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125-567: The first known appearance of human life in Istria dates to Lower Paleolithic , as evidenced by artifacts found in Šandalja Cave near Pula , dated to 800,000 BC. Since the 11th century BC, Istria was inhabited by the Histri , a prehistoric Illyrian tribe after whom Istria was named. Their arrival marks the beginning of the Iron Age in Istria. Another Illyrian tribe that inhabited the area were

250-475: A defensor , who reported to a rector . Grain, wine, cheese, meat, fish, and oil began to arrive at Rome in large quantities, where it was given away for nothing as alms. Distributions to qualified persons were monthly. However, a certain proportion of the population lived in the streets or were too ill or infirm to pick up their monthly food supply. To them Gregory sent out a small army of charitable persons, mainly monks, every morning with prepared food. It

375-739: A "bitter taste for the theological speculation of the East" with Gregory that continued to influence him well into his own papacy. According to Western sources, Gregory's very public debate with Eutychius culminated in an exchange before Tiberius II where Gregory cited a biblical passage in support of the view that Christ was corporeal and palpable after his Resurrection; allegedly as a result of this exchange, Tiberius II ordered Eutychius's writings burned. Ekonomou views this argument, though exaggerated in Western sources, as Gregory's "one achievement of an otherwise fruitless apokrisiariat ". In reality, Gregory

500-516: A "fluency with imperial law" that he may have trained in it "as a preparation for a career in public life". Indeed, he became a government official, advancing quickly in rank to become, like his father, Prefect of Rome, the highest civil office in the city, when only thirty-three years old. The monks of the Monastery of St. Andrew , established by Gregory at the ancestral home on the Caelian, had

625-686: A British geologist and palaeontologist , discovered 1.5 million-year-old prehistoric human teeth and part of a jaw indicating that ancient people , intelligent hominins dating as far back as 1,500,000 ybp Acheulean period, lived in the Pinjore region near Chandigarh . Quartzite tools of the lower Paleolithic period were excavated in this region extending from Pinjore in Haryana to Nalagarh ( Solan district in Himachal Pradesh). The lands of Gujarat has been continuously inhabited from

750-473: A budget recorded in the polyptici. The churchmen were paid four times a year and also personally given a golden coin for their trouble. Money, however, was no substitute for food in a city that was on the brink of famine. The church now owned between 1,300 and 1,800 square miles (3,400 and 4,700 km ) of revenue-generating farmland divided into large sections called patrimonia . It produced goods of all kinds, which were sold, but Gregory intervened and had

875-485: A large and important segment of Constantinople's aristocracy, this relationship did not significantly advance the interests of Rome before the emperor". Although the writings of John the Deacon claim that Gregory "labored diligently for the relief of Italy", there is no evidence that his tenure accomplished much towards any of the objectives of Pelagius II. Gregory's theological disputes with Patriarch Eutychius would leave

1000-602: A minority ethnic group, recognized as Avars, lived in his time in the Kingdom of Croatia , which included eastern Istria. While Avars may have been active and even controlled regions in present-day Croatia and Slovenia , they are thought to have only lived in Pannonia (present-day Hungary ), as this is the only place where Avar burials have been found. After the Avaro-Slavic defeat at the siege of Constantinople in 612,

1125-447: A monk as the "ardent quest for the vision of our Creator." His three paternal aunts were nuns renowned for their sanctity. However, after the eldest two, Trasilla and Emiliana , died after seeing a vision of their ancestor Pope Felix III , the youngest soon abandoned the religious life and married the steward of her estate. Gregory's response to this family scandal was that "many are called but few are chosen." Gregory's mother, Silvia ,

1250-799: A number of other new varieties, such as Homo rhodesiensis and Homo cepranensis about 400,000 years ago. Homo heidelbergensis is a candidate for first developing an early form of symbolic language . Whether control of fire and earliest burials date to this period or only appear during the Middle Paleolithic is an open question. Also, in Europe, a type of human appeared that was intermediate between Homo erectus and Homo sapiens , sometimes summarized under archaic Homo sapiens , typified by such fossils as those found at Swanscombe , Steinheim , Tautavel , and Vertesszollos ( Homo palaeohungaricus ). The hand-axe tradition originates in

1375-688: A number of prayers that change to reflect the feast or liturgical season; these variations are visible in the collects and prefaces as well as in the Roman Canon itself. In the Eastern Orthodox Church and Eastern Catholic Churches , Gregory is credited as the primary influence in constructing the more penitential Divine Liturgy of the Presanctified Gifts , a fully separate form of the Divine Liturgy in

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1500-400: A portrait of him made after his death, which John the Deacon also saw in the 9th century. He reports the picture of a man who was "rather bald" and had a "tawny" beard like his father's and a face that was intermediate in shape between his mother's and father's. The hair that he had on the sides was long and carefully curled. His nose was "thin and straight" and "slightly aquiline". "His forehead

1625-473: A practice that was to be followed by most subsequent popes. The Church had a practice from early times of passing on a large portion of the donations it received from its members as alms . Gregory is known for his extensive administrative system of charitable relief of the poor at Rome. The poor were predominantly refugees from the incursions of the Lombards . The philosophy under which he devised this system

1750-752: A relief force. Maurice, however, had long ago determined to limit his efforts against the Lombards to intrigue and diplomacy, pitting the Franks against them. It soon became obvious to Gregory that the Byzantine emperors were unlikely to send such a force, given their more immediate difficulties with the Persians in the East and the Avars and Slavs to the North. According to Ekonomou, "if Gregory's principal task

1875-403: A remedial punishment, forced the monk to die alone, then threw his body and coins on a manure heap to rot with a condemnation, "Take your money with you to perdition." Gregory believed that punishment of sins can begin, even in this life before death. However, in time, after the monk's death, Gregory had 30 Masses offered for the man to assist his soul before the final judgment . He viewed being

2000-461: A time the conceit that he had failed in his duty and was a murderer. These and other good deeds and charitable frame of mind completely won the hearts and minds of the Roman people. They now looked to the papacy for government, ignoring the state at Constantinople. The office of urban prefect went without candidates. John the Deacon wrote that Pope Gregory I made a general revision of the liturgy of

2125-542: Is herself a saint . Eventually, Pope Pelagius II ordained Gregory a deacon and solicited his help in trying to heal the schism of the Three Chapters in northern Italy . However, this schism was not healed until well after Gregory was gone. In 579, Pelagius II chose Gregory as his apocrisiarius (ambassador to the imperial court in Constantinople ), a post Gregory would hold until 586. Gregory

2250-675: Is known for instituting the first recorded large-scale mission from Rome, the Gregorian mission , to convert the then largely pagan Anglo-Saxons to Christianity. Gregory is also well known for his writings, which were more prolific than those of any of his predecessors as pope. The epithet Saint Gregory the Dialogist has been attached to him in Eastern Christianity because of his Dialogues . English translations of Eastern texts sometimes list him as Gregory "Dialogos" from

2375-525: Is more clearly linked to the flake tradition, which spread across southern Europe through the Balkans to appear relatively densely in southeast Asia . Many Mousterian finds in the Middle Paleolithic have been knapped using a Levallois technique, suggesting that Neanderthals evolved from Homo erectus (or, perhaps, Homo heidelbergensis ; see below). Monte Poggiolo , near Forlì , Italy,

2500-595: Is one of the Latin Fathers and a Doctor of the Church . He is considered a saint in the Catholic Church , Eastern Orthodox Church , Anglican Communion , various Lutheran denominations, and other Protestant denominations. Immediately after his death, Gregory was canonized by popular acclaim. The Protestant reformer John Calvin admired Gregory greatly and declared in his Institutes that Gregory

2625-407: Is recorded that he permitted his depiction with a square halo , then used for the living. A dove is his attribute , from the well-known story attributed to his friend Peter the Deacon, who tells that when the pope was dictating his homilies on Ezechiel a curtain was drawn between his secretary and himself. As, however, the pope remained silent for long periods at a time, the servant made a hole in

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2750-567: Is roughly 700,000 years old. In Europe, the Olduwan tradition (known in Europe as Abbevillian ) split into two parallel traditions, the Clactonian , a flake tradition, and the Acheulean , a hand-axe tradition. The Levallois technique for knapping flint developed during this time. The carrier species from Africa to Europe was undoubtedly Homo erectus . This type of human

2875-412: Is said that he would not dine until the indigent were fed. When he did dine he shared the family table, which he had saved (and which still exists), with 12 indigent guests. To the needy living in wealthy homes he sent meals he had cooked with his own hands as gifts to spare them the indignity of receiving charity. Hearing of the death of an indigent in a back room he was depressed for days, entertaining for

3000-794: Is shown saying Mass when Christ as the Man of Sorrows appears on the altar. The subject was most common in the 15th and 16th centuries, and reflected growing emphasis on the Real Presence , and after the Protestant Reformation was an assertion of the doctrine against Protestant theology. The relics of Saint Gregory are enshrined in St. Peter's Basilica in Rome. In Britain, appreciation for Gregory remained strong even after his death, with him being called Gregorius noster ("our Gregory") by

3125-435: Is that the wealth belonged to the poor and the church was only its steward. He received lavish donations from the wealthy families of Rome, who, following his own example, were eager, by doing so, to expiate their sins. He gave alms equally as lavishly both individually and en masse. He wrote in letters: "I have frequently charged you ... to act as my representative ... to relieve the poor in their distress" and "I hold

3250-595: Is the location of an Acheulian littoral handaxe industry dating from 1.8 to 1.1 million years ago. The advent of technology and both verbal and non-verbal communication due to transition to group hunting and gathering resulted in the expansion of the parts of the brain associated with these, as well as greater cognition due to it being interlinked with the two. Later, behavioral adaptations to further social life, uncertain food distribution (resulting in need to find and secure food and remember where it could be found) and ecological changes brought about by Homo led to

3375-501: Is the subject of an ongoing border dispute between Croatia and Slovenia . Timeline Lower Paleolithic Fertile Crescent : Europe : Africa : Siberia : The Lower Paleolithic (or Lower Palaeolithic ) is the earliest subdivision of the Paleolithic or Old Stone Age . It spans the time from around 3.3 million years ago when the first evidence for stone tool production and use by hominins appears in

3500-674: Is thought to have conducted raids against the Avars and the Slavs in Istria, perhaps after making a deal with the Byzantines. In 619, the Avar khagan allegedly made a deal with Emperor Heraclius for the settlement of Slavs in northern Istria. The mission of an abbot Martin sent by Pope John IV to "travel the length of Dalmatia and Istria with large sums of money for the redemption of captives held by pagans" in 640–642, indicates that by that time

3625-551: The Assyrian Church of the East . The mainstream form of Western plainchant , standardized in the late 9th century, was attributed to Pope Gregory I and so took the name of Gregorian chant. The earliest such attribution is in John the Deacon's 873 biography of Gregory, almost three centuries after the pope's death, and the chant that bears his name "is the result of the fusion of Roman and Frankish elements which took place in

3750-441: The Avars and Slavs invaded Italy after passing through Istrian territory. The locals probably retired in the walled cities, leaving the main routes unguarded. Around 600 to 602, the Avars and the Slavs, perhaps instigated by the Lombards , penetrated into Istria, devastating it all with fire and rapine. In 611, the Avars and Slavs pillaged Friuli before attacking Istria again. On this occasion, they inflicted what might have been

3875-815: The Byzantine Rite adapted to the needs of the season of Great Lent . Its Roman Rite equivalent is the Mass of the Presanctified used only on Good Friday . The Syriac Liturgy of the Presanctified Gifts continues to be used in the Malankara Rite , a variant of the West Syrian Rite historically practiced in the Malankara Church of India , and now practiced by the several churches that descended from it and at some occasions in

History of Istria - Misplaced Pages Continue

4000-924: The Clivus Scauri on the Caelian Hill , (now the Via di San Gregorio). It branched from the road having the former palaces of the Roman emperors on the Palatine Hill opposite. The north of the street runs into the Colosseum ; the south, the Circus Maximus . In Gregory's day the ancient buildings were in ruins and were privately owned. Villas covered the area. Gregory's family also owned working estates in Sicily and around Rome. Gregory later had portraits of his parents frescoed in their former home on

4125-675: The Donatist heresy, popular particularly in North Africa at the time. Throughout the Middle Ages, he was known as "the Father of Christian Worship" because of his exceptional efforts in revising the Roman worship of his day. His contributions to the development of the Divine Liturgy of the Presanctified Gifts , still in use in the Byzantine Rite , were so significant that he is generally recognized as its de facto author. Gregory

4250-576: The Foibe massacres which were often partly or wholly committed by the local non-Italian population, due to the previous regime's oppression of non-Italians like such as forced Italianization which was the leading cause of resentment. This lingered and triggered the Istrian-Dalmatian exodus which significantly reduced the Italian population in Istria, particularly in urban areas. According to

4375-610: The Illyrian provinces of the Napoleonic Empire . For the first time, inner and eastern parts of Istria became a part of Croatia , as a part of Civil Croatia , established by Napoleon. From the Middle Ages to the 19th century, Italian and Slavic communities in Istria had lived peacefully side by side because they did not know the national identification, given that they generically defined themselves as " Istrians ", of "Romance" or "Slavic" culture. After this short period,

4500-476: The Kingdom of Yugoslavia on a large scale. The organization TIGR , regarded as the first armed antifascist resistance group in Europe, was founded in 1927 and soon penetrated into Slovene and Croatian-speaking parts of Istria. After the capitulation of Italy in the Second World War , The Yugoslav Partisans officially occupied the region, expelled the fascist authorities, and established the rule of

4625-674: The Liburnians . The westernmost extents of their land, Liburnia , covered the area east of the Raša River . After a series of conflicts, the Romans conquered the Histri and took control of the Istria peninsula in 178 and 177 BC. Romans established the port of Pietas Iulia (modern Pula ) and gradually converting the inland areas into latifundia , large estates worked by colonists and locals. Although pockets of Illyrian resistance remained in

4750-569: The Lombard invasion of Italy (568), Istria was exposed to several Lombard attacks during the next two centuries, but remained under Byzantine rule. During that period, it enjoyed substantial provincial self-governance, because of its peripheral position. After the fall of the Exarchate in 751, Istria remained under Byzantine rule until 788, when it was conquered by the Frankish kingdom . During

4875-913: The National Liberation Movement in Croatia which sought to incorporate Istra into the Croatian state. However, the Yugoslav executive was forced split Istria into two Zones: the Anglo-American-occupied Zone A and the Yugoslav-administrated Zone B. These zones would eventually be abolished by the Paris Peace Treaties of 1947. The capitulation of Italy, and the ensuing struggle over Istria, caused acts of massacres such as

5000-627: The Paris Peace Treaty of 1947, the territory between Novigrad and Trieste became the independent Free Territory of Trieste , while other parts were incorporated into Yugoslavia. The Free Territory of Trieste was also divided in two zones – Zone A (area around Trieste) and Zone B (the rest). Zone A was again under the Anglo-American administration, while Zone B was under the Yugoslav military administration , from which area most of

5125-843: The Pre-Tridentine Mass , "removing many things, changing a few, adding some". In his own letters, Gregory remarks that he moved the Pater Noster (Our Father) to immediately after the Roman Canon and immediately before the Fraction . This position is still maintained today in the Roman Liturgy. The pre-Gregorian position is evident in the Ambrosian Rite . Gregory added material to the Hanc Igitur of

History of Istria - Misplaced Pages Continue

5250-448: The Third Italian War of Independence (1866), when the Veneto and Friuli regions were ceded by the Austrians to the newly formed Kingdom Italy , Istria remained part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire , together with other Italian-speaking areas on the eastern Adriatic. This triggered the gradual rise of Italian irredentism among many Italians in Istria, who demanded the unification of Istria with Italy. The Italians in Istria supported

5375-422: The fall of the Venetian Republic (1797), Istria was occupied by Napoleon ; however, he gave Venice and the Venetian part of Istria and Dalmatia to Austria, in exchange for the Netherlands and Lombardia . In 1805, Napoleon re-occupied the former Venetian Istria. The Holy Roman Empire ended with the period of Napoleonic rule from 1805 to 1813, when Istria became part of the Italian Kingdom and, from 1809, of

5500-502: The marrow . The move from the mostly frugivorous or omnivorous diet of hominin Australopithecus to the carnivorous scavenging lifestyle of early Homo has been explained by the climate changes in East Africa associated with the Quaternary glaciation . Decreasing oceanic evaporation produced a drier climate and the expansion of the savannah at the expense of forests. Reduced availability of fruits stimulated some proto- australopithecines to search out new food sources found in

5625-510: The notarii , under a chief, the primicerius notariorum , kept the ledgers and issued brevia patrimonii , or lists of property for which each rector was responsible. Gregory began by aggressively requiring his churchmen to seek out and relieve needy persons and reprimanded them if they did not. In a letter to a subordinate in Sicily he wrote: "I asked you most of all to take care of the poor. And if you knew of people in poverty, you should have pointed them out ... I desire that you give

5750-462: The 7th century. Istria was annexed to the Frankish kingdom by Pepin of Italy in 788. The seeds of Istria's dissolution were sown under increasingly weak Frankish rule, which enabled most settlements to achieve de facto autonomy. In the 10th and 11th centuries, Istria was ruled by the German feudal families. Since the mid-11th century, Istria was a separate markgraviate , given in hereditary feud to various families of noblemen by German emperors,

5875-464: The Apostle (after his death it was rededicated as San Gregorio Magno al Celio ). In his life of contemplation, Gregory concluded that "in that silence of the heart, while we keep watch within through contemplation, we are as if asleep to all things that are without." Gregory had a deep respect for the monastic life and particularly the vow of poverty. Thus, when it came to light that a monk lying on his death bed had stolen three gold pieces, Gregory, as

6000-406: The Austrians in defusing Italian calls for the region's union with the newly established Kingdom of Italy , as suffrage was limited to property owners, who were primarily Italian. The first parliament consisted of 28 Italians, but only one Croat and one Slovene. Many Istrian Italians looked with sympathy towards the Risorgimento movement that fought for the unification of Italy. However, after

6125-410: The Avaro-Slavic invasions, and it has been suggested that also the church of St Fusca (Sveta Foška) near Žminj (Gimino) suffered the same fate by the same hands. Several other settlements disappeared with these incursions, possibly including the still unidentified Mutila, Faveria and Cissa, mentioned by Pliny , which utterly disappeared from history. Traces of early Slavic settlement in Istria, and of

6250-468: The British over whom you have been appointed to rule, that through the blessings bestowed on you the blessings of heaven might be bestowed on your people also." He is credited with re-energizing the Church's missionary work among the non-Christian peoples of northern Europe. He is most famous for sending a mission, often called the Gregorian mission , under Augustine of Canterbury , prior of Saint Andrew's, where he had perhaps succeeded Gregory, to evangelize

6375-456: The British. It was in Britain, at a monastery in Whitby , that the first full-length life of Gregory was written, c.  713 , by a monk or, possibly, a nun. Appreciation of Gregory in Rome and Italy itself, however, did not come until later. The first vita of Gregory written in Italy was not produced until Johannes Hymonides (aka John the Deacon) in the 9th century. The namesake church of San Gregorio al Celio (largely rebuilt from

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6500-403: The Byzantine period, significant changes emerged at eastern borders of Istria. In 599, first attacks of Avars and Slavs on Istrian borders were recorded. At the beginning of the 7th century, Istrian eastern and inland regions were invaded by Slavs, while the coastal area resisted these attacks. This period was highly contentious, because of Lombard attacks from the West, Slovene attacks from

6625-499: The Caelian and these were described 300 years later by John the Deacon . Gordianus was tall with a long face and light eyes. He wore a beard. Silvia was tall, had a round face, blue eyes and a cheerful look. They had another son whose name and fate are unknown. Gregory was born into a period of upheaval in Italy. From 542 the so-called Plague of Justinian swept through the provinces of the empire, including Italy. The plague caused famine, panic, and sometimes rioting. In some parts of

6750-437: The Croatian should become the official language, along with Italian. With the First World War , national fights were interrupted. Italian interest in the eastern part of the Adriatic coast became very obvious. A secret agreement was made in London in April 1915, according to which Italy was promised South Tyrol , a part of Dalmatia and Istria with Trieste and Gorizia . At the end of the First World War , Austria-Hungary

6875-431: The Franco-German empire under Pepin , Charlemagne and their successors". Gregory is commonly credited with founding the medieval papacy and so many attribute the beginning of medieval spirituality to him. Gregory is the only pope between the fifth and the eleventh centuries whose correspondence and writings have survived enough to form a comprehensive corpus. Some of his writings are: Gregory wrote over 850 letters in

7000-407: The Giustiniani collection. The painting is conserved in the Galleria Nazionale d'Arte Antica , Rome. The face of Gregory is a caricature of the features described by John the Deacon: total baldness, outthrust chin, beak-like nose, whereas John had described partial baldness, a mildly protruding chin, slightly aquiline nose and strikingly good looks. In this picture also Gregory has his monastic back on

7125-465: The Greek διάλογος ( dialogos , conversation), or the Anglo-Latinate equivalent "Dialogus". He is the second of the three Popes listed in the Annuario Pontificio with the title "the Great", alongside Popes Leo I and Nicholas I . A Roman senator 's son and himself the prefect of Rome at 30, Gregory lived in a monastery that he established on his family estate before becoming a papal ambassador and then pope. Before becoming Pope, he challenged

7250-450: The Italian Risorgimento : as a consequence, the Austrians saw the Italians as enemies and favored the Slav communities of Istria, fostering the nascent nationalism of Slovenes and Croats. During the meeting of the Council of Ministers of 12 November 1866, Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria outlined a wide-ranging project aimed at the Germanization or Slavization of the areas of the empire with an Italian presence: His Majesty expressed

7375-410: The Italian language suggests that amongst those who declared themselves Italian speakers in Istria, there were people whose mother tongue was different." In the second half of the 19th century, there was a fight for the national and political rights of the Croatian and Slovenian population in relation to the Italian population, strongly influenced by the Croatian national revival . Bishop Juraj Dobrila

7500-459: The Italian population fled. After the dissolution of the Free Territory of Trieste in 1954, by London agreement, Italy was assigned Zone A, the region up to the present-day Slovenian /Italian border, while the remaining territory was incorporated into Yugoslavia as a part of its People's Republic of Croatia and the People's Republic of Slovenia . For the first time, the entire western coast of Istria became part of Croatia. The final border between

7625-402: The Lower Paleolithic (c. 200,000 BP) period. Several sites of stone age are discovered in riverbeds of Sabarmati , Mahi river and lower Narmada rivers of Gujarat. Pope Gregory the Great Pope Gregory I ( Latin : Gregorius I ; c.  540 – 12 March 604), commonly known as Saint Gregory the Great , was the 64th Bishop of Rome from 3 September 590 to his death. He

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7750-499: The Lower Paleolithic and recorded the appearance of the more advanced prepared-core tool-making technologies such as the Mousterian . Whether the earliest control of fire by hominins dates to the Lower or to the Middle Paleolithic remains an open question. The Lower Paleolithic began with the appearance of the first stone tools in the world. Formerly associated with the emergence of Homo habilis , some 2.8 million years ago, this date has been pushed back significantly by finds of

7875-420: The Pleistocene (the Gelasian), and fall into the late Pliocene (the Piacenzian ). The early members of the genus Homo produced primitive tools, summarized under the Oldowan industry, which remained dominant for nearly a million years, from about 2.5 to 1.7 million years ago. Homo habilis is assumed to have lived primarily on scavenging , using tools to cleave meat off carrion or to break bones to extract

8000-417: The Roman Canon and established the nine Kyries (a vestigial remnant of the litany which was originally at that place) at the beginning of Mass . He forbade deacons to perform any of the musical portions of the Mass other than singing the Gospel. Sacramentaries directly influenced by Gregorian reforms are referred to as Sacrementaria Gregoriana . Roman and other Western liturgies since this era have

8125-424: The Roman mainland of Italia. It remained under Roman rule until the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476. Christianity appeared in Istria in the late 3rd century AD, and the first churches were built in the 4th century. The period between the 2nd and 5th century AD saw the incursions of Germanic tribes, a sustained influx of refugees from Pannonia and other provinces , political instability amid infighting for

8250-440: The Roman throne, and decline of the economy. Following the fall of the Western Roman Empire (476), the region was ruled by Odoacer , and later conquered by the Ostrogoths in 489 AD. In 538/539, Istria was incorporated into the Byzantine Empire , and consequently placed under administrative and military jurisdiction of the Exarchate of Ravenna . Local administration in Istria was headed by provincial magister militum . After

8375-420: The Slavic raids, are scarce. Some Avar findings were discovered in Istria, such as two Avar three-winged arrows, found in Nesactium, a belt harness found in Novigrad (Cittanova), and a belt plaque found near Nesactium (near Valtura , in eastern Istria). While historians consider it unlikely, ancient records don't exclude the possibility that, besides Slavs, Avars lived in Istria, as Constantine VII claimed that

8500-413: The Slavs had settled in the region. Fianona ( Plomin ) was completely destroyed by the Avars in their early invasions of the 7th century, and was rebuilt as late as the 11th century, having disappeared from the records. Among the other cities destroyed by the Avars and Slavs is Gallignana ( Gračišće ), which ceased to be a castrum , and Nesactium . The basilica of Vrsar was probably burned during one of

8625-426: The Slavs might've split from their Avar masters and settled into Byzantine territory. According to Gianni Oliva , following the Barbarian invasions of the 6th century, in Istria there was a mixing of people, after which two distinct ethnic divisions emerged: the Italians, who derived from the preexisting Romans , and the Slavs, who derived from the intermixing of Croats and Avars. Some historians have argued that Istria

8750-456: The central offices to the strong duty to proceed in this way to what has been established. There are claims Istrian Italians were more than 50% of the total population of Istria for centuries, while making up about a third of the population in 1900. However, in the part of Istria that eventually would become part of Croatia, the first Austrian census from 1846 found 34 thousand Italian speakers, alongside 120 thousand Croatian speakers. Until 1910,

8875-415: The cities of Pula, Koper and Izola rose against the Republic of Venice but were defeated, and were since further controlled by Venice. During the 13th century, the Patriarchate's rule weakened and the towns kept surrendering to Venice – Poreč in 1267, Umag in 1269, Novigrad in 1270, Sveti Lovreč in 1271, Motovun in 1278, Kopar in 1279, and Piran and Rovinj in 1283. Venice gradually dominated

9000-654: The country, over a third of the population was wiped out or destroyed, with heavy spiritual and emotional effects on the people of the empire. Politically, although the Western Roman Empire had long since vanished in favor of the Gothic kings of Italy, during the 540s Italy was gradually retaken from the Goths by Justinian I , emperor of the Eastern Roman Empire ruling from Constantinople . As

9125-648: The current archaeological record , until around 300,000 years ago, spanning the Oldowan ("mode 1") and Acheulean ("mode 2") lithics industries. In African archaeology, the time period roughly corresponds to the Early Stone Age , the earliest finds dating back to 3.3 million years ago, with Lomekwian stone tool technology, spanning Mode 1 stone tool technology, which begins roughly 2.6 million years ago and ends between 400,000 and 250,000 years ago, with Mode 2 technology. The Middle Paleolithic followed

9250-455: The curtain and, looking through, beheld a dove seated upon Gregory's head with its beak between his lips. When the dove withdrew its beak the pope spoke and the secretary took down his words; but when he became silent the servant again applied his eye to the hole and saw the dove had replaced its beak between his lips. Ribera's oil painting of Saint Gregory the Great ( c.  1614 ) is from

9375-494: The dispute could not be settled, the Byzantine emperor , Tiberius II Constantine , undertook to arbitrate. He decided in favor of palpability and ordered Eutychius' book to be burned . Shortly after both Gregory and Eutychius became ill; Gregory recovered, but Eutychius died on 5 April 582, at age 70. On his deathbed Eutychius recanted impalpability and Gregory dropped the matter. Gregory was more inclined to remain retired into

9500-452: The drier savannah ecology. Derek Bickerton (2009) has designated to this period the move from simple animal communication systems found in all great apes to the earliest form of symbolic communication systems capable of displacement (referring to items not currently within sensory perception) and motivated by the need to "recruit" group members for scavenging large carcasses. Homo erectus appeared by about 1.8 million years ago, via

9625-467: The dukes of Carinthia, Merano and Bavaria. The German emperor Henry IV nominally assigned the remaining march to the Patriarchate of Aquileia . According to Constantine Porphyrogennetos , eastern parts of Istria north of Raša River at that time belonged to Croatian Kingdom . Dante Alighieri refers to it as well, the eastern border of Italy per ancient definition is the river Arsia . In 1145,

9750-567: The early 2000s, the Oldowan or Mode 1 horizon, long considered the oldest type of lithic industry, is now considered to have developed from about 2.6 million years ago, with the beginning Gelasian ( Lower Pleistocene ), possibly first used by australopithecine forebears of the genus Homo (such as Australopithecus garhi ). However, even older tools were later discovered at the single site of Lomekwi 3 in Kenya , in 2015, dated to as early as 3.3 million years ago. As such, they would predate

9875-400: The fighting was mainly in the north, the young Gregory probably saw little of it. Totila sacked and vacated Rome in 546, destroying most of its population, but in 549 he invited those who were still alive to return to the empty and ruined streets. It has been hypothesized that young Gregory and his parents retired during that intermission to their Sicilian estates, to return in 549. The war

10000-633: The following September (as was the norm during the Byzantine Papacy ). In Constantinople, Gregory took issue with the aged Patriarch Eutychius of Constantinople , who had recently published a treatise, now lost, on the General Resurrection . Eutychius maintained that the resurrected body "will be more subtle than air, and no longer palpable". Gregory opposed and used the palpability of the risen Christ in Luke 24:39 as evidence. As

10125-580: The further expansion of the brain in the areas of problem-solving, memory etc., ultimately leading to the great behavioral flexibility, highly efficient communication, and ecological dominance of humanity. The biological pre-adaptations of the great apes and earlier primates allowed the brain to expand threefold within just 2 to 2.3 million years of the Pleistocene , in response to increasingly complex societies and changing habitats. The appearance of Homo heidelbergensis about 600,000 years ago heralds

10250-416: The general populace they are still believed to refer to the same person. In art Gregory is usually shown in full pontifical robes with the tiara and double cross , despite his actual habit of dress. Earlier depictions are more likely to show a monastic tonsure and plainer dress. Orthodox icons traditionally show St. Gregory vested as a bishop holding a Gospel Book and blessing with his right hand. It

10375-420: The goods shipped to Rome for distribution in the diaconia . He gave orders to step up production, set quotas and put an administrative structure in place to carry it out. At the bottom was the rusticus who produced the goods. Some rustici were or owned slaves. He turned over part of his produce to a conductor from whom he leased the land. The latter reported to an actionarius , who reported to

10500-514: The hilly interior, they succumbed in time to the Romans’ combination of military and economic superiority. Although Pula is Istria's only settlement to preserve significant evidence of the Romans (principally its Forum and Amphitheater), most of Istria's major settlements were established in this period. Under Emperor Augustus , Istria was incorporated into the region of Venetia et Histria , as part of

10625-404: The last 13 years of his life (590–604) that give us an accurate picture of his work. A truly autobiographical presentation is nearly impossible for Gregory. The development of his mind and personality remains purely speculative in nature. Opinions of the writings of Gregory vary. "His character strikes us as an ambiguous and enigmatic one," historian Norman Cantor observed. "On the one hand he

10750-577: The life of Gregory. Ælfric states, "He was very diligent in God's Commandments." Gregory was born into a wealthy noble Roman family with close connections to the church. His father, Gordianus, a patrician who served as a senator and for a time was the Prefect of the City of Rome, also held the position of Regionarius in the church, though nothing further is known about that position. Gregory's mother, Silvia ,

10875-469: The major continuing policies of his pontificate. Pope Gregory the Great urged his followers on the value of bathing as a bodily need. It is said he was declared a saint immediately after his death by "popular acclamation". In his official documents, Gregory was the first to make extensive use of the term " Servant of the Servants of God " ( servus servorum Dei ) as a papal title, thus initiating

11000-410: The monastic lifestyle of contemplation. In texts of all genres, especially those produced in his first year as pope, Gregory bemoaned the burden of office and mourned the loss of the undisturbed life of prayer he had once enjoyed as a monk. When he became pope in 590, among his first acts was writing a series of letters disavowing any ambition to the throne of Peter and praising the contemplative life of

11125-689: The monks. At that time, for various reasons, the Holy See had not exerted effective leadership in the West since the pontificate of Gelasius I . The episcopacy in Gaul was drawn from the great territorial families, and identified with them: the parochial horizon of Gregory's contemporary, Gregory of Tours , may be considered typical; in Visigothic Spain the bishops had little contact with Rome; in Italy

11250-583: The newly established Austrian Empire ruled entire Istrian territory from 1814 until 1918. Istria became the part of the Empire as a separate territorial unit, with Trieste as its capital. Pazin became its capital in 1825. In 1866 Pula became the capital port of the Austrian Empire Navy. The introduction of limited democracy in 1861, by means of a regional parliament ( Diet of Istria ) that convened at Parenzo (Poreč), only served to its purpose to

11375-402: The north, and Croat attacks from the east, resulting in a state of near constant conflict, particularly between Byzantine-held littoral and Slavic inhabitants in inland regions. In 599, the first Avaro-Slavic invasion of Istria was recorded. This invasion chiefly involved the hinterland, but possibly threatened the coast as well, triggering a response from Ravenna . In the following year (600)

11500-466: The office of steward to the property of the poor". In Gregory's time, the Church in Rome received donations of many different kinds: consumables such as food and clothing; investment property: real estate and works of art; and capital goods , or revenue -generating property, such as the Sicilian latifundia , or agricultural estates. The Church already had a system for circulating the consumables to

11625-412: The original edifices during the 17th and 18th centuries) remembers his work. One of the three oratories annexed, the oratory of Saint Silvia, is said to lie over the tomb of Gregory's mother. In England, Gregory, along with Augustine of Canterbury , is revered as the apostle of the land and the source of the nation's conversion. An ancient marble chair, which is believed to be the chair of Pope Gregory

11750-658: The pagan Anglo-Saxons of Britain. It seems that the pope had never forgotten the Anglo-Saxon slaves whom he had once seen in the Roman Forum. The mission was successful, and it was from England that missionaries later set out for the Netherlands and Germany. The preaching of non-heretical Christian faith and the elimination of all deviations from it was a key element in Gregory's worldview, and it constituted one of

11875-458: The poor: associated with each of the main city churches was a deacon . He was given a building from which the poor could apply for assistance at any time. The circumstances in which Gregory became pope in 590 were of ruination. The Lombards held the greater part of Italy. Their depredations had brought the economy to a standstill. They camped nearly at the gates of Rome. The city itself was crowded with refugees from all walks of life, who lived in

12000-551: The portions of the Istrian population that were Croatian and Slovene were exposed to a policy of forced Italianization and cultural suppression. During the period between the two world wars, Italians eradicated Croatian and Slovenian public and national life. They abolished all Croatian schools, cultural institutions and associations, and Croatian names were Italianized. Croatians lost their right to education and religious practice in their maternal languages. The population emigrated to

12125-628: The precise order that action be taken decisively against the influence of the Italian elements still present in some regions of the Crown and, appropriately occupying the posts of public, judicial, masters employees as well as with the influence of the press, work in South Tyrol , Dalmatia and Littoral for the Germanization and Slavization of these territories according to the circumstances, with energy and without any regard. His Majesty calls

12250-455: The proportion changed: there were 108 thousand Italian speakers and 134 thousand Croatian speakers. Vanni D'Alessio notes (2008), the Austrian surveys of the language of use (in the Austrian censuses, the ethnic composition of the population wasn't surveyed, only the "Umgangsprache") "overestimated the diffusion of the socially dominant languages of the empire... The capacity of assimilation of

12375-499: The ranks of omnivorous predators (and possibly became hypercarnivores before Homo sapiens again transformed into hypocarnivores ). As active hunters, they came in opposition to other, quadruped predators and started living in large groups. Homo erectus migrated out of Africa and dispersed throughout Eurasia. Stone tools in Malaysia have been dated to be 1.83 million years old. The Peking Man fossil, discovered in 1929,

12500-534: The same as the anointing of Jesus performed by a woman that Luke (alone among the synoptic Gospels ) recounts as a sinner. Preaching on the passage in the Gospel of Luke , Gregory remarked: "This woman, whom Luke calls a sinner and John calls Mary, I think is the Mary from whom Mark reports that seven demons were cast out." Modern biblical scholars distinguish these as three separate figures/persons. However, within

12625-966: The same period. The intermediate may have been Homo heidelbergensis , held responsible for the manufacture of improved Mode 2 Acheulean tool types, in Africa, after 600,000 years ago. Flakes and axes coexisted in Europe, sometimes at the same site. The axe tradition, however, spread to a different range in the east. It appears in Arabia and India , but more importantly, it does not appear in southeast Asia. From about 300,000 years ago, technology, social structures and behaviour appear to grow more complex, with prepared-core technique lithics, earliest instances of burial and changes to hunting-gathering patterns of subsistence. Homo sapiens first appeared about 300,000 years ago, as evidenced by fossils found at Jebel Irhoud in Morocco. Guy Ellcock Pilgrim ,

12750-478: The scribe, Bebo of Seeon Abbey , presenting the manuscript to the Holy Roman Emperor , Henry II . In the upper left the author is seen writing the text under divine inspiration. Usually the dove is shown whispering in Gregory's ear for a clearer composition. The late medieval subject of the Mass of St. Gregory shows a version of a 7th-century story that was elaborated in later hagiography . Gregory

12875-415: The streets and had few of the necessities of life. The seat of government was far from Rome in Constantinople and appeared unable to undertake the relief of Italy. In 590, Gregory could wait for Constantinople no longer. He organized the resources of the church into an administration for general relief. In doing so he evidenced a talent for and intuitive understanding of the principles of accounting, which

13000-514: The subject of the legitimacy of John III Scholasticus , who had occupied the Patriarchate of Constantinople for twelve years prior to the return of Eutychius (who had been driven out by Justinian). Gregory turned to cultivating connections with the Byzantine elite of the city, where he became extremely popular with the city's upper class, "especially aristocratic women". Ekonomou surmises that "while Gregory may have become spiritual father to

13125-467: The territories which had de facto fallen under the administration of the papacy were beset by the violent Lombard dukes and the rivalry of the Byzantines in the Exarchate of Ravenna and in the south. Pope Gregory had strong convictions on missions: "Almighty God places good men in authority that He may impart through them the gifts of His mercy to their subjects. And this we find to be the case with

13250-779: The theological views of Patriarch Eutychius of Constantinople before the emperor Tiberius II . Although he was the first pope from a monastic background, his prior political experiences may have helped him to be a talented administrator. During his papacy, his administration greatly surpassed that of the emperors in improving the welfare of the people of Rome. Gregory regained papal authority in Spain and France and sent missionaries to England , including Augustine of Canterbury and Paulinus of York . The realignment of barbarian allegiance to Rome from their Arian Christian alliances shaped medieval Europe. Gregory saw Franks , Lombards , and Visigoths align with Rome in religion. He also combated

13375-739: The town of Pazin ( German : Mitterburg ), named Pazin County ( Croatian : Pazinska knežija or Pazinska grofovija ), with its stronghold Pazin Castle , was part of the Holy Roman Empire . It was held by the County of Gorizia after the 1100s, and was passed to the House of Habsburg in 1365. The Venetian part of the peninsula passed to it in 1797 with the Treaty of Campo Formio . Following

13500-583: The transitional variety Homo ergaster . Homo erectus moved from scavenging to hunting , developing the hunting-gathering lifestyle that would remain dominant throughout the Paleolithic into the Mesolithic . The unlocking of the new niche of hunting-gathering subsistence drove a number of further behavioral and physiological changes leading to the appearance of Homo heidelbergensis by some 800,000-600,000 years ago. As such, Homo rose to

13625-499: The two states was defined in the agreement in the Italian town of Osimo ( Treaty of Osimo ) on 10 November 1975. Following the break-up of Yugoslavia in 1991, and international recognition of independent states of Croatia and Slovenia, the division of Istria between Croatia and Slovenia runs on the former republic borders. In December 1992, Istria became one of the twenty counties in the Republic of Croatia. The Gulf of Piran area

13750-498: The whole coastal area of western Istria and the area to Plomin on the eastern part of the peninsula. The wealthier coastal towns cultivated increasingly strong economic relationships with Venice and by 1348 were eventually incorporated into its territory, while their inland counterparts fell under the sway of the weaker Patriarchate of Aquileia, which became part of the Habsburg Empire in 1374. The inner Istrian part around

13875-425: The woman, Pateria, forty solidi for the children's shoes and forty bushels of grain". Soon he was replacing administrators who would not cooperate with those who would and at the same time adding more in a build-up to a great plan that he had in mind. He understood that expenses must be matched by income. To pay for his increased expenses he liquidated the investment property and paid the expenses in cash according to

14000-513: The world, which the real Gregory, despite his reclusive intent, was seldom allowed to have. This scene is shown as a version of the traditional Evangelist portrait (where the Evangelists' symbols are also sometimes shown dictating) from the tenth century onwards. An early example is the dedication miniature from an eleventh-century manuscript of Gregory's Moralia in Job . The miniature shows

14125-470: The worst defeat for the locals. Some ancient historians and reporters, such as Gregorius Anicius, later Pope Gregory the Great , unaware of the importance of the Avars in the Balkans, used the terms Slavs, or Sclavenes , in connection to Istria and the other Balkanic zones, to refer to the Avars and/or the Avaro-Slavic hordes. Gisulf, Duke of Friuli (c. 590-c. 610), who died during an Avar invasion of Istria,

14250-451: Was actually colonized by Carnolian Slavs, with August Dimitz reporting that this was the belief during his day. Indeed, according to one current theory, the first wave of Slavic-speaking settlers entered Istria in the late 6th century, but according to another theory, the Slavs entered first the Karst area, and then entered Istria from the north, above Trieste (in present-day Slovenia ) in

14375-530: Was an able and determined administrator, a skilled and clever diplomat, a leader of the greatest sophistication and vision; but on the other hand, he appears in his writings as a superstitious and credulous monk , hostile to learning, crudely limited as a theologian, and excessively devoted to saints, miracles , and relics ". Gregory was among those who identified Mary Magdalene with Mary of Bethany , whom John 12:1-8 recounts as having anointed Jesus with precious ointment, an event that some interpret as being

14500-592: Was defeated in the battle of Vittorio Veneto and asked for an armistice , signed in Padova, on 3 November 1918. Istria was consequently occupied by the Italian Royal Army, under the terms of the armistice. At the peace conference in Paris, Italy was among the winning powers , and obtained the suzerainty over Istria, according to the terms of the Treaty of Rapallo. After the advent of Fascism in 1922,

14625-401: Was forced to rely on Scripture because he could not read the untranslated Greek authoritative works. Gregory left Constantinople for Rome in 585, returning to his monastery on the Caelian Hill . Gregory was elected by acclamation to succeed Pelagius II in 590, when the latter died of the plague spreading through the city. Gregory was approved by an Imperial iussio from Constantinople

14750-410: Was high." He had thick, "subdivided" lips and a chin "of a comely prominence" and "beautiful hands". In the modern era, Gregory is often depicted as a man at the border, poised between the Roman and Germanic worlds, between East and West, and above all, perhaps, between the ancient and medieval epochs. On his father's death, Gregory converted his family villa into a monastery dedicated to Andrew

14875-401: Was not to be invented for centuries. The church already had basic accounting documents: every expense was recorded in journals called regesta , "lists" of amounts, recipients and circumstances. Revenue was recorded in polyptici , " books ". Many of these polyptici were ledgers recording the operating expenses of the church and the assets , the patrimonia . A central papal administration,

15000-505: Was over in Rome by 552, and a subsequent invasion of the Franks was defeated in 554. Like most young men of his position in Roman society, Gregory was well educated, learning grammar, rhetoric, the sciences, literature, and law; he excelled in all these fields. Gregory of Tours reported that "in grammar, dialectic and rhetoric ... he was second to none". He wrote correct Latin but did not read or write Greek. He knew Latin authors, natural science, history, mathematics and music and had such

15125-483: Was part of the Roman delegation (both lay and clerical) that arrived in Constantinople in 578 to ask the emperor for military aid against the Lombards . With the Byzantine military focused on the East , these entreaties proved unsuccessful; in 584, Pelagius II wrote to Gregory as apocrisiarius , detailing the hardships that Rome was experiencing under the Lombards and asking him to ask Emperor Maurice to send

15250-842: Was the last good pope. He is the patron saint of musicians and teachers. Gregory was born around 540 in Rome , then recently reconquered by the Eastern Roman Empire from the Ostrogoths . His parents named him Gregorius , which according to Ælfric of Eynsham in An Homily on the Birth-Day of S. Gregory, "is a Greek Name, which signifies in the Latin Tongue, Vigilantius , that is in English, Watchful". The medieval writer who provided this etymology did not hesitate to apply it to

15375-545: Was the leader of the battle for Croatian rights in Istria. His concept was the activation of the people in the field of the national self-defence, the preservation of tradition, the improvement of economic and political situation, the acceptance of new civilization and cultural achievements, and finding the way to take the people out of misery. In one of his first demands to the Istrian Parliament in Poreč, he asked that

15500-399: Was to plead Rome's cause before the emperor, there seems to have been little left for him to do once imperial policy toward Italy became evident. Papal representatives who pressed their claims with excessive vigor could quickly become a nuisance and find themselves excluded from the imperial presence altogether". Gregory had already drawn an imperial rebuke for his lengthy canonical writings on

15625-415: Was well-born, and had a married sister, Pateria, in Sicily . His mother and two paternal aunts, Trasilla and Emiliana , are honored by Catholic and Orthodox churches as saints. Gregory's great-grandfather had been Pope Felix III . Gregory's election to the throne of St. Peter made his family the most distinguished clerical dynasty of the period. The family owned and resided in a villa suburbana on

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