressive California voters. As Associate Justice of

2379-476: A large degree of authority over the home front to his subordinates. He largely left military matters to his War and Navy departments The great majority of labor unions, including the AFL and the railroad brotherhoods, supported the war effort, and were rewarded for their efforts with high pay and access to Wilson. Unions saw enormous growth in membership and wages during the war, and strikes were rare. Wilson established

2562-401: A major target of progressive reformers. To revitalize democracy, progressives established direct primary elections , direct election of senators (rather than by state legislatures), initiatives and referenda , and women's suffrage which was promoted to advance democracy and bring the presumed moral influence of women into politics. For many progressives, prohibition of alcoholic beverages

2745-424: A national audience, and Governor Walter R. Stubbs . According to Gene Clanton's study of Kansas, populism and progressivism have a few similarities but different bases of support. Both opposed corruption and trusts. Populism emerged earlier and came out of the farm community. It was radically egalitarian in favor of the disadvantaged classes. It was weak in the towns and cities except in labor unions. Progressivism, on

2928-476: A national publicity campaign that marginalized anti-semitic slurs in the legal profession. Wilson worked hard and convinced Senate Democrats to vote for Brandeis, who served as an arch-liberal until 1939. In 1916 Wilson appointed John Hessin Clarke , a progressive lawyer who resigned in 1922 after bitter disputes with McReynolds. In addition to his three Supreme Court appointments, Wilson also appointed 20 judges to

3111-578: A network of local organizers loyal to him, and fought for control of the state Republican Party, with mixed success. The Democrats were a minor factor in the state, but he did form coalitions with the active Socialist Party in Milwaukee. He failed to win the nomination for governor in 1896 and 1898 before winning the 1900 gubernatorial election . As governor of Wisconsin, La Follette compiled a progressive record, implementing primary elections and tax reform. La Follette won re-election in 1902 and 1904. In 1905

3294-459: A prominent 1912 presidential contender immediately upon his election as Governor of New Jersey in 1910. Already famous as president of Princeton and as a leading intellectual, his political stature soared after he defeated the state's political bosses and emerged as a national leader of the Progressive movement to reform America. Prior to the 1912 Democratic National Convention , Wilson made

3477-570: A public uproar that contributed in part to the passage a few months later of the 1906 Pure Food and Drug Act and the Meat Inspection Act . In 1919, he published The Brass Check , a muck-raking exposé of American journalism that publicized the issue of yellow journalism and the limitations of the "free press" in the United States. Four years after publication of The Brass Check , the first code of ethics for journalists

3660-632: A sellout to the unions and the Republicans made it a major campaign issue. The Adamson Act was the first federal law that regulated hours worked by private employees, and it was upheld by the Supreme Court. Wilson thought a child labor law would probably be unconstitutional but reversed himself in 1916 with a close election approaching. In 1916, after intense campaigns by the National Child Labor Committee (NCLC) and

3843-602: A special effort to win the approval of three-time Democratic presidential nominee William Jennings Bryan , whose followers had largely dominated the Democratic Party since 1896. Speaker of the House Champ Clark of Missouri was viewed by many as the front-runner for the nomination, while House Majority Leader Oscar Underwood of Alabama also loomed as a challenger. Clark found support among the Bryan wing of

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4026-418: A strong federal government. He promoted a strong army and navy and attacked pacifists who thought democracy at home and peace abroad was best served by keeping America weak. Croly was one of the founders of modern liberalism in the United States , especially through his books, essays and a highly influential magazine founded in 1914, The New Republic . In his 1914 book Progressive Democracy , Croly rejected

4209-428: A system of Jim Crow was swiftly implemented with ships, training facilities, restrooms, and cafeterias all becoming segregated. While Daniels significantly expanded opportunities for advancement and training available to white sailors, African-American sailors were relegated almost entirely to mess and custodial duties, often assigned to act as servants for white officers. Hundreds of thousands of blacks were drafted into

4392-558: A tax on personal income above $ 4,000. Passage of Underwood's tariff bill in the Senate proved more difficult than in the House, partially because some Southern and Western Democrats favored the continued protection of the wool and sugar industries, and partially because Democrats had a narrower majority in that chamber. Seeking to marshal support for the tariff bill, President Wilson met extensively with Democratic senators and appealed directly to

4575-528: A tax on the production of munitions, raised the top income tax rate to fifteen percent, and raised the corporate income tax from one percent to two percent. That same year, the President signed a law that established the Tariff Commission , which was charged with providing expert advice on tariff rates. In the 1920s, Republicans raised tariffs and lowered the income tax. Nonetheless, the policies of

4758-613: A third party in the state. The third party fell apart in the 1930s, and totally collapsed by 1946. The Wisconsin Idea was the commitment of the University of Wisconsin under President Charles R. Van Hise , with LaFollette support, to use the university's powerful intellectual resources to develop practical progressive reforms for the state and indeed for the nation. Between 1901 and 1911, Progressive Republicans in Wisconsin created

4941-619: Is Phil Murphy , a Democrat who assumed office on January 16, 2018. The governor is directly elected by the voters to become the political and ceremonial head of the state. The governor performs the executive functions of the state, and is not directly subordinate to the federal authorities. The governor assumes additional roles, such as being the commander-in-chief of the New Jersey National Guard forces (when they are not federalized). Unlike many other states that have elections for some cabinet -level positions, under

5124-574: Is done with strong consideration of the preferences of the individual state senators who represent the district where vacancies arise. The governor is also responsible for appointing two constitutionally created officers, the New Jersey attorney general and the secretary of state of New Jersey , with the approval of the Senate. As amended in January 2002, state law allows for a maximum salary of $ 175,000. Phil Murphy has stated that he will accept

5307-499: Is entitled to a one-person security detail from the New Jersey State Police for up to six months after leaving office. "I, [name of governor], elected governor of the state of New Jersey, do solemnly promise and swear that I will diligently, faithfully and to the best of my knowledge, execute the said office in conformity with the powers delegated to me; and that I will to the utmost of my skill and ability, promote

5490-630: Is the head of government of the U.S. state of New Jersey . The office of governor is an elected position with a four-year term. There is a two consecutive term term limit, with no limitation on non-consecutive terms. The official residence of the governor is Drumthwacket , a mansion located in Princeton, New Jersey . The governor's office is located inside of the New Jersey State House in Trenton , making New Jersey notable as

5673-619: The Fourteen Points , and in 1919, following the signing of an armistice with Germany , he traveled to Paris, concluding the Treaty of Versailles . Wilson embarked on a nationwide tour to campaign for the treaty, which would have included U.S. entrance into the League of Nations . He was left incapacitated by a stroke in October 1919 and the treaty failed in the Senate. Despite his bad health and diminished mental capacity, Wilson served

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5856-409: The 1892 . Roosevelt emerged as Wilson's main challenger, and Wilson and Roosevelt focused on attacking each other despite sharing similarly progressive platforms that called for a strong, interventionist central government. Wilson won 435 of the 531 electoral votes and 41.8% of the popular vote, while Roosevelt won most of the remaining electoral votes and 27.4% of the popular vote, representing one of

6039-522: The 1919 United States anarchist bombings , which were conducted by the anarchist Luigi Galleani and his followers. Fears over far-left subversion, combined with a patriotic national mood, led to the " First Red Scare ." Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer convinced Wilson to delay amnesty for those who had been convicted of war-time sedition, and he launched the Palmer Raids to suppress radical organizations. Palmer's activities met resistance from

6222-541: The Allied and American war efforts in World War I. Next on the agenda was antitrust legislation to supplant the Sherman Antitrust Act of 1890. The Sherman Antitrust Act had barred any "contract, combination...or conspiracy, in restraint of trade," but had proved ineffective in preventing the rise of large business combinations known as trusts . Roosevelt and Taft had both escalated antitrust prosecution by

6405-681: The American Federation of Labor , and he generally believed that workers were best protected through laws rather than unions. Wilson and Secretary of Labor William Bauchop Wilson rejected Walsh's proposed reforms, and instead focused on using the Labor Department to mediate conflicts between labor and ownership. The labor policies of Wilson's administration were tested by a strike against the Colorado Fuel and Iron Company in late 1913 and early 1914. The company rejected

6588-540: The Espionage Act of 1917 and the Sedition Act of 1918 to suppress anti-British, pro-German, or anti-war statements. While he welcomed socialists who supported the war, he pushed at the same time to arrest and deport foreign-born enemies. After the war many recent immigrants, resident aliens without U.S. citizenship, who opposed America's participation in the war were deported to Russia or other nations under

6771-549: The Espionage Act of 1917 and the Sedition Act of 1918 , suppressing anti-draft activists. The crackdown was later intensified by Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer to include expulsion of non-citizen radicals during the First Red Scare of 1919–1920. Wilson infused morality into his internationalism, an ideology now referred to as " Wilsonian "—an activist foreign policy calling on the nation to promote global democracy. In early 1918, he issued his principles for peace,

6954-547: The Federal Farm Loan Act , which created twelve regional banks empowered to provide low-interest loans to farmers. Nevertheless, he needed the farm vote to survive the upcoming 1916 election, so he signed it. Wilson embraced the long-standing Democratic policy against owning colonies, and he worked for the gradual autonomy and ultimate independence of the Philippines , which had been acquired from Spain in

7137-531: The Foraker Act , created the Senate of Puerto Rico , established a bill of rights, and authorized the election of a Resident Commissioner (previously appointed by the president) to a four-year term. The act also granted Puerto Ricans U.S. citizenship and exempted Puerto Rican bonds from federal, state, and local taxes. Immigration was a bitterly contested issue before the World War, but President Wilson gave

7320-600: The Immigration Act of 1917 , but Congress overrode the veto. The act's goal was to reduce unskilled European immigration by requiring literacy tests. It was the first U.S. law to restrict immigration from Europe, and it foreshadowed the more restrictive immigration laws of the 1920s. With the American entrance into World War I in April 1917, Wilson became wartime leader of a poorly prepared nation with fresh manpower and

7503-605: The National Consumers League , the Congress passed the Keating–Owen Act by large majorities. It became illegal to ship goods in interstate commerce if they were made in factories employing children under specified ages. Southern Democrats were opposed but did not filibuster. Wilson endorsed the bill at the last minute under pressure from party leaders who stressed how popular the idea was, especially among

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7686-575: The National Monetary Commission had put forward a plan to establish a central banking system that would issue currency and provide oversight and loans to the nation's banks. However, many progressives led by Bryan distrusted the plan due to the degree of influence bankers would have over the central banking system. Relying heavily on the advice of Louis Brandeis, Wilson sought a middle ground between progressives such as Bryan and conservative Republicans like Aldrich. He declared that

7869-575: The National War Labor Board (NWLB) to mediate wartime labor disputes, but it was slow to organize, and the Labor Department provided mediation services in most disputes. Wilson's labor policies continued to stress mediation and agreement on all sides. When Smith & Wesson refused to assent to an NWLB ruling, the War Department seized control of the gun company and forced employees to return to work. Large amounts of money

8052-603: The New Jersey Constitution the governor and lieutenant governor are the only officials elected on a statewide basis. Much like the president of the United States , the governor appoints the entire cabinet, subject to confirmation by the New Jersey Senate . More importantly, under the New Jersey constitution, the governor appoints all superior court judges and county prosecutors, although this

8235-580: The Nineteenth Amendment until 1971, Progressive reformers like Gertrude Weil and Dr. Elizabeth Delia Dixon Carroll lobbied for woman suffrage . Following the Wilmington massacre , North Carolina imposed strict legal segregation and rewrote its constitution in order to disfranchise Black men through poll taxes and literacy tests. In the Black community, Charlotte Hawkins Brown built

8418-695: The Palmer Memorial Institute to provide a liberal arts education to Black children and promote excellence and leadership. Brown worked with Booker T. Washington (in his role with the National Negro Business League ), who provided ideas and access to Northern philanthropy. Apart from Wisconsin, the Midwestern states were about average in supporting Progressive reforms. Ohio took the lead in municipal reform. The negative effects of industrialization triggered

8601-633: The Panama Canal . He expanded the army and sent the Great White Fleet on a world tour to project the United States naval power around the globe. His successful efforts to broker the end of the Russo-Japanese War won him the 1906 Nobel Peace Prize. He avoided controversial tariff and money issues. He was elected to a full term in 1904 and continued to promote progressive policies, some of which were passed in Congress. By 1906 he

8784-488: The Pure Food and Drug Act . The journalists who specialized in exposing waste, corruption, and scandal operated at the state and local level, like Ray Stannard Baker , George Creel , and Brand Whitlock . Others such as Lincoln Steffens exposed political corruption in many large cities; Ida Tarbell is famed for her criticisms of John D. Rockefeller 's Standard Oil Company . In 1906, David Graham Phillips unleashed

8967-665: The Selective Service Act , conscription sent 10,000 freshly trained soldiers to France per day by summer 1918. On the home front, Wilson raised income taxes, set up the War Industries Board , promoted labor union cooperation, regulated agriculture and food production through the Lever Act , and nationalized the nation's railroad system. In his 1915 State of the Union, Wilson asked Congress for what became

9150-551: The Sixteenth Amendment , which had been proposed by Republicans in 1909 during a debate over tariff legislation, was ratified by the requisite number of states. Following the ratification of the Sixteenth Amendment, Democratic leaders agreed to attach an income tax provision to their tariff reduction bill, partly to make up for lost revenue, and partly to shift the burden of funding the government towards

9333-738: The Spanish–American War . The final phases of the Philippine–American War were still ongoing during the first several months of Wilson's presidency, with the American victory at the Battle of Bud Bagsak in June 1913 bringing an end to nearly 15 years of anti-American resistance on the islands. Inheriting the Philippine policy of his predecessors, Wilson increased self-governance on the islands by granting Filipinos greater control over

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9516-649: The United States Courts of Appeals and 52 judges to the United States district courts . With the support of the Democratic Congress, Wilson introduced a comprehensive program of domestic legislation at the outset of his administration, something no president had ever done before. The Democrats had four major priorities: the conservation of natural resources, banking reform, tariff reduction, and equal access to raw materials, which

9699-531: The strongest third party performances in U.S. history. Taft won 23.2% of the popular vote but just 8 electoral votes, while Debs won 6% of the popular vote. In the concurrent congressional elections , Democrats retained control of the House and won a majority in the Senate . Wilson's victory made him the first Southerner to win the presidency since 1848. After the election, Wilson quickly chose William Jennings Bryan as Secretary of State, and Bryan offered advice on

9882-535: The "community chest" movement. The American Red Cross was reorganized and professionalized. Several major foundations aided the blacks in the South and were typically advised by Booker T. Washington . By contrast, Europe and Asia had few foundations. This allowed both Carnegie and Rockefeller to operate internationally with a powerful effect. A hallmark group of the Progressive Era, the middle class became

10065-500: The 1895 case of United States v. E. C. Knight Co. As Chief Justice of the Supreme Court he took a moderate middle position and upheld key New Deal laws. Gifford Pinchot was an American forester and politician. Pinchot served as the first Chief of the United States Forest Service from 1905 until 1910 and was the 28th Governor of Pennsylvania , serving from 1923 to 1927, and again from 1931 to 1935. He

10248-601: The 1912 Socialist presidential candidate, was convicted for encouraging young men to evade the draft. In response to concerns over civil liberties, the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU), a private organization devoted to the defense of free speech, was founded in 1917. Wilson called on voters in the 1918 mid-term elections to elect Democrats as an endorsement of his policies. However the Republicans won over alienated German-Americans and took control. Wilson refused to coordinate or compromise with

10431-566: The 1919 peace conference. In both cases, Wilson was afraid that publicity would interfere with his quiet diplomacy. Journalists such as Walter Lippmann found a workaround, discovering that Colonel House was both highly talkative and devious in manipulating the press to slant its stories. A major problem facing the administration was that 90 percent of the major newspapers and magazine outside the South had traditionally favored Republicans. The administration countered this by quietly collaborating with favorable reporters who admired Wilson's leadership in

10614-524: The Civil War." Progressive era The Progressive Era (1901–1929) was a period in the United States during the early 20th century of widespread social activism and political reform across the country. Progressives sought to address the problems caused by rapid industrialization, urbanization, immigration, and political corruption as well as the enormous concentration of industrial ownership in monopolies. Progressive reformers were alarmed by

10797-707: The FTC, passed Congress with bipartisan support, and Wilson signed the bill into law in September 1914. One month later, Wilson signed the Clayton Antitrust Act of 1914 , which built on the Sherman Act by defining and banning several anti-competitive practices. President Taft had established the Commission on Industrial Relations to study labor issues, but the Senate had rejected all of his nominees to

10980-517: The Justice Department, but many progressives desired legislation that would do more to prevent trusts from dominating the economy. While Roosevelt believed that trusts could be separated into "good trusts" and "bad trusts" based on their effects on the broader economy, Wilson had argued for breaking up all trusts during his 1912 presidential campaign. In December 1913, Wilson asked Congress to pass an antitrust law that would ban many anti-competitive practices. A month later, in January 1914, he also asked for

11163-438: The Labor Department's attempts to mediate, and a militia controlled by the company attacked a miner's camp in what became known as the Ludlow Massacre . At the Governor of Colorado's request, the Wilson administration sent in troops to end the dispute, but mediation efforts failed after the union called off the strike due to a lack of funds. In mid-1916, a major railroad strike endangered the nation's economy. The president called

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11346-434: The Model T craze roaring along, the demand for better roads was irresistible, with efforts coordinated by the American Automobile Association (formed in 1902) and the American Association of State Highway Officials (formed in 1914). The slogan was "Get America Out of the Mud!" The Federal Aid Road Act of 1916 , provided federal subsidies to road-building in every state. Wilson disliked the excessive government involvement in

11529-705: The People's Power League. The group led efforts in Oregon to establish an initiative and referendum system, allowing direct legislation by the state's citizens. In 1902, the Oregon Legislative Assembly approved such a system, which was known at the time as the " Oregon System ". The group's further efforts led to successful ballot initiatives implementing a direct primary system in 1904, and allowing citizens to directly recall public officials in 1908. Democrats who promoted progressive policies included George Earle Chamberlain (governor 1903–1909 and senator 1909–1921); Oswald West (governor 1911–1915); and Harry Lane (senator 1913–1917). The most important Republican

11712-422: The Philippine Legislature. The House passed a measure to grant the Philippines full independence, but Republicans blocked this proposal in the Senate. The Jones Act of 1916 committed the United States to the eventual independence of the Philippines; independence took place in 1946. The Jones Act of 1917 upgraded the status of Puerto Rico , which had also been acquired from Spain in 1898. The act, which superseded

11895-426: The Republican Party and if frustrated trying third-party activity especially in 1924 and the 1930s. Secondly the Wisconsin idea , of intellectuals and planners based at the University of Wisconsin shaping government policy. LaFollette started as a traditional Republican in the 1890s, where he fought against populism and other radical movements. He broke decisively with the state Republican leadership, and took control of

12078-419: The Republican control of the Senate, as Republicans could block the appointment of commission members. Instead, Wilson favored the prompt dismantling of wartime boards and regulatory agencies. Though McAdoo and others favored extending government control of railroads under the United States Railroad Administration , Congress passed the Esch–Cummins Act , which restored private control in 1920. Demobilization of

12261-405: The Republican nomination after a bitter battle against Theodore Roosevelt , a former Republican President. Roosevelt bolted the GOP and created a new third party —the Progressive Party . A fourth candidate, Eugene V. Debs of the Socialist Party , had a small national base in the labor movement. The split in the Republican Party gave Democrats every expectation of victory for the first time since

12444-414: The Senate. While the vast majority of Republicans favored the amendment, Southern Democrats stood opposed. Wilson continually pressured senators to vote for the bill, and in June 1919 the Senate approved the amendment. The requisite number of states ratified the Nineteenth Amendment in August 1920. That same year, Wilson appointed Helen H. Gardener to a seat on the United States Civil Service Commission ,

12627-413: The Smith–Lever Act overcame many conservatives' objections by adding provisions to bolster local control of the program. Local agricultural colleges supervised the agricultural extension agents, and the agents were barred from operating without county governments' approval. By 1924, three-quarters of the agriculture-oriented counties in the United States took part in the agricultural extension program. With

12810-412: The Supreme Court, he often sided with Oliver Wendell Holmes in upholding popular reforms such as the minimum wage, workmen's compensation, and maximum work hours for women and children. He also wrote several opinions upholding the power of Congress to regulate interstate commerce under the Commerce Clause . His majority opinion in the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad v. Interstate Commerce Commission upheld

12993-556: The Treasury and A. Mitchell Palmer becoming Attorney General. Wilson's chief of staff ("Secretary") was Joseph Patrick Tumulty from 1913 to 1921. Tumulty's position provided a political buffer and intermediary with the press, and his irrepressible spirit offset the president's often dour disposition. Wilson's first wife, Ellen Axson Wilson , died on August 6, 1914. Wilson married Edith Bolling Galt in 1915, and she assumed full control of Wilson's schedule, diminishing Tumulty's power. The most important foreign policy advisor and confidant

13176-728: The U.S. entered the world war in 1917. Other major progressive legislation passed during Wilson's first term included the Federal Reserve Act , the Federal Trade Commission Act of 1914 , the Clayton Antitrust Act , and the Federal Farm Loan Act . With the passing of the Adamson Act —which imposed an 8-hour workday for railroads—he averted a threatened railroad strike. Concerning race issues, Wilson's administration reinforced segregationist policies for government agencies. He became deeply involved with

13359-775: The United States . A Constitutional amendment passed both houses in December 1917 by 2/3 votes. By January 16, 1919, the Eighteenth Amendment had been ratified by 36 of the 48 states it needed. On October 28, 1919, Congress passed enabling legislation, the Volstead Act , to enforce the Eighteenth Amendment. Wilson felt Prohibition was unenforceable, but his veto of the Volstead Act was overridden by Congress. Prohibition began on January 16, 1920;

13542-625: The United States multiple times with patriotic information about how the individual could contribute to the war effort. He set up divisions in his new agency to produce and distribute innumerable copies of posters, pamphlets, newspaper releases, magazine advertisements, films, school campaigns, and the speeches of the Four Minute Men . The CPI also worked with the Post Office to censor seditious counter-propaganda. The CPI trained thousands of volunteer speakers to make patriotic appeals during

13725-548: The United States. Many reacted by voting against the Democrats in 1918 and 1920. Migration from Europe, or return thereto, ended in 1914, as European nations closed their borders during World War I. Wilson's progressivism encouraged his belief that immigrants from Southern and Eastern Europe, though poor and illiterate, could assimilate into a homogeneous white middle class, and he opposed the restrictive immigration policies that many members of both parties favored. Wilson vetoed

13908-507: The War Department drafted hundreds of thousands of blacks into the army, and draftees were paid equally regardless of race. Commissioning of African-Americans officers resumed but units remained segregated and most all-black units were led by white officers. Unlike the Army, the U.S. Navy had never been formally segregated. Following Wilson's appointment of Josephus Daniels as Secretary of the Navy,

14091-514: The West. He called for government ownership of railroads and electric utilities, cheap credit for farmers, stronger laws to help labor unions, and protections for civil liberties. La Follette won 17% of the popular vote and carried only his home state in the face of a Republican landslide. After his death in 1925 his sons, Robert M. La Follette Jr. and Philip La Follette , succeeded him as progressive leaders in Wisconsin. President Theodore Roosevelt

14274-586: The White House. They were modestly effective, though the president prohibited his being quoted and often made purposely vague statements. The first such press conference was held on March 15, 1913, when reporters were allowed to ask him questions. Wilson had a mixed record with the press. Relations were generally smooth, but he ended weekly meetings with the White House correspondents after the Lusitania sinking in 1915. He also sharply restricted access during

14457-461: The Wilson administration called for the passage of another major revenue bill. President Wilson and congressional allies like Congressman Claude Kitchin rejected proposal to increase tariff rates, instead favoring increased taxes on high earners. Working with progressive Republicans, Congressional Democrats won passage of the Revenue Act of 1916 , which reinstated the federal estate tax , established

14640-406: The Wilson administration escalated the practice. In Wilson's first month in office, Postmaster General Albert S. Burleson brought up the issue of segregating workplaces in a cabinet meeting and urged the president to establish it across the government, in restrooms, cafeterias and work spaces. Treasury Secretary William G. McAdoo also permitted lower-level officials to racially segregate employees in

14823-470: The Wilson administration had a durable impact on the composition of government revenue, which after the 1920s primarily came from taxation rather than tariffs. President Wilson did not wait to complete the Revenue Act of 1913 before proceeding to the next item on his agenda—banking. Britain and Germany had strong financial controls through government-run central banks , but the United States had not had

15006-516: The aftermath of the sinking of the RMS Lusitania . Bryan was replaced by Robert Lansing , and Wilson took more direct control of his administration's foreign policy after Bryan's departure. Newton D. Baker , a progressive Democrat, became Secretary of War in 1916, and Baker led the War Department during World War I . Wilson's cabinet experienced turnover after the conclusion of World War I, with Carter Glass replacing McAdoo as Secretary of

15189-574: The amies. A new United States Fuel Administration , run by Harry Augustus Garfield , introduced daylight saving time and rationed fuel supplies so as to send more oil to Europe. William McAdoo took charge of war bond efforts; Vance C. McCormick headed the War Trade Board. These men, known collectively as the "war cabinet", met weekly with Wilson. The State Department was headed by Robert Lansing , but Wilson and his top advisor Colonel House took full control of war policies. Wilson delegated

15372-478: The applicability of antitrust laws on unions . As the difficulty of banning all anti-competitive practices via legislation became clear, President Wilson came to favor legislation granting the FTC greater discretion to investigate antitrust violations and enforce antitrust laws independently of the Justice Department. The Federal Trade Commission Act of 1914 , which incorporated Wilson's ideas regarding

15555-491: The army was chaotic and violent; four million soldiers were sent home with little planning, little money, few benefits, and vague promises. A wartime bubble in prices of farmland burst, leaving many farmers deeply in debt after they purchased new land. Major strikes in the steel, coal, and meatpacking industries disrupted the economy in 1919. The country was also hit by the influenza pandemic , which killed over 600,000 Americans in 1918 and 1919. A massive agricultural price collapse

15738-439: The average import tariff rates from 40 percent to 26 percent. It also imposed a federal income tax for the first time since 1872. Congress adopted an income tax in the 1890s, but that tax had been struck down by the Supreme Court before taking effect. The Revenue Act of 1913 imposed a one percent tax on incomes above $ 3,000, with a top tax rate of six percent on those earning more than $ 500,000 per year. Approximately three percent of

15921-472: The banking system must be "public not private, [and] must be vested in the government itself so that the banks must be the instruments, not the masters, of business." Democratic Congressmen Carter Glass and Robert L. Owen crafted a compromise plan in which private banks would control twelve regional Federal Reserve Banks , but the ultimate control of the system was placed in a central board filled with presidential appointees. The system of twelve regional banks

16104-907: The beginning of the age of mass media, the rapid expansion of national advertising led the cover price of popular magazines to fall sharply to about 10 cents, lessening the financial barrier to consume them. Another factor contributing to the dramatic upswing in magazine circulation was the prominent coverage of corruption in politics, local government, and big business, particularly by journalists and writers who became known as muckrakers . They wrote for popular magazines to expose social and political sins and shortcomings. Relying on their own investigative journalism , muckrakers often worked to expose social ills and corporate and political corruption . Muckraking magazines, notably McClure's , took on corporate monopolies and political machines while raising public awareness of chronic urban poverty, unsafe working conditions, and social issues like child labor . Most of

16287-441: The bosses and pushing through a progressive agenda. As president he introduced a comprehensive program of domestic legislation. He had four major domestic priorities: the conservation of natural resources, banking reform, tariff reduction , and opening access to raw materials by breaking up Western mining trusts. Though foreign affairs would unexpectedly dominate his presidency, Wilson's first two years in office largely focused on

16470-533: The campaign for inclusion of the initiative and referendum in the state's constitution. The League sent questionnaires to prospective candidates to the state legislature to obtain their stance on direct legislation and to make those positions public. It then flooded the state with letters seeking new members, money, and endorsements from organizations like the State Federation of Labor. As membership grew it worked with other private organizations to petition

16653-400: The cause of prohibition, leading North Carolina to become the first southern state to implement statewide prohibition . Progressives worked to limit child labor in textile mills and supported public health campaigns to eradicate hookworm and other debilitating diseases. While the majority of North Carolininans continued to support traditional gender roles, and state legislators did not ratify

16836-561: The cause of world peace; their newspapers printed their reports because their scoops made news. The German-language press was vehemently hostile to Wilson, but he used this to his advantage, attacking hyphenates as loyal to a foreign country. Wilson appointed three men to the United States Supreme Court . He appointed James Clark McReynolds in 1914; he was an arch-conservative who served until 1941. Wilson wanted to appoint Louis Brandeis to his Cabinet in 1913, but he

17019-568: The central banking system. The Senate then voted 54–34 to approve the Federal Reserve Act . Wilson signed the bill into law in December 1913. The president appointed Paul Warburg and other prominent bankers to direct the new system. While power was supposed to be decentralized, the New York branch dominated the Federal Reserve as the "first among equals." The new system began operations in 1915, and it played an important role in financing

17202-495: The citizens who are most vulnerable and deprived. In the south, prohibition was high on the agenda but controversial. Jim Crow and disenfranchisement of Black voters was even higher on the agenda. In the Western states, woman suffrage was a success story, but racist anti-Asian sentiment also prevailed. The Oregon Direct Legislation League was an organization of political activists founded by William S. U'Ren in 1898. Oregon

17385-473: The civilian to the munitions sectors. The financing of the war was broadly successful. Later generations of taxpayers absorbed about half the economic cost of the war, and the people at the time the other half. The foreign loans stabilized the Allied economies and strengthened their ability to fight and to produce weapons, and thus helped the American war effort. By the end of the war, the United States had become

17568-435: The commission. Upon taking office, Wilson nominated a mix of conservatives and progressive reformers, with commission chairman Frank P. Walsh falling into the latter group. The commission helped expose numerous labor abuses throughout the nation, and Walsh proposed reforms designed to empower unions. Prior to his first presidential inauguration, Wilson had had an uneasy relationship with union leaders such as Samuel Gompers of

17751-482: The conservation of forests high on America's priority list. Herbert Croly was an intellectual leader of the movement as an editor, political philosopher and a co-founder of the magazine The New Republic . His political philosophy influenced many leading progressives including Theodore Roosevelt, Adolph Berle , as well as his close friends Judge Learned Hand and Supreme Court Justice Felix Frankfurter . Croly's 1909 book The Promise of American Life looked to

17934-588: The conservatives (called "Stalwarts") to elect Emanuel Philipp as governor in 1914. The Stalwart counterattack said the Progressives were too haughty, too beholden to experts, too eager to regulate, and too expensive. Economy and budget cutting was their formula. The progressive Wisconsin Idea promoted the use of the University of Wisconsin faculty as intellectual resources for state government, and as guides for local government. It promoted expansion of

18117-427: The constitutional liberalism as espoused by Alexander Hamilton , combined with the radical democracy of Thomas Jefferson . The book influenced contemporaneous progressive thought, shaping the ideas of many intellectuals and political leaders, including then ex-President Theodore Roosevelt. Calling themselves "The New Nationalists", Croly and Walter Weyl sought to remedy the relatively weak national institutions with

18300-502: The courts and from some senior federal officials, but Wilson, who was physically incapacitated by late 1919, was not told about the raids. Historian Kendrick Clements argues that "Wilson had none of the crude, vicious racism of James K. Vardaman or Benjamin R. Tillman , but he was insensitive to African-American feelings and aspirations." Segregation of government offices and discriminatory hiring practices had been started by President Theodore Roosevelt and continued by President Taft, but

18483-583: The creation of an interstate trade commission, eventually known as the Federal Trade Commission (FTC), that would preside over the dissolution of trusts but would play no role in antitrust prosecution itself. With Wilson's support, Congressman Henry Clayton, Jr. introduced a bill that would ban several anti-competitive practices such discriminatory pricing , tying , exclusive dealing , and interlocking directorates . The bill also allowed individuals to launch antitrust suits, and it limited

18666-552: The department to provide education and other services directly to farmers. Secretary of Agriculture David F. Houston presided over the implementation of many of Page's proposed reforms and worked with Congressman Asbury Francis Lever to introduce the bill that became the Smith–Lever Act of 1914 . This act established government subsidies for a demonstration farming program allowing farmers to voluntarily experiment with farming techniques favored by agricultural experts. Proponents of

18849-529: The driving force behind much of the thought and reform that took place in this time. With an increasing disdain for the upper class and aristocracy of the time, the middle class is characterized by their rejection of the individualistic philosophy of the Upper Ten . They had a rapidly growing interest in the communication and role between classes, those of which are generally referred to as the upper class, working class, farmers, and themselves. Along these lines,

19032-413: The early 20th century, American philanthropy matured, with the development of very large, highly visible private foundations created by Rockefeller and Carnegie. The largest foundations fostered modern, efficient, business-oriented operations (as opposed to "charity") designed to better society rather than merely enhance the status of the giver. Close ties were built with the local business community, as in

19215-491: The emerging class of female voters. He told Democratic Congressmen they needed to pass this law and also a workman's compensation law to satisfy the national progressive movement and to win the 1916 election against a reunited GOP. It was the first federal child labor law. However, the U.S. Supreme Court struck down the law in Hammer v. Dagenhart (1918). Congress then passed a law taxing businesses that used child labor, but that

19398-448: The executive's office is located in the same building as the legislature. New Jersey is also notable for being one of the few states in which the governor's official residence is not located in the state capital. The first and longest-serving governor of New Jersey was William Livingston , who served from August 31, 1776, to July 25, 1790. A. Harry Moore remains the longest-serving popularly elected governor. The current and 56th governor

19581-400: The first time endorsed a national right to vote: "We have made partners of the women in this war....Shall we admit them only to a partnership of suffering and sacrifice and toil and not to a partnership of privilege and right?" Later in January, the House quickly passed a constitutional amendment providing for women's suffrage in a 274 to 136 vote, but the campaign for women's suffrage stalled in

19764-406: The founder of Hull-House , Jane Addams , coined the term "association" as a counter to Individualism , with association referring to the search for a relationship between the classes. Additionally, the middle class (most notably women) began to move away from prior Victorian era domestic values. Divorce rates increased as women preferred to seek education and freedom from the home. Victorianism

19947-564: The founder of the social work profession in the United States. Maurice Hamington considered her a radical pragmatist and the first woman "public philosopher" in the United States. In the 1930s, she was the best-known female public figure in the United States. According to James Wright, the typical progressive agenda at the state level included: A reduction of corporate influence, open processes of government and politics, equity entrance in taxation, efficiency in government mental operation, and an expanded, albeit limited, state responsibility to

20130-424: The four-minute breaks needed to change reels at movie theaters. CPI volunteers also spoke at churches, lodges, fraternal organizations, labor unions, and even logging camps. Creel boasted that in 18 months his 75,000 volunteers delivered over 7.5 million four minute orations to over 300 million listeners, in a nation of 103 million people. To counter disloyalty to the war effort at home, Wilson pushed through Congress

20313-615: The full salary. Jon Corzine accepted a token salary of $ 1 per year as governor. Previous governor Jim McGreevey received an annual salary of $ 157,000, a 10% reduction of the maximum allowed, while Chris Christie , Murphy's immediate predecessor, accepted the full gubernatorial salary. The governor has a full-time protective security detail from the Executive Protection Unit of the New Jersey State Police while in office. A former governor

20496-494: The high earners that would be subject to the income tax. In May 1913, House Majority Leader Oscar Underwood organized House passage of a bill that cut the average tariff rate by 10 percent. Underwood's bill, which represented the largest downward revision of the tariff since the Civil War, aggressively cut rates for raw materials, goods deemed to be "necessities," and products produced domestically by trusts, but it retained higher tariff rates for luxury goods. The bill also instituted

20679-549: The highest position a woman had ever held in the federal government up to that time. Wilson's leadership in domestic policy in the aftermath of the war was complicated by his focus on the Treaty of Versailles and opposition from the Republican-controlled Congress. It ended in late 1919 with his incapacity. A plan to form a commission for the purpose of demobilization of the war effort was abandoned due to

20862-439: The highest selling books of the late 1800s. It helped spark the Progressive Era and a worldwide social reform movement around an ideology now known as Georgism . Jacob Riis , for example, explicitly marks the beginning of the Progressive Era awakening as 1879 because of the date of this publication. Magazines experienced a boost in popularity in 1900, with some attaining circulations in the hundreds of thousands of subscribers. In

21045-763: The idea: Direct Legislation by the Citizenship Through the Initiative and Referendum (1893). He suggested that using the initiative would give political power to the working class and reduce the need for strikes. Sullivan's book was first widely read on the left, as by labor activists, socialists and populists. William U'Ren was an early convert who used it to build the Oregon reform crusade. By 1900, middle-class "progressive" reformers everywhere were studying it. Progress and Poverty , Henry George 's first book, sold several million copies, becoming one of

21228-401: The implementation of his New Freedom domestic agenda. Wilson presided over the passage of his progressive New Freedom domestic agenda. His first major priority was the passage of the Revenue Act of 1913 , which lowered tariffs and implemented a federal income tax . Later tax acts implemented a federal estate tax and raised the top income tax rate to 77 percent. Wilson also presided over

21411-441: The issue except to echo the Democratic Party position that suffrage was a state matter, primarily because of strong opposition in the white South to Black voting rights. A win for suffrage in New York state, combined with the increasingly prominent role women took in the war effort in factories and at home, convinced Wilson and many others to fully support national women's suffrage. In a January 1918 speech before Congress, Wilson for

21594-562: The key role. The Stalwarts counterattacked by arguing if the university became embedded in the state, then its internal affairs became fair game, especially the faculty preference for advanced research over undergraduate teaching. The Stalwarts controlled the Regents, and their interference in academic freedom outraged the faculty. Historian Frederick Jackson Turner , the most famous professor, quit and went to Harvard. State leaders in reform included editor William Allen White , who reached

21777-488: The large German and Scandinavian elements which demanded neutrality in the World War I. He finally ran an independent campaign for president in 1924 that appealed to the German Americans, labor unions, socialists, and more radical reformers. He won 1/6 of the national vote, but carried only his home state. After his death in 1925 his two sons took over the party. They serve terms as governor and senator and set up

21960-542: The legislature elected him to the United States Senate, where he emerged as a national progressive leader, often clashing with conservatives like Senator Nelson Aldrich . He initially supported President Taft, but broke with Taft after the latter failed to push a reduction in tariff rates. He challenged Taft for the Republican presidential nomination in the 1912 presidential election , but his candidacy

22143-468: The manufacture, importation, sale, and transport of alcohol were prohibited, except in specific cases (such as wine used for religious purposes). Wilson privately opposed women's suffrage as late as 1911 because he felt women lacked the public experience needed to be good voters. Looking at the actual evidence of how female voters behaved in the western states changed his mind, and he came to feel they could indeed be good voters. He did not speak publicly on

22326-498: The matter little attention, even though he came from immigrant roots himself. In 1913, California enacted the California Alien Land Law of 1913 to exclude Japanese non-citizens from owning any land in the state. The Japanese government protested strongly, and Wilson sent Bryan to California to mediate. Bryan was unable to get California to relax the restrictions, and Wilson accepted the law even though it violated

22509-601: The most famous leader of Midwestern progressivism, began his career by winning election against his state's Republican party in 1900. The machine was temporarily defeated, allowing reformers to launch the " Wisconsin idea " of expanded democracy. This idea included major reforms such as direct primaries, campaign finance, civil service, anti-lobbying laws, state income and inheritance taxes, child labor restrictions, pure food, and workmen's compensation laws. La Follette promoted government regulation of railroads, public utilities, factories, and banks. Although La Follette lost influence in

22692-452: The much larger eventual totals for veterans benefits and interest. The United States had by far the best financial performance of any country in the war. In all, $ 38 billion was raised, 36% from taxes and 64% from bonds. Five " Liberty Loan " campaigns induced people save more than $ 20 billion in savings bonds. That meant that civilian spending was shifted into the future when the bonds came due. Taxes were raised, especially on income taxes for

22875-479: The muckrakers wrote nonfiction, but fictional exposés often had a major impact as well, such as those by Upton Sinclair . In his 1906 novel The Jungle , Sinclair exposed the unsanitary and inhumane practices of the meatpacking industry, as he made clear in the Jungle itself. He quipped, "I aimed at the public's heart and by accident, I hit it in the stomach," as readers demanded and got the Meat Inspection Act and

23058-405: The nation's first comprehensive statewide primary election system, the first effective workplace injury compensation law, and the first state income tax , making taxation proportional to actual earnings. The key leaders were Robert M. La Follette and (in 1910) Governor Francis E. McGovern . However, in 1912 McGovern supported Roosevelt for president and LaFollette was outraged. He made sure

23241-496: The national party in 1912, the Wisconsin reforms became a model for national progressivism. Wisconsin from 1900 to the late 1930s was a regional and national model for innovation and organization in the progressive movement. The direct primary made it possible to mobilize voters against the previously dominant political machines. The first factors involved the La Follette family going back and forth between trying to control of

23424-423: The new leaders of House and Senate—Senator Henry Cabot Lodge became his nemesis. Prohibition developed as an unstoppable reform during the war, but Wilson and his administration only played a minor role in its passage. A combination of the temperance movement , hatred of everything German (including beer and saloons), and activism by churches and women led to ratification of an amendment to achieve Prohibition in

23607-462: The next legislature defeated the governor's programs, and that McGovern was defeated in his bid for the Senate in 1914. The Progressive movement split into hostile factions. Some was based on personalities—especially La Follette's style of violent personal attacks against other Progressives, and some was based on who should pay, with the division between farmers (who paid property taxes) and the urban element (which paid income taxes). This disarray enabled

23790-458: The nomination, and balloting continued. The Wilson campaign picked up delegates by promising the vice presidency to Governor Thomas R. Marshall of Indiana, and several Southern delegations shifted their support from Underwood to Wilson, a native Southerner. Wilson finally won two-thirds of the vote on the convention's 46th ballot, and Marshall became Wilson's running mate. Wilson faced a deeply divided opposition. Incumbent William Howard Taft won

23973-480: The office of governor was vacant. This dual position was more powerful than that of an elected governor, as the individual would have a major role in both the legislative and executive branches. The amendment was prompted by New Jersey State Senate President Richard Codey serving as Governor of New Jersey in January 2002 and again from November 2004 to January 2006 after the resignations of elected Governors Christine Todd Whitman and Jim McGreevey . Kim Guadagno ,

24156-494: The other hand, was a later movement. It emerged after the 1890s from the urban business and professional communities. Most of its activists had opposed populism. It was elitist, and emphasized education and expertise. Its goals were to enhance efficiency, reduce waste, and enlarge the opportunities for upward social mobility. However, some former Populists changed their emphasis after 1900 and supported progressive reforms. Governor of New Jersey The governor of New Jersey

24339-512: The parties to a White House summit in August — after two days and no results, Wilson proceeded to settle the issue, using the maximum eight-hour work day as its linchpin. Congress passed the Adamson Act , which incorporated the president's proposed eight-hour work day for railroads. As a result, the strike was then canceled. Wilson took credit in the fall campaign for averting a national economic disaster. Business-oriented conservatives denounced it as

24522-624: The party by 1900, all the time quarreling endlessly with ex-allies. The Democrats were a minor conservative factor in Wisconsin. The Socialists, with a strong German and union base in Milwaukee, joined the progressives in statewide politics. Senator Robert M. La Follette tried to use his national reputation to challenge President Taft for the Republican nomination in 1912. However, as soon as Roosevelt declared his candidacy, most of La Follette's supporters switched away. La Follette supported many of his Wilson's domestic programs in Congress. However he strongly opposed Wilson's foreign policy, and mobilized

24705-558: The party, while Underwood appealed to the conservative Bourbon Democrats , especially in the South. On the first ballot of the Democratic National Convention, Clark won a plurality, and on the tenth ballot, he won a majority of the delegates after the New York Tammany Hall machine swung behind him. However, the Democratic Party rules required a nominee to win two-thirds of the delegates to win

24888-487: The passage of the Federal Reserve Act , which created a central banking system in the form of the Federal Reserve System . Two major laws, the Federal Trade Commission Act and the Clayton Antitrust Act , were passed to regulate business and prevent monopolies. Wilson did not support civil rights and did not object to accelerating segregate of federal employees. In World War I, he made internationalism

25071-619: The peace and prosperity and maintain the lawful rights of the said state. So help me God." On November 8, 2005, voters passed an amendment to the New Jersey State Constitution that created the position of Lieutenant Governor of New Jersey , effective with the 2009 elections . Before this amendment was passed, the President of the New Jersey Senate would simultaneously also serve as governor whenever

25254-415: The people through the press. After weeks of hearings and debate, Wilson and Secretary of State Bryan managed to unite Senate Democrats behind the bill. The Senate voted 44 to 37 in favor of the bill, with only one Democrat voting against it and only one Republican voting for it. Wilson signed the Revenue Act of 1913 (called the "Underwood Tariff") into law on October 3, 1913. The Revenue Act of 1913 reduced

25437-772: The political movement of progressivism, which aimed to address its negative consequences through social reform and government regulation. Jane Addams and Ellen Gates Starr pioneered the settlement house outreach to newly arrived immigrants by establishing Hull House in Chicago in 1889. Settlement houses provided social services and played an active role in civic life, helping immigrants prepare for naturalization and campaigning for regulation and services from city government. Midwestern mayors—especially Hazen S. Pingree and Tom L. Johnson , led early reforms against boss-dominated municipal politics, while Samuel M. Jones advocated public ownership of local utilities. Robert M. La Follette ,

25620-454: The population was subject to the income tax. The bill also included a one percent tax on the net income of all corporations, superseding a previous federal tax that had only applied to corporate net incomes above $ 5,000. The Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of the income tax in the cases of Brushaber v. Union Pacific Railroad Co. and Stanton v. Baltic Mining Co. Facing the need for further revenue due to an arms build-up, in 1916

25803-572: The powers granted in the Immigration Act of 1918 . The Wilson administration relied heavily on state and local police forces, as well as local voluntary organizations, to enforce war-time laws. Anarchists, Industrial Workers of the World members, and other antiwar groups attempting to sabotage the war effort were targeted by the Department of Justice ; many of their leaders were arrested for incitement to violence, espionage, or sedition . Eugene Debs,

25986-469: The remainder of his second term and hoped to get his party's nomination for a third term. In the 1920 presidential election , Republican Warren G. Harding defeated Democratic nominee James M. Cox in a landslide. Historians and political scientists rank Wilson as an above-average president, and his presidency was an important forerunner of modern American liberalism . However, Wilson has also been criticized for his racist views and actions. Wilson became

26169-542: The remaining members of Wilson's cabinet. William Gibbs McAdoo , a prominent Wilson supporter who married Wilson's daughter in 1914, became Secretary of the Treasury, while James Clark McReynolds , who had successfully prosecuted prominent antitrust cases, was chosen as Attorney General. On the advice of Underwood, Wilson appointed Texas Congressman Albert S. Burleson as Postmaster General. Bryan resigned in 1915 due to his opposition to Wilson hard line's towards Germany in

26352-487: The rich and on corporate profits, as well as luxuries, tobacco, and liquor. The new Federal Reserve System expanded the money supply, and prices doubled. People on fixed incomes suffered a sharp drop in purchasing power; the economic resources they no longer used were diverted to war production. That is, inflation was a hidden tax that was in addition to the obvious taxes. The government made sure that farmers and war workers enjoyed higher incomes—a strong incentive to switch from

26535-600: The right of the federal government to regulate the hours of railroad workers. His majority opinion in the 1914 Shreveport Rate Case upheld a decision by the Interstate Commerce Commission to void discriminatory railroad rates imposed by the Railroad Commission of Texas . The decision established that the federal government could regulate intrastate commerce when it affected interstate commerce, though Hughes avoided directly overruling

26718-446: The social sciences, especially history, economics, and political science and improve efficiency with scientific management or Taylorism. Initially, the movement operated chiefly at the local level, but later it expanded to the state and national levels. Progressive leaders were often from the educated middle class, and various progressive reform efforts drew support from lawyers, teachers, physicians, ministers, business people, and

26901-418: The spread of slums, poverty, and the exploitation of labor. Multiple overlapping progressive movements fought perceived social, political, and economic ills by advancing good democracy, scientific methods, and professionalism; regulating business; protecting the natural environment; and improving working and living conditions of the urban poor. Corrupt and undemocratic political machines and their bosses were

27084-590: The state legislature, which was not responsive. In 1902 the League won a state constitutional amendment establishing direct democracy at the local level, and in 1904, it successfully engineered the recall of the first public official. Progressivism was strongest in the cities, but the South was rural with few large cities. Nevertheless, statewide progressive movements were organized by Democrats in every Southern state. Furthermore, Southern Democrats in Congress gave strong support to President Wilson's reforms. The South

27267-523: The state university system and improvements in transportation, which earned it the nickname "The Good Roads State." State leaders included Governor Charles B. Aycock , who led both the educational and the white supremacy crusades; diplomat Walter Hines Page ; and educator Charles Duncan McIver . Women were especially active through the WCTU , the Baptist church, overseas missions, local public schools, and in

27450-476: The stopwatch as its symbol. The number of rich families climbed exponentially, from 100 or so millionaires in the 1870s to 4,000 in 1892 and 16,000 in 1916. Many subscribed to Andrew Carnegie 's credo outlined in The Gospel of Wealth that said they owed a duty to society that called for philanthropic giving to colleges, hospitals, medical research, libraries, museums, religion, and social betterment. In

27633-409: The term conservation ethic as applied to natural resources. Pinchot's main contribution was his leadership in promoting scientific forestry and emphasizing the controlled, profitable use of forests and other natural resources so they would be of maximum benefit to mankind. He was the first to demonstrate the practicality and profitability of managing forests for continuous cropping. His leadership put

27816-658: The thesis that the liberal tradition in the United States was inhospitable to anti-capitalist alternatives. He drew from the American past a history of resistance to capitalist wage relations that was fundamentally liberal, and he reclaimed an idea that progressives had allowed to lapse—that working for wages was a lesser form of liberty. Increasingly skeptical of the capacity of social welfare legislation to remedy social ills, Croly argued that America's liberal promise could be redeemed only by syndicalist reforms involving workplace democracy . His liberal goals were part of his commitment to American republicanism . Upton Sinclair

27999-589: The third lieutenant governor of New Jersey, to succeed Oliver and serve out the remainder of Oliver's term. In 2005, the Center on the American Governor was established at the Eagleton Institute of Politics at Rutgers University to study the governors of New Jersey and, to a lesser degree, the governors of other states. The program features extensive archives of documents and pictures from

28182-548: The top tax rate to 67 percent, greatly increased the number of Americans paying the income tax (approximately 5.5 million Americans paid an income tax in 1920), and levied an excess profits tax on businesses. The Revenue Act of 1918 raised the top tax rate to 77 percent and further increased other taxes. Wilson established the first modern propaganda office, the Committee on Public Information (CPI), headed by George Creel . Creel set out to systematically reach every person in

28365-562: The university through the UW-Extension system to reach all the state's farming communities. University economics professors John R. Commons and Harold Groves enabled Wisconsin to create the first unemployment compensation program in the United States in 1932. Other Wisconsin Idea scholars at the university generated the plan that became the New Deal's Social Security Act of 1935, with Wisconsin expert Arthur J. Altmeyer playing

28548-470: The wartime Army, and given equal pay with whites. However, in accord with military policy from the Civil War through the Second World War, the army kept African-American soldiers in all-black units with white officers, and the great majority of black units were kept out of combat. When a delegation of blacks protested the discriminatory actions, Wilson told them "segregation is not a humiliation but

28731-467: The working class. Certain key groups of thinkers, writers, and activists played key roles in creating or building the movements and ideas that came to define the shape of the Progressive Era. Inspiration for the initiative movement was based on the Swiss experience. New Jersey labor activist James W. Sullivan visited Switzerland in 1888 and wrote a detailed book that became a template for reformers pushing

28914-476: The workplaces of those departments. Though Wilson did not issue an executive order regarding segregation, by the end of 1913 many departments, including the Navy, had segregated workspaces, restrooms, and cafeterias were segregated. During Wilson's term, the government also began requiring photographs of all applicants for federal jobs. Ross Kennedy writes that Wilson's support of segregation complied with predominant public opinion, but his change in federal practices

29097-524: The world's largest industrial and financial base. He set up the War Industries Board , headed by Bernard Baruch , to set war manufacturing policies and goals. It took many months to get it working right. Herbert Hoover came back from his famous rescue work in Belgium to quickly lead the Food Administration to provide food for home and for the Allied coalition, whose younger farmers were in

29280-534: Was Jonathan Bourne Jr. (senator 1907–1913 and national leader of progressive causes 1911–1912). California built the most successful grass roots progressive movement in the country by mobilizing independent organizations and largely ignoring the conservative state parties. The system continues strong into the 21st century. Following the Oregon model, John Randolph Haynes organized the Direct Legislation League of California in 1902 to launch

29463-629: Was "Colonel" Edward M. House until Wilson broke with him in early 1919, for his missteps at the peace conference in Wilson's absence. Wilson's vice president, former Governor Thomas R. Marshall of Indiana, played little role in the administration. Wilson fervently believed that public opinion ought to shape national policy, albeit with a few exceptions involving delicate diplomacy, and he paid close attention to newspapers. Press secretary Joseph Patrick Tumulty proved generally effective until Wilson's second wife began to distrust him and reduced his influence. Wilson pioneered twice-weekly press conferences in

29646-509: Was a leader of the Progressive movement, and he championed his " Square Deal " domestic policies, promising the average citizen fairness, breaking of trusts, regulation of railroads, and pure food and drugs. He made conservation a top priority and established many new national parks , forests , and monuments intended to preserve the nation's natural resources. In foreign policy, he focused on Central America where he began construction of

29829-581: Was a main target of Northern philanthropy designed to fight poverty and disease, and help the black community. Booker T. Washington of the National Negro Business League mobilized small black-owned business and secured access to Northern philanthropy. Across the South the General Education Board (funded by the Rockefeller family ) provided large-scale subsidies for black schools, which otherwise continued to be underfunded. The South

30012-556: Was a member of the Republican Party for most of his life, though he also joined the Progressive Party for a brief period. Pinchot is known for reforming the management and development of forests in the United States and for advocating the conservation of the nation's reserves by planned use and renewal. He called it "the art of producing from the forest whatever it can yield for the service of man." Pinchot coined

30195-468: Was a notable figure in the history of social work and women's suffrage in the United States and an advocate of world peace . She co-founded Chicago's Hull House , one of America's most famous settlement houses. In 1920, she was a co-founder for the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU). In 1931, she became the first American woman to be awarded the Nobel Peace Prize , and is recognized as

30378-408: Was accomplished in part through the regulation of trusts. Foreign affairs increasingly dominated his presidency starting in 1915, Wilson's first two years in office largely focused on domestic policy, and the president found success in implementing much of his ambitious " New Freedom " agenda. Democrats had long attacked high tariff rates as equivalent to unfair taxes on consumers, and tariff reduction

30561-465: Was an American writer who wrote nearly 100 books and other works in several genres. Sinclair's work was well known and popular in the first half of the 20th century, and he won the Pulitzer Prize for Fiction in 1943. In 1906, Sinclair acquired particular fame for his classic muck-raking novel The Jungle , which exposed labor and sanitary conditions in the U.S. meatpacking industry , causing

30744-648: Was another investigative journalist and one of the leading muckrakers . He launched a series of articles in McClure's , called Tweed Days in St. Louis , that would later be published together in a book titled The Shame of the Cities . He is remembered for investigating corruption in municipal government in American cities and leftist values. Jane Addams was an American settlement activist, reformer, social worker, sociologist , public administrator and author. She

30927-597: Was averted in 1919 in early 1920 through the efforts of Hoover's Food Administration, but prices dropped substantially in late 1920. After the expiration of wartime contracts in 1920, the economy plunged into a severe recession , and unemployment rose to 11.9%. Following the October Revolution in the Russia , some in America feared the possibility of a Communist -inspired agitation. These fears were inflamed by

31110-543: Was created. Ida Tarbell , a writer and lecturer, was one of the leading muckrakers and pioneered investigative journalism . Tarbell is best known for her 1904 book, The History of the Standard Oil Company . The book was published as a series of articles in McClure's Magazine from 1902 to 1904. The work helped turn elite public opinion against the Standard Oil monopoly. Lincoln Steffens

31293-491: Was designed with the goal of diminishing Wall Street 's influence. Wilson convinced Bryan's supporters that the plan met their demands for an elastic currency because Federal Reserve notes would be obligations of the government. The bill passed the House in September 1913, but it faced stronger opposition in the Senate. Wilson convinced just enough Democrats to defeat an amendment put forth by bank president Frank A. Vanderlip that would have given private banks greater control over

31476-623: Was key to eliminating corruption in politics as well as improving social conditions. Another target were monopolies , which progressives worked to regulate through trustbusting and antitrust laws with the goal of promoting fair competition. Progressives also advocated new government agencies focused on regulation of industry. An additional goal of progressives was bringing to bear scientific, medical, and engineering solutions to reform government and education and foster improvements in various fields including medicine, finance, insurance, industry, railroads, and churches. They aimed to professionalize

31659-474: Was moving to the left, advocating some social welfare programs, and criticizing various business practices such as trusts. The leadership of the GOP in Congress moved to the right, as did his protégé President William Howard Taft. Roosevelt broke bitterly with Taft in 1910, and also with Wisconsin's progressive leader Robert M. La Follette . Taft defeated Roosevelt for the 1912 Republican nomination and Roosevelt set up an entirely new Progressive Party. It called for

31842-485: Was needed to finance the war—to buy food and munitions for the soldiers, to pay them, and to loan $ 7 billion to the Allies for their purchasing needs. The GDP in 1917 plus 1918 was $ 124 billion. Since the dollar then was worth about $ 20 in 2021, that is about $ 2.5 trillion in 2021 dollars. The original military cost of the war was $ 28 billion; counting non-military costs as well brings the total to $ 33 billion. Not included are

32025-598: Was one of the few states where former Populists like U'Ren became progressive leaders. U'Ren had been inspired by reading the influential 1893 book Direct Legislation Through the Initiative and Referendum , and the group's founding followed in the wake of the 1896 founding of the National Direct Legislation League, which itself had its roots in the Direct Legislation League of New Jersey and its short-lived predecessor,

32208-599: Was overshadowed by Theodore Roosevelt. La Follette's refusal to support Roosevelt, and especially his suicidal ranting speech before media leaders in February 1912, alienated many progressives. La Follette forfeited his stature as a national leader of progressive Republicans, while remaining a power in Wisconsin. La Follette supported some of President Wilson's policies, but he broke with the president over foreign policy, thereby gaining support from Wisconsin's large German and Scandinavian elements. During World War I, La Follette

32391-408: Was protested in letters from both blacks and whites to the White House, mass meetings, newspaper campaigns and official statements by both black and white church groups. The president's African-American supporters, who had crossed party lines to vote for him in 1912, were bitterly disappointed, and they and Northern leaders protested the changes. Wilson defended his administration's segregation policy in

32574-408: Was pushed aside by the rise of progressivism. Robert M. La Follette and his family were the dominant forces of progressivism in Wisconsin from the late 1890s to the early 1940s. He tried for a national leadership role in 1912 but blundered badly in a highly embarrassing speech to leading journalists. Starting as a loyal organizational Republican, he broke with the bosses in the late 1890s, built up

32757-531: Was struck down by the Supreme Court in Bailey v. Drexel Furniture (1923). Child labor was finally ended in the 1930s. He approved the goal of upgrading the harsh working conditions for merchant sailors and signed LaFollette's Seamen's Act of 1915. President Wilson's agricultural policies were heavily influenced by Walter Hines Page , who favored a reorganization of the U.S. Department of Agriculture to put less focus on scientific research and more emphasis on using

32940-492: Was targeted in the 1920s and 1930s by the Julius Rosenwald Fund , which contributed matching funds to local communities for the construction of thousands of schools for African Americans in rural areas throughout the South. Black parents donated land and labor to build improved schools for their children. North Carolina took a leadership role in modernizing the south, notably in expansion of public education and

33123-505: Was the first priority. Wilson argued that the system of high tariffs "cuts us off from our proper part in the commerce of the world, violates the just principles of taxation, and makes the government a facile instrument in the hands of private interests." While most Democrats were united behind a decrease in tariff rates, most Republicans held that high tariff rates were useful for protecting domestic manufacturing and factory workers against foreign competition. Shortly before Wilson took office,

33306-486: Was the most outspoken opponent of the administration's domestic and international policies. With the major parties each nominating conservative candidates in the 1924 presidential election , left-wing groups coalesced behind La Follette's third-party candidacy. With the support of the Socialist Party , farmer's groups, labor unions, and others, La Follette was strong in Wisconsin, and to a much lesser extent in

33489-489: Was too controversial then and instead served privately as Wilson's chief legal advisor. In 1916, Wilson nominated Brandeis to the Court , setting off a major debate over Brandeis's progressive ideology and his religion; Brandeis was the first Jew named to the Supreme Court and anti-semitism was rampant in upper-class circles. But Brandeis had many friends who admired his legal acumen in fighting for progressive causes. They mounted

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